HOW A MODERN BOOK IS PRODUCED
A description of the methods by which a modern book is produced has to
begin at the second stage of the proceedings. The processes of the first
stage, including the writing of the book and the arrangements between
the publisher and the author, differ, of course, in individual cases.
The processes of the second stage, however, are common to a large
proportion of the books produced at the present day, though it will be
easily understood that they can be dealt with but summarily in this
chapter, and that as regards detail much variation is possible.
The second stage in the history of a modern book may be said to begin
with the overhauling which the manuscript receives at the hands of the
printer's "Reader," who goes over it with the view of instructing the
compositor regarding capitals, punctuation, chapter headings and other
details. Although these are considered minor and merely clerical details
which are frequently neglected or misused in writing, it is essential
that they be carefully attended to in print. Many examples can be given
of amusing misprints and alterations of meaning caused by even such a
trifle as the misplacing of a comma. When this overhauling is completed
the manuscript is ready to be sent to the composing room where the types
are set up.
From experience the printer knows that many authors get a different
impression of what they have written when they see it in type from what
they had when they read it in manuscript, and it frequently happens that
alterations on proof are very numerous in consequence. When either from
this or any other cause numerous alterations are anticipated, the matter
is first set up in long slips called "galleys," and not put at once into
page form. As soon as a few of those galleys are composed an impression
called a "proof" is taken from the types so set, and this proof is
passed to a reader whose duty is to see that a correct copy is made of
the manuscript, and that the spelling is accurate and the punctuation
good. This is a work commanding considerable intelligence and
experience, as the number of types required for a printed page is very
great, and even the most expert compositor cannot avoid mistakes. This
marked proof is returned to the compositor to make the necessary
corrections. Fresh proofs are got till no further errors are detected,
when a final proof is pulled and sent to the author, who makes such
alterations as he may desire.
When the corrected proofs are returned by the author they are given to
the compositor, who makes the required alterations in the type. After
this a revised proof is submitted. When the author is satisfied that the
reading is as he wishes he returns the proofs, and the galleys are now
made into page form. If it is not expected that the author will make
many changes the types are arranged in page shape before any proofs are
shown to him, and the work goes through somewhat more quickly.
When the types are divided into pages they are placed in sets or
"formes," each forme being secured in an iron frame called a "chase,"
which can be conveniently moved about. Each chase is of a size to
enclose as many pages as will cover one side of the sheet of paper to be
used in printing. Fifty years ago only one or two sizes of paper were
made, and the size of sheet generally used for books was that which
allowed eight pages of library size on one side, hence called "octavo"
size, or when folded another way allowed twelve pages, hence "twelvemo"
or "duodecimo." Other sizes occasionally used are called "sixteenmo" or
"sextodecimo," "eighteenmo" or "octodecimo," etc.
With larger sized printing machines now driven by steam or electricity,
there is greater variety in the size of formes and papers used in
printing. In all cases, however, the number of pages laid down for one
side of paper must divide by four. The pages are set in the chase in
special positions, so that when the sheet is printed on both sides and
folded over and over for binding they will appear in proper sequence.
When only a small edition of a book is wanted the printing is generally
done direct from the types, but when a large number of copies is
required or frequent editions are expected, stereotype or electrotype
plates are made. By this means the types are released for further use
and other advantages obtained.
Stereotype plates are cakes of white metal carrying merely the face of
the types, and were formerly made by taking from the types a mould of
plaster of Paris. They are now formed by beating or pressing a prepared
pulp of papier-mâché into the face of the lettering. The mould thus
obtained is dried and hardened by heat, then molten metal is run into it
of requisite thickness. This plate after being properly dressed is
fitted on a block equal in height to the type stem, and takes the place
in the frame or chase that would have been occupied by the types.
The process of stereotyping is fairly quick and economical, but
electrotypes are better suited for higher class work and are much more
durable. In this process an impression is taken from the type on a
surface of wax heated to the necessary degree of plasticity. When the
wax mould has cooled and hardened it is placed in a galvanic current,
where a thin coat of copper is deposited on its face. This coat is then
detached from the mould and backed with white metal to give it the
requisite body and stiffness and the electrotype is now, like the
stereotype, a metal plate which can be fixed on a block and secured in a
frame ready for the printing machine.
