First knowledge of Peru—Expeditions of Pizarro—Geography of
Peru—But a small part of it inhabitable—The tribes of ancient
Peru—How classified—Sources of our knowledge of Peru—Garcillaso
De La Vega—Origin of Peruvian civilization—The Bolson of
Cuzco—Historical outline—Their culture—Divided into phratries and
gentes—Government—Efforts to unite the various tribes—Their
system of colonies—The roads of the Incas—The ruins of Chimu—The
arts of the Chimu people—The manufacture of Pottery—Excavation at
Ancon—Ruins in the Huatica Valley—The construction of a Huaca—The
ruins at Pachacamac—The Valley of the Canete—The Chincha
Islands—Tiahuanuco—Carved gateway—The Island of
Titicaca—Chulpas—Aboriginal Cuzco—Temple of the Sun—The
Fortress—General remarks.
1. Pyramids and Sphinx.
2. Paleozoic Forest.
3. The Pterodactyl.
4. Ichthyosauri.
5. The Labyrinthodon.
6. The Paleotherium.
7. Miocene Mammals.
8. Cut Bones of a Whale.
9. Mastodon.
10. Map of Europe.
11. Scratched Stone.
12. Interglacial Bed.
13. Paleolithic Flints.
14. Flint Implements.
15. Section of Gravel-pit.
16. Paleolithic Flint, England.
17. Flint Flakes.
18. Spear-head Type.
19. Hatchet Type.
20. Neanderthal Man.
21. Gailenreuth.
22. Spear-head, Lower Breccia, Kent’s Cavern.
23. Flake, Cave-earth, Kent’s Cavern.
24. Spear-head, Cave-earth, Kent’s Cavern.
25. Harpoon, Pin, Awl, and Needle, Kent’s Cavern.
26. Robin Hood Cave.
27. Horse incised on Piece of Rib.
28. Bone Implements, Cresswell Crags.
29. Bone Implements, Dordogne Caves.
30. Rock Shelter, Bruniquel.
31. Whale and Seal incised on Bone.
32. Cave-bear incised on Slate.
33. Glove incised on Bear’s Tooth.
34. Reindeer grazing.
35. Group of Reindeers.
36. Man, and other Animals.
37. Fish incised on Bear’s Tooth.
38. Ibex.
39. Mammoth, La Madeline Cave, France.
40. Reindeer carved on Dagger Handle.
41. Flower on Reindeer’s Horn.
42. Ornamented Reindeer Horn, use unknown.
43. Eskimo Art.
44. The Mammoth.
45. Antarctic Ice-sheet.
46. Earth’s Orbit.
47. Lake Village.
48. Foundation Lake Village.
49. Irish Crannog.
50. Fortified Camp, Cissbury.
51. Neolithic Axes.
52. Neolithic Weapons.
53. Hafted Hatchet in Sheath.
54. Ax in Sheath.
55. Sheath with two Hatchets.
56. Chisels in Sheath.
57. Horn Hoe.
58. Miner’s Pick.
59. Polishing Stone.
60. Neolithic Boat-making.
61. Neolithic Cloth.
62. Spindle Whorl.
63. Weaver’s Comb.
64. Chambered Burial Mound.
65. Dolmen, England.
66. Dolmen, France.
67. Dolmen, once covered with Earth.
68. Menhir.
69. Stone Circle, England.
70. Chambered Tomb, France.
71. Bronze Axes, First Form.
72. Bronze Axes, Second Form.
73. Bronze Axes, Third Form.
74. Hammer.
75. Chisel.
76. Bronze Knives.
77. Crescent, use unknown.
78. Bracelet.
79. Hair-pin.
80. Bronze Pendants.
81. Necklace and Beads.
82. Ornamental Designs.
83. Bronze Sickle.
84. Clay Vessel and Support.
85. Bronze Weapons.
86. Mold.
87. Burial Mound.
88. Avebury Restored.
89. Stonehenge Restored.
90. Ancient Tower, Scotland.
91. Ornaments.
92. Gold Ornament.
93. Swords.
94. Ornamental Sword-sheath.
95. Lance-head and Javelin.
96. Shields.
97. Gallic Coin.
98. Imaginary Section of Table Mountain.
99. Calaveras Skull.
100. Implement found in Loess.
101. Spear-shaped Paleolithic Implement.
102. Paleolithic Implement, Argillite.
103. Stone Implement.
104. Mound Prairie.
105. Mound and Circle.
106. Altar Mound.
107. Plan and Section of Altar.
108. Burial Mounds.
109. Burial Mounds.
110. Grave Creek Mound.
111. Cross-section St. Louis Mound.
112. Terraced Mound.
113. Elevated Square, Marietta.
114. Cahokia Mound.
115. Temple Mound inclosed in a Circle.
116. Etowah Mound, Georgia.
117. Hill Mounds.
118. Miamisburg Mound.
119. Effigy Mounds.
120. Elephant Mound.
121. Emblematic Mounds.
122. Grazing Elks—Fox in the distance.
123. Eagle Mound.
124. Hawks and Buffaloes.
125. Goose and Duck.
126. Turtle.
127. Salamander and Muskrat.
128. Man-shaped Mound.
129. Emblematic Mound Inclosure.
130. Bird Mound surrounded by a Stone Circle.
131. The Big Serpent Mound.
132. The Alligator Mound.
133. High Bank Works.
134. Square and Circle Embankment.
135. Square inscribed in a Circle.
136. Circle and Ditch.
137. Mound Builders’ Works, Newark, Ohio.
138. Eagle Mound.
139. Gateway of Octagon.
140. Observatory Mound.
141. Works at Marietta, Ohio.
142. Graded Way, Piketon, Ohio.
143. Fortified Hill, Hamilton, Ohio.
144. Fort Ancient, Ohio.
145. Fortified Headland.
146. Inclosure, Northern Ohio.
147. Square Inclosure, Northern Ohio.
148. Sacrificial Pentagon.
149. Festival Circle.
150. Crescent Works.
151. Triangular Works.
152. Arrow Points.
153. Ax found in a Mound.
154. Weapons of Stone from Tennessee.
155. Copper Ax.
156. Copper Bracelets.
157. Ancient Mine, Michigan.
158. Sculptured Face.
159. Face of a Female.
160. Beaver.
161. Otter.
162. Birds on Pipes.
163. Group of Clay Vessels.
164. Bowls with Human Faces.
165. Bottle-shaped Vessels (Smith. Inst.)
166. Water Cooler.
167. Pottery Vessels.
168. Agricultural Implements.
169. Idols.
170. Map of the Pueblo Country.
171. Zuñi.
172. Ground Plan.
173. End View.
174. Old Zuñi.
175. Inscription Rock.
176. Wolpi.
177. Watch Tower.
178. Ruins at Aztec Springs.
179. Ruins in the McElmo Cañon.
180. Tower on the Rio Mancos.
181. Ruins in the Hovenweep Canyon.
182. Two-storied House in the Mancos Cañon.
183. View of the Cliff in which the House is Situated.
184. Plan of the House.
185. Doorway of the House.
186. Room of the House.
187. Cliff Town, Rio Mancos.
188. Caves used as Houses, Rio Mancos.
189. Ruins in the San Juan Cañon.
190. Cave Town.
191. Battle Rock, McElmo Cañon.
192. Restoration of Pueblo Bonito.
193. Plan of Pueblo Bonito.
194. Different Styles of Masonry.
195. Room in Pueblo Bonito.
196. Casa Grandes, on the Gila.
197. Indented and Corrugated Ware.
198. Painted Pueblo Pottery.
199. Long House of the Iroquois.
200. Stockaded Onondaga Village.
201. Pomeiock.
202. Mandan Village.
203. Ruins near the La Platte, Valley of the San Juan.
204. Stone Mask, found in Tennessee.
205. Map of Mexico.
206. Bas-relief Tezcuco.
207. Montezuma’s Bath.
208. Aqueduct, Tezcocingo.
209. Teotihuacan.
210. Casas Grandes.
211. Quemada.
212. Pyramid of Cholula.
213. Xochicalco.
214. Enlarged View of the Ruins.
215. Wall at Mitla.
216. Ornamentation at Mitla.
217. Hall at Mitla.
218. Papantla.
219. Tusapan.
220. Map of Central America.
221. Ruins of Copan.
222. Statue, Copan.
223. Statue, Copan.
224. Hieroglyphics, Top of Altar.
225. Bas-relief, East Side of Altar.
226. Portrait, Copan.
227. Plan of Palenque.
228. General View of Palace, Palenque.
229. Cross-section of Palace, Palenque.
230. Trefoil Arch.
231. Entrance to Principal Court.
232. Stone Tablet.
233. Palace, Palenque.
234. Ruined Temple of the Three Tablets.
235. Elevation Temple of the Three Tablets.
236. The Beau-relief.
237. Temple of the Cross.
238. Tablet of the Cross.
239. The Sun.
240. Maler’s Cross.
241. Statue, Palenque.
242. Bas-relief, on the left hand of the Altar of the Cross.
243. Plan of Uxmal.
244. The Governor’s House, Uxmal.
245. Two-headed Monument, Uxmal.