It is outside the scope of this work to describe minutely the
marvellous machinery used in printing. It is interesting to know that
the first printers had no machine but a screw handpress by which they
laboriously worked off their books page by page, and that even so late
as the middle of the nineteenth century all books with scarcely an
exception were printed at handpresses which enabled two men to throw off
about two hundred and fifty copies of a comparatively small-sized sheet
in the hour. Now the machines commonly in use, attended by only a man
and a lad, throw off from a thousand to fifteen hundred copies in an
hour of a sheet four or even eight times the old size.
Books are almost universally printed on what is called the flat-bed
machine, so-called because the types or plates are placed on an iron
table which with them travels to and fro under a series of revolving
rollers constantly being fed with a supply of ink which they transfer to
the types or plates. Immediately these get beyond the inking rollers
they pass under a revolving cylinder with a set of grippers attached,
which open and shut with each revolution. These grippers take hold of
the sheet of paper and carry it round with the cylinder. When it comes
in contact with the types or plates travelling underneath, the
impression or print is made. Some machines complete the printing of the
sheet on both sides at one operation. In others the sheet is reversed
and is printed on the other side by passing through a second time. In
either case the sheet forms only a section of a book; the complete
volume is made up of a number of these sections, folded and collated in
proper order in the bindery. There they are sewn together and fixed in
the case or cover.
For illustrated books the pictures were formerly produced by engraving
on wood, but they are now chiefly photographed from the artist's drawing
on a light sensitive film spread on a metal plate, and etched in by
acids. In whatever way produced, when printed with the text they are
always relief blocks which are placed in proper position in the chase
alongside the types or plates. Coloured illustrations are produced by
successive printings. Special illustrations are frequently produced
separately by other processes and inserted in the volume by the binder.
Machines of a different construction, such as the rotary press, and
capable of a very much higher rate of production, are in use for
printing newspapers and periodicals with a large circulation, but these
do not properly come into consideration when telling how a modern book
is made.
[_The above chapter has been kindly contributed by the printers of this
volume._
_G. B. R._]
AUTHOR'S POSTSCRIPT.
In our endeavour to note the chief points in the history of books, and
in considering the manifold interests which are bound up with their
bodies, we have had to neglect their minds. To have tried even to touch
upon the vast subject of literature in our story would have been as
futile as an attempt to transport the ocean in a thimble. For literature
consists of all that is transferable of human knowledge and experience,
all that is expressible of human thought on whatever matter in heaven or
earth has been dreamed of in man's philosophy. And though our aggregate
of knowledge be small, it is vastly beyond the comprehension of one
individual being.
Of the influence of books, and their manifold uses, also, this is not
the place to speak. Moreover, even had the theme been unheeded by abler
pens, no one who loves books needs to be told to how many magic portals
they are the keys, while he who loves them not would not understand for
all the telling in the world.
INDEX
A.
Aberdeen Breviary, 133-135.
Advertisements, early booksellers', 105.
Alcuin, 63, 64.
Aldus Manutius, 104, 113, 115, 151.
Aleria, Bp. of, 104.
Alexandria, 16, 30-32.
Alost, 117.
Alphabet, the, 10.
Amsterdam, 118.
Antiquarii, 49.
Antwerp, 144.
Arabs, the, 13.
Assyria, 12, 14, 30.
Assyrians, 11.
Augsburg, 104.
Aungervyle, R. (_see_ Richard de Bury).
Ave Maria Lane, 52.
Avignon, 85.
B.
Babylonia, 12, 30, 145.
Babylonians, 11.
Bamberg, 75, 94, 103.
Basle, 104.
Benedict Biscop, 63.
Beowulf, 24.
Berthelet, Thomas, 156.
Bible, the, 17.
---- Mazarin or Gutenberg, 94-100.
---- thirty-six-line, 97.
---- Mentz, 1462, 102.
Biblia Pauperum, 74-77, 89.
Bibliothèque Nationale, 67, 68.
Bindings, 144, 159.
Block-books, 73, 80.
Block-printing, 71.
Bonhomme, Pasquier, 116.
Book of Durrow, 39.
---- Kells, 39-41.
---- St Albans, 25, 128, 131.
---- St Cuthbert (_see_ Lindisfarne Gospels).
Book, production of modern, 159.
Bookbinding, 144-159.
Books, adventures of, 144.
---- beginning of, 10.
---- chained, 58, 69, 70.