246. End View.
247. Ground Plan.
248. Figure over the Doorway.
249. Ornament over the Doorway.
250. Elephant’s Trunk.
251. Plan of Nunnery.
252. Room in Nunnery.
253. Façade, Southern Building.
254. Façade, Eastern Building.
255. Serpent Façade, Western Building.
256. Temple, Uxmal.
257. Arch, Kabah.
258. Zayi.
259. Plan of Zayi.
260. Gateway at Labna.
261. Castillo, Chichen-Itza.
262. Gymnasium at Chichen-Itza.
263. Ring.
264. Building at end of Gymnasium.
265. Painted Stucco Work.
266. Queen Consulting the H-men.
267. Chaac-mol.
268. Bearded Itza.
269. Arizona Ruin.
270. Tribute Sheet.
271. Yucatan Axes.
272. Carpenter’s Ax.
273. Mexican Carpenter.
274. Copper Tool.
275. Huitzilopochtli.
276. Mexican Numeration Signs.
277. Maya and Mexican Day Signs.
278. Maya Months.
279. Calendar Stone.
280. Sign of Rain.
281. Sign of a Cycle.
282. Indian Picture-writing.
283. Chapultepec.
284. Amen.
285. Historical Sheet.
286. Chilapi Tribute.
287. Child-training.
288. Migration Chart.
289. Landa Alphabet.
290. Maya T.
291. Maya Picture-writing.
292. Hieroglyphics, Tablet of the Cross.
293. Map of Peru.
294. Fortress, Huatica Valley.
295. Ruins at Pachacamac.
296. Relics from Guano Deposits.
297. Burial Towers.
298. Palace.
299. Section of Palace Walls.
300. Ornamentation on Walls.
301. Adobe Ornament.
302. Gold and Silver Vases.
303. Bronze Knives and Tweezers.
304. Water-jar.
305. Water-jars from Ancon.
306. Cloth Found in Grave.
307. Wall in Huatica Valley.
308. Burial Mound, or Huaca.
309. Fortress Mound.
310. Temple Wall.
311. Fortress, Huatica Valley.
312. General View of Pachacamac.
313. View of the Temple.
314. Relics from Graves at Pachacamac.
315. Relics found buried in Guano Deposits.
316. Prehistoric Pottery-ware.
317. Silver Cylinder Head.
318. Terrace Wall, Tiahuanuco.
319. Method of joining Stones, Tiahuanuco.
320. Gateway, Tiahuacuno.
321. Ruins on the Island of Titicaca.
322. Ruins, Island of Coati.
323. Burial Tower.
324. Terrace Wall at Cuzco.
325. Temple of the Sun.
326. Fortress Wall.
327. Section of Fortress Wall.
328. Quippos.
Full-page Engravings
1. Cliff Houses, Rio Mancos Cañon.
2. Engraved Title Page.
3. Paleozoic Forest.
4. Rock Shelter at Bruniquel.
5. Antarctic Ice Sheet.
6. Lake Village, Switzerland.
7. Pueblo of Zuñi.
8. Cliff-town, Rio Mancos.
9. Restoration of Pueblo Bonito.
10. Painted Pueblo Pottery.
11. Pyramid of Cholula.
12. Copan Statue.
13. General View of Palace.
14. Bas-relief on the left-hand of the Altar of the Cross.
15. Plan of Uxmal.
16. The Governor’s House, Uxmal.
17. Room in Nunnery.
18. Zayi.
19. Castillo, Chichen-Itza.
20. Tribute Sheet.
21. Huitzilopochtli.
22. Calendar Stone.
23. Historical Sheet.
24. Pachacamac.
IN
this volume the author has sought to lay before the reader a
description of life and times lying beyond the light of history.
This is indeed an extensive subject, and calls for some
explanation, both as to the general design of the work and what
steps have been taken to secure correct information.
History is a word of varied import. In general, when we talk
about history, we mean those accounts of past events, times, and
circumstances of which we have written records. Not necessarily
meaning alphabetical writing, because hieroglyphic records have
furnished much true history. Hieroglyphic writing, which long
preceded alphabetical writing, is itself a comparatively recent
art. In no country do we find any records carrying us further
back than a few thousand years before the Christian era. We have
every reason to believe that the historical part of man’s life on
the globe is but an insignificant part of the whole. This
historic period is not the same in all countries. It varies from
a few centuries in our own country to a few thousands of years in
Oriental lands. In no country is there a hard and fast line
separating the historic period from the prehistoric. In the dim
perspective of years the light gradually fades away, the mist
grows thicker and thicker before us, and we at last find
ourselves face to face with the unknown past.
This extensive period of time is not, however, utterly lost to
us. We have simply to gather our information in some other way.
Enthusiastic explorers, digging beneath the ashes of Vesuvius,
have brought to light the remains of an entombed city. Of this
city we indeed have historic records, but even if all such
records had long since disappeared, we would gather much
information as to the nationality of the inhabitants, their
customs, and manners, by a simple inspection of the relics
themselves. Everywhere over the earth, entombed beneath the feet
of the living, or crumbling on the surface, are the few relics of
a past far antedating the relics of Pompeii. They are the proofs
positive that some people inhabited the land in far away times.
Our object is to gather together the conclusions of the
scientific world as to primitive man. We wish to see how far back
in the geological history of the globe we can find evidence of
man’s existence, and we desire to learn his surroundings and the
manner of his life. There can be no more important field than for
us to thus learn of the past. To read the story of primitive man,
to walk with him the earth in ages long ago, with him to wage war
on the huge animals of a previous epoch, to recede with him
before the relentless march of the ice of the Glacial Age, to
watch his advance in culture, to investigate whether there are
any races of men now living which are the direct descendants of
this primeval man.
The author makes no claims to original investigations. He trusts,
however, it will not be considered impertinent for a mere
loiterer in the vestibule of the temple of science to attempt to
lay before others the results of the investigations of our
eminent scholars. He has endeavored faithfully to perform this
task. As far as possible technical language has been avoided.
This is because he has written not for the distinctively
scientific men, but rather for the farmer, the mechanic, and the
man of business. Constant references are made to the authorities
consulted. The reader his a right to know who vouches for the
statements made in the text.
The pleasantest part of an author’s duty is to return thanks for
assistance. After the manuscript was prepared with what care
could be bestowed on it, it was determined to submit it to some
of our best American scholars for criticism. Accordingly, each of
the gentlemen named on the title page were requested to review
one or more chapters. As far as possible, each one was asked to
review that chapter or chapters for which, either by reason of
the position they held, or the interest they were known to take
in such subjects, they would by common assent be acknowledged as
eminently fitted to sit in judgment. In justice to them, it
should be stated that they were not expected to concern
themselves with the literary merits or demerits of the
manuscript, but to criticise the scientific statements made
therein. To each and all of these gentlemen the author would
acknowledge his deep obligations.