---- heretical, 22.
---- in classical times, 26.
---- in monasteries, 21-24, 47, 145.
---- not to be destroyed, 22.
---- ornamenting of, 37.
---- prices of, 50, 53.
---- sizes of, 161.
Booksellers, 28, 29, 51-54.
Bordesley Abbey, 68.
Breslau, 104.
Brethren of the Common Life, 117.
Breviary, Aberdeen, 133-135.
Bruges, 52, 104, 116, 117, 119-122.
Brussels, 117.
"Brussels" Print, 73.
Byzantium, 18, 34.
C.
Caedmon, 24.
Cambridge, 58, 130, 139, 145.
Campanus, 104, 108.
Canterbury, 45, 61, 63.
Carrells, 57.
Carswell's Prayer-book, 137.
Catalogues, early booksellers', 105.
---- monastic library, 59-61.
Catechism, Irish Alphabet and, 137, 139-144.
Caxton, 85, 105-107, 116-126, 128, 154.
Censorship, Ecclesiastical, 54, 55.
---- University, 54.
Chelsea, 70.
Chepman, Walter, 133.
China, 14, 71, 81.
Clairvaux Abbey, 57.
Clement of Padua, 110, 111.
Clugni, Abbey of, 60.
Cologne, 103, 104, 121.
Colophons, 108.
Copyists, 27, 28, 31, 32, 49, 51, 52.
Copyright, 28.
Corvey, Abbot of, 65.
Coster, Laurenz, 80, 82-89.
Cranz, Martin, 115.
Creed Lane, 53.
Cumhdachs, 146, 147.
D.
Davidson, Thomas, 135.
Dictes or Sayengis, 122, 126.
Diemudis, 49.
Donatus, 78, 79, 112.
Dorchester, 50.
Dublin, 109, 137-139, 141, 146.
Durham, 45, 61, 148.
E.
Edinburgh, 109, 110, 131, 133, 135, 137, 138.
Egypt, 12, 14, 18, 20, 21, 29-31, 71.
Electrotype plates, printing from, 162.
Elizabeth, Queen, 125, 141, 142, 154.
Elzevirs, the, 117, 118.
England, 23, 36, 104, 106, 118.
F.
Faust or Fust, 88, 92, 93, 100, 102, 103.
Fichet, Guillaume, 115.
Florence, 104.
Fountains Abbey, 57.
France, 23, 77, 78, 104, 115, 131, 133, 151, 152.
Friburger, Michael, 115.
G.
Game and Playe of the Chesse, 122, 124.
Gering, Ulric, 115.
Germany, 23, 65, 72, 77, 83, 104, 106, 116.
Glastonbury Abbey, 60.
Gloucester, 58.
Greece, 12, 14, 15, 18, 19, 23, 30.
Greeks, the, 11.
Grolier, Jean, 151, 152.
Guild of St John the Evangelist, 52.
Gutenberg, 82-85, 89-92, 101, 102.
H.
Haarlem, 80-82, 85-87, 116.
Hahn, Ulric, 104, 108, 109, 112.
Herculaneum, 18.
Hereford Cathedral, 70.
Holborn, 128, 138.
Holland, 75, 77, 80, 83, 89, 104, 116, 119, 128, 131.
Hostingue, Laurence, 131, 132.
I.
Illuminators, 49, 51, 52.
Ireland, 36, 38, 104, 138, 146.
Irish Alphabet and Catechism, 137, 139, 143.
Italy, 22, 23, 36, 77, 104, 106, 110, 111, 113, 150, 151.
Italic type, 114.
J.
Japan, 71, 81.
Jenson, Nicolas, 107, 113, 130.
Junius, Hadrian, 88.
K.
Kelmscott press, 80.
Ketelaer, Nycolaum, 116.
Kirkstall Abbey, 57.
Klosterneuburg, 75.
Koburger, Antony, 106, 154.
L.
Lanfranc, 47.
Latin document, earliest, 15.
Latin names of towns, 109.
Leempt, Gerard de, 116.
Lettou, John, 126.
Leicester, 61.
Lekprevik, Roibeard, 137, 138.
Leland, 61.
Leyden, 118.
Libraries, ancient, 28-36.
---- collegiate, 58.
---- monastic, 56-65.
Librarii, 16, 49.
Lignamine, J. P. de, 111.