We are indebted to Rev. J. P. MacLean, the well-known
archaeologist, both for many valuable suggestions, and for the
use of wood-cuts on pages 60, 138 and 396. We are also under
obligation to Rev. S. D. Peet, editor of the _American
Antiquarian,_ for cuts illustrative of the effigy mounds of
Wisconsin. The officials of the Smithsonian Institution, and the
Bureau of Ethnology have our thanks for many cuts, for which
credit is given them throughout the work.
Finally, the author wishes to say that it was the intention to
make this work the joint production of the author and his
partner, Mr. S. C. Ferguson, but before any progress was made it
was deemed advisable to change the programme. While the literary
work has all been performed by the author, the many details
necessarily connected with the publication of a book were
attended to by Mr. Ferguson.
E. A. ALLEN.
Cincinnati, _January_ 1, 1885.
Ruins of Cannar
T HOU unrelenting Past! Strong are the barriers round thy dark
domain—
And fetters, sure and fast, Hold all that enter thy
unbreathing reign.
Far in thy realm, withdrawn, Old empires sit in sullenness and
gloom;
And glorious ages, gone, Lie deep within the shadow of thy
womb.
Full many a mighty name Lurks in thy depths, unuttered,
unrevered: With thee are silent fame, Forgotten arts, and
wisdom disappeared.
W. C. BRYANT.
The Prehistoric World
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION.
Difficulties of the subject—Lesson to be learned—The pursuit of
knowledge—Recent Advances—Prehistoric past of the Old World—Of
the New—Of Mexico and the South—The Isles of the Pacific—Similar
nature of the relics—The wonders of the present age—History of
popular Opinion on this subject—The teachings of the Bible—Nature
of the evidence of man’s antiquity—Geology—Astronomy—Unfolding of
life—Nature of our inquiry.
WHO
can read the book of the past? Who can tell us the story of
Creation’s morn? It is, not written in history, neither does it
live in tradition. There is mystery here; but it is hid by the
darkness of bygone ages. There is a true history here, but we
have not learned well the alphabet used. Here are doubtless
wondrous scenes; but our stand-point is removed by time so vast,
the mist of years is so thick before us, that only the ruder
outlines can be determined. The delicate tracery, the body of the
picture, are hidden from our eye. The question as to the
antiquity and primitive history of man, is full of interest in
proportion as the solution is beset with difficulties. We
question the past; but only here and there a response is heard.
Surely bold is he who would attempt, from the few data at hand,
to reconstruct the history of times and people so far removed. We
quickly become convinced that many centuries, and tens of
centuries, have rolled away since man’s first appearance on the
earth. We become impressed with the fact, “that multitudes of
people have moved over the surface of the Earth, and sunk into
the night of oblivion, without leaving a trace of their
existence: without a memorial through which we might have at
least learned their names.”[1]
To think of ourselves, is to imagine for our own nation an
immortality. We are so great, so strong, surely nothing can move
us. Let us learn humility from the past: and when, here and
there, we come upon some reminder of a vanished people, trace the
proofs of a teeming population in ancient times, and recover
somewhat of a history, as true and touching as any that poets
sing, let us recognize the fact, that nations as well as
individuals pass away and are forgotten.
The past guards its secret well. To learn of it we must seek new
methods of inquiry. Discouraged by the difficulties in the way,
many have supposed it hidden from the present by a veil which
only thickens as time passes. In the remains of prehistoric times
they have failed to recognize the pages of history. They saw only
monuments of ancient skill and perseverance: interesting
sketches, not historical portraits. Some writers have held that
we must give up the story of the past, “whether fact or
chronology, doctrine or mythology—whether in Europe, Asia,
Africa, or America—at Thebes, or Palenque—on Lycian shore, or
Salisbury plain—lost is lost and gone is gone for evermore.” Such
is the lament of a gifted writer,[2] amongst the first to ponder
over the mysteries of the past. At the present day, with better
means at hand, a more hopeful view is taken. But here a caution
is necessary; for, in attempting to reconstruct the history of
primitive times, such is the interest which it inspires, that
many allow imagination to usurp the place of research, and write
in terms too glowing for history.[3]
The human mind is sleepless in the pursuit of knowledge. It is
ever seeking new fields of conquest. It must advance: with it,
standing still is the precursor of defeat. If necessary it
invents new methods of attack, and rests not until it gains its
objective point, or demonstrates the hopelessness of its quest.
The world needs but be informed that on a given point knowledge
is dim and uncertain, when there are found earnest minds applying
to the solution of the mystery all the energies of their natures.
All the resources of science are brought to bear; every
department of knowledge is made to contribute of its store: and
soon a mass of facts is established and a new science is added to
the department of human knowledge.
Thus, with our knowledge of prehistoric times, what so seemingly
vain as to attempt to roll back the flight of time, and learn the
condition of primeval man? All the light of ancient history makes
but little impression on the night of time. By its aid we can but
dimly see the outlines of the fortieth century back; beyond is
gloom soon lost in night. But a few short years ago, men did not
think it possible to gain further information. With the materials
at hand this could not be done. The triumph of the intellect was
simply delayed, not hopelessly repulsed. Geology was but just
beginning to make good its claim to a place among the sciences.
This unfolded to man the physical history of the world as read
from the rocks, and deals with times so vast and profound that we
speak no longer of years, but of ages. And with the aid of
Geology grand secrets were wrung from the past, and new light was
thrown on the manners and customs of primitive man. Thus the
foundation for still another science was laid, called Archæology,
or the science of Human Antiquities. These two sister sciences
are the keys by whose aid we have not only acquired much
information of a past that seemed a hopeless enigma—but, as
Columbus on the waste of waters could perceive traces of land as
yet invisible, so can the present seekers after knowledge trace
the signs of a satisfactory solution of many of the great
questions relating to the origin and history of the vanished
races of mankind.
In whatever land we commence our investigations, we quickly come
upon the evidences of an ancient life long antedating all
historical information. Ancient Egypt has been a fruitful theme
for the antiquarians pen. The traveler has moralized over the
ruins of her past greatness, and many pointed illustrations of
national growth and decay have been drawn from her history.
Here was the seat of an ancient civilization, which was in the
zenith of its power many centuries before Christ. The changes
that have passed over the earth since that time are far more
wonderful than any ascribed to the wand of the magician. Nations
have come and gone, and the land of the Pharaohs has become an
inheritance for strangers; new sciences have enriched human life,
and the fair structure of modern civilization has arisen on the
ruins of the past. Many centuries, with their burden of human
hopes and fears, have sped away into the past, since
“Hundred-gated Thebes” sheltered her teeming population, where
now are but a mournful group of ruins. Yet to-day, far below the
remorseless sands of her desert, we find the rude flint-flakes
that require us to carry back the time of man’s first appearance
in Egypt to a past so remote that her stately ruins become a
thing of yesterday in comparison to them.
In the New World, mysterious mounds and gigantic earth-works
arrest our attention. Here we find deserted mines, and there we
can trace the sites of ancient camps and fortifications. The
Indians of the prairies seem to be intruders on a fairer
civilization. We find here evidences of a teeming population. In
the presence of their imposing ruins, we can not think that
nomadic savages built them. They give evidences rather of a
people having fixed habitations and seem to imply the possession
of a higher civilization than that of the Indians. These
questions demand solution; but how shall we solve the problem?
Save here and there a deserted camp, or a burial mound,
containing perhaps articles of use or adornment, all traces have
vanished. Their earth-works and mounds are being rapidly leveled
by the plow of modern times, and the scholar of the future can
only learn from books of their mysterious builders.
In Mexico, and farther south, we find the ruins of great cities.