Lindisfarne Gospels, 42-45, 147.
Lincoln Cathedral, 143, 144.
Literature, Anglo-Saxon, 24.
---- beginning of, 13.
---- of Greece, 14, 15, 19.
Literatures, antique, 14.
London, 51, 52, 54, 104, 109, 110, 120, 127, 148.
Louvain, 117, 118, 144.
Lubeck, 104.
Lyons, 104, 115.
M.
Machlinia, William de, 109, 128.
Maioli, Thomasso, 151, 152.
Mansion, Colard, 116, 117, 121, 122.
Manuscript, oldest Biblical, 17.
---- oldest Homeric, 17.
---- oldest New Testament, 18, 20.
Manuscripts, Arabic, 21.
---- Arabic-Spanish, 56.
---- Byzantine, 37.
---- Classical, 17, 20.
---- Coptic, 21.
---- of Four Gospels, 19.
---- Greek, 14, 15, 18.
---- Hiberno-Saxon, 43.
---- Illuminated, 36-46.
---- Irish, 37, 39-41, 44.
---- Italian, 37.
---- Moorish, 56.
---- printed illustrations in, 73.
---- Syriac, 21.
---- Winchester, 45.
---- of Virgil, 19.
Marienthal, 117.
Mentelin, John, 105.
Mentz, 82, 87, 88, 90, 92, 93, 96-98, 100, 101, 109, 117, 121.
Monasteries, books in, 21-24, 145, 146.
Monastic writing, 15, 19, 21, 22, 24, 46, 47, 49.
Morris, William, 80.
Musical notes printed, 103, 128.
Myllar, Andrew, 131-135.
N.
Naples, 104.
Netley Abbey, 57.
New Testament, 17, 22.
Nineveh, 14.
Nuremberg, 104, 106, 117.
O.
O'Kearney, John, 139, 141-143.
Old Testament, 12, 14, 17.
Omar, Caliph, 33.
Oxford, 53, 58, 62, 64, 65, 104, 130.
Oxyrhynchus, 20.
P.
Paternoster Row, 51, 52.
Palestine, 21.
Palimpsests, 24.
Pannartz (_see_ Sweynheim).
Papyrus, 12.
Paris, 53, 62, 75, 93, 104, 106, 107, 109, 144.
---- Council of, 62.
Philobiblon, 15, 47, 48.
Peterborough, 61.
Petrarch, 23, 68, 113.
Pfister, Albrecht, 94, 95.
Poggio Bracciolini, 23.
Powell, Humfrey, 138.
Printed illustrations in MSS., 73.
Printers as editors and publishers, 104.
---- as booksellers, 105.
---- as bookbinders, 154.
Printing, 11, 70-144.
---- in colours, 102.
---- machines for, 161, 162, 164.
Psalter, Melissenda's, 148-150.
---- Mentz, 1457, 102.
---- Queen Mary's, 46.
Publication, mediæval, 51.
Publishers, 51, 104.
Pye or Pica, 105.
Pynson, Richard, 107.
R.
"R" Printer, 107.
Ramsey Abbey, 61.
Reichenau Abbey, 60.
Richard de Bury, 23, 47, 50, 64, 65, 68.
Romans, 11.
Rome, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 28, 103, 104, 106, 108, 109, 111, 112, 131.
Rood, Theodore, 130.
Rostock, 117.
Rouen, 106, 131.
Royal Library of England, 68, 155.
---- of France, 67.
S.
Satchels or Polaires, 145, 146.
Schoeffer, Peter, 93, 94, 100, 102, 105.
Scandinavians, 11.
Scotland, 104, 131, 147.
Seraglio library, 34, 35.
Sopwell, 131.
Spain, 23, 104.
Speculum Humanæ Salvationis, 78-80, 88, 89, 92.
Spira, John de, 109, 112, 130.
---- Vindelinus de, 110, 113.
Spires, 104.
---- John of (_see_ Spira).
St Albans, 104, 130, 131.
St Andrews, 138.
St Boniface, 37.
St Columba, 41, 145.
"St Christopher" Print, 72.
St Gall, Abbey of, 23, 60.
St Paul's Cathedral, 52.
Stationers, 51, 154.
---- Company of, 51.
Stereotype plates, printing from, 162.
Stirling, 138.
Story, John, 135.