To the student of antiquity, these far surpass in interest the
ruined cities of the Nile or Euphrates valley. Babylon of old,
with its walls, towers, and pleasure resorts, was indeed
wonderful. In our own land cities, if not as ancient, yet fallen
in more picturesque ruin, reward the labors of the explorer.
Uxmal, Copan, and Palenque, invite our attention. Here are
hieroglyphics in abundance, but no Rosetta Stone supplies the key
by whose aid a Champollion can unravel the mystery.
The luxuriant vegetative growth of the tropics, with its fierce
storms, is every year hastening the obliteration of these ruins,
and we must improve the time well, if we would learn from them
what they have to say of the past.
The isles of the Pacific give evidence that, long before the dawn
of authentic history, man lived there. Indeed, as the islands
which gem that ocean, from their configuration and position, seem
to be but the elevated plateaus and mountain peaks of a continent
that has gone down beneath the blue wave of the Pacific, so,
throughout Polynesia can be traced the fragmentary remains of a
civilization, the greater portion of which has been completely
buried by the waters of oblivion, leaving only here and there a
trace to reconstruct, if we can, the entire structure.
The earliest remains of man are very similar in all lands. They
consist of weapons of war and of the chase, implements of
domestic use, and articles of personal adornment. Few and simple
as they are, they are capable of imparting useful information as
to early times. By their aid we become eye-witnesses of the daily
life of primitive man. We learn that though lacking in almost
every thing we consider essential for comfort and happiness, yet
they were actuated by much the same hopes and fears as the men of
the present age. The great burden of life was the same then as
now. There was the same round of daily labor made necessary by
the same ceaseless struggle for existence. Rude forts and warlike
implements show there was the same encroachment of the strong on
the weak as now.
This is a wonderful age in many respects. In none, however, more
wonderful than in the wide-spread diffusion of knowledge. The
ordinary people now understand more of nature’s secrets than the
wise men of old. They are to-day interested in researches that a
former generation would have relegated to the scholar and the man
of leisure. No department of knowledge is retained for the
researches of a favored few. The farmer, the mechanic, and the
man of business are alike interested in a knowledge of
prehistoric times. The rude implements of the past appeal to the
curiosity of all. We arise from a study of the past with clearer
ideas of man’s destiny. Impressed with the great advancement in
man’s condition from the rude savagery of the drift, to the
enlightened civilization of to-day, what may we not hope the
advancement will be during the countless ages we believe a
beneficent Providence has in store for his creature, man?
A history of the popular opinion of the antiquity of man is not
only of interest, but should teach a lesson to all who think
others are wrong because not holding the same views as they do.
Hardly fifty years have passed since scientific men began to
attribute to the human race an antiquity more remote than that
assigned them by history and tradition. At first these views met
with general opposition, much as did the theory of the present
system of astronomy when it was first proclaimed. We laugh now at
the ignorant fear’s and prejudices used to combat both.
It was claimed that the Bible taught that man had lived on the
globe scarcely six thousand years. The Bible is the book to which
the Anglo-Saxon mind clings with the greatest reverence. The
memories of childhood are associated with its pages, and its very
appearance recalls the prayers of long ago. It is not strange
then that the Christian world guards with jealous care against
any thing which may be thought to weaken the force of its
statements.
But it is human nature to go to extremes: and, when we give our
support to one way of thinking, we find it difficult to be
patient with those of the contrary opinion.
Now, the researches of some of the most eminent men and learned
divines have amply shown, that there are no data given in the
Scriptures on which to base an estimate as to the antiquity of
man. Happily the Christian mind no longer shrinks from the
conclusions reached by the scientist: and, indeed, it is the
contemplation of the stupendous periods of Geological times, and
the infinite greatness of the works of Creation as disclosed by
Astronomy, with the extreme lowness of man’s first condition as
made evident by Archæology, that lend new force to the words,
“What is man, that thou art mindful of him!”