Strasburg, 89, 90, 92, 93, 103, 105, 107, 110.
Subiaco, 103, 111.
Sweynheim and Pannartz, 103, 104, 107, 111, 112.
T.
Tablets, 11, 12, 145.
The Hague, 118.
Theodore, Abp., 45, 63.
Therhoernen, Arnold, 109, 110.
Tintern Abbey, 57.
Titchfield Abbey, 58, 59.
Title-page, 107-109.
Tooling, 150.
Type or Types, Aldino, 113, 114.
---- Caxton's, 126.
---- Early, 107.
---- Gaelic or Irish, 139, 141-143.
---- Gothic, 107, 115.
---- Greek, 103.
---- Italic, 114.
---- Moveable, 81-89.
---- Roman, 107, 115.
---- Subiaco, 112.
---- Scottish printers', 135, 136.
---- Wood and metal, 106, 107.
U.
Ulm, 104.
Usher, John, 141.
Utrecht, 117, 118.
V.
Veldener, John, 117.
Venice, 68, 104, 107, 109, 110, 112, 113, 130.
Vienna, 75.
Virgil, Aldine, 114, 115, 152.
W.
Waldfoghel, Procopius, 85.
Walsh, Nicholas, 141, 142.
Westminster, 104, 117, 121-123, 128.
Whitby, 60.
Wimborne Minster, 70.
Winchester, 45, 50, 62, 148.
Woodcuts, early English, 124.
Worcester, 57.
Writers of Text Letter, 51.
Writing, 10, 11.
Wynkyn de Worde, 121, 128, 131.
Z.
Zel, Ulric, 103.
Zutphen, 70.
TURNBULL AND SPEARS, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH.
[ Transcriber's Note:
The following is a list of corrections made to the original. The first
line is the original line, the second the corrected one.
Type of Mentz Indulgence 95
Type of the Mentz Indulgence 95
canon of the third Council of Constantinople, held in 719, A.D., enacted
canon of the third Council of Constantinople, held in 719 A.D., enacted
The result of the professor's researches went to confirm the belief held
The result of the Professor's researches went to confirm the belief held
writings were transscribed, chronicles and histories compiled, and
writings were transcribed, chronicles and histories compiled, and
manner of person shall print any manner of boke or paper .. except the
manner of person shall print any manner of boke or paper ... except the
at which the reader might sit. Pembroke College and Queen's College,
at which the reader might sit. Pembroke College and Queens' College,
of Tychefield four cases (_columnæ_) in which to place books, of which
of Tychefeld four cases (_columnæ_) in which to place books, of which
Klosterneuberg, near Vienna, which originally contained forty-five
Klosterneuburg, near Vienna, which originally contained forty-five
half of the fifteen century. Yet it is believed that probably more
half of the fifteenth century. Yet it is believed that probably more
established at Strasburg, Bamberg, Cologne, Augsberg, Nuremberg,
established at Strasburg, Bamberg, Cologne, Augsburg, Nuremberg,
debateable ground we will only add that the _Recuyell of the Historyes
debateable ground we will only add that the _Recuyell of the Histories
first English book with printed musical notes; Bartholomæus _De
first English book with printed musical notes; Bartholomæus' _De
in the English tongue, has been happily finished. Which Androw Myllar, a
in the English tongue, has been happily finished. Which Andrew Myllar, a
fourth day of apile the yhere of God M.CCCCC. and viii yheris.
fourth day of aprile the yhere of God M.CCCCC. and viii yheris.
[Illustration: TITLE-PAGE OF OKEARNEY'S IRISH ALPHABET AND CATECHISM
[Illustration: TITLE-PAGE OF O'KEARNEY'S IRISH ALPHABET AND CATECHISM
hooks in the wall. Thus it is related in an old legend that "on the
hooks in the wall. Thus it is related in an old legend that 'on the
down."
down.'"
Augsberg, 104.
Augsburg, 104.
Klosterneuberg, 75.
Klosterneuburg, 75.
Psalter, Melissanda's, 148-150.
Psalter, Melissenda's, 148-150.
Speculum Humanæ Salvationis, 78-80, 88, 89 92.
Speculum Humanæ Salvationis, 78-80, 88, 89, 92.
Tooling, 150,
Tooling, 150.
]
End of Project Gutenberg's The Story of Books, by Gertrude Burford Rawlings