The evidences on which we predicate an extreme antiquity for man
are necessarily cumulative. It is not from one source alone that
we obtain information, but from many. Eminent men in nearly every
department of knowledge have lent their aid to the elucidation of
this subject. It can only be understood by those who will fairly
weigh the facts that modern discoveries have unrolled before
their eyes. There are many who have not done this, and are
consequently unable to project their mental vision so far back
into the very night of time, as is now demanded for the beginning
of man’s first appearance on the earth. And, indeed, so
enormously has this period been extended—so far back does it
require us to go—that even the most enlightened investigator may
well recoil in dismay when he first perceives the almost infinite
lapse of years that are required by his calculation since the
creation of man.
At this day the scholar must be ready to explain the steps by
which he reaches his conclusions. Not necessarily explaining the
minutiæ of his journey hither, but the main outlines of his
course. This seems to call for a slight outline of Geology. The
animal and vegetable tribes which have come and gone upon the
earth, following each other like the shadows of passing clouds on
a Summer’s day, have left their remains in the rocks which at
that time were forming. A close investigation of these remains
shows that they form the record book of nature, wherein we are
permitted to read somewhat of her secrets. This had long been a
sealed book to man; but science, as we have seen, constantly
extending her domain, at length taught him the alphabet.
And the Geologist now unfolds the past age of our world with a
variety of detail, and a certainty of conclusion well calculated
to inspire us with grateful admiration.
It is no longer a question that many ages must have rolled away,
during which our world was totally unfit for life of any kind,
either animal or vegetable.
The nebular theory of Laplace, as modified by the modern
astronomers, so satisfactorily explains many of the phenomena of
the solar system, that it takes rank almost as a demonstrated
fact. According to the terms of this theory, our Earth, now so
dependent on the sun for light and warmth, was itself a glowing
orb, and as a bright star radiated its light and heat into space.
Grand conception, and probably true. It is now useless to
speculate as to how many cycles of almost infinite years had
begun and ended, before Earth’s fading fires gave notice that
they must soon expire in night.
The stages through which the Earth passed in turn await the sun,
save that there is no further beneficent luminary to give him
light and heat: when time shall have quenched his fiery glow,
death and night shall reign supreme, where now is life and light.
Time is long, and nature never hurries. She builds for infinite
years, and recks not the time of building. The human mind is far
too feeble to comprehend the duration of time that sped away and
was gone ere the slowly falling temperature of the Earth admitted
the formation of a crust over her surface. When that came, the
first great scene was closed. The star had expired, the planet
rolled in her annual course around the still glowing central sun.
Now came the formative age of the world, when the great
continents were outlined.
The atmosphere gradually freed itself from its weight of
water-vapor, the rains descended, and the ocean took form and
contour. We are concerned only with the outlines of Geology, not
with its details. It is full of the most interesting facts, but
is foreign to our present purpose. We will only say, there is a
marked progression in the scale and importance of life forms.
The lower forms of animals appear first to be followed in time by
the higher. It is true that some forms have survived through all
the changes of Geological time to the present: yet, speaking
generally, some forms of life are peculiar to each age, and the
general phase of animal life is different with each period. They
thus form epochs in the history of the world as read from the
rocks, and though the beginning and ending of each age may blend
by insensible gradations with that of the preceding and
following, yet, taken as a whole, we observe in each such
singularities of form and structure as to give name to each
particular age.
In the fullness of time man appears; and it is our pleasant task
to trace the evidence of his primitive state, his growth in
culture, and his advancement made before the dawn of history. Our
inquiry, then, is as to his prehistoric state. We use this term
in the same sense as Dr. Wilson uses it: that is, to express the
whole period disclosed to us by means of archæological evidence,
as distinguished from what is known through historical records.
We can not doubt but that this includes by far the largest
portion of man’s existence. The time embraced within historical
records, though different in different portions of the world, is
but a brief period in comparison to the duration of time since he
first went forth to possess the Earth. If we can make plain to
our readers that man has lived in the world an extremely long
time, going back indeed to a former Geological age—that his first
state was very low and rude—that he has risen to his present high
estate by means of his own exertions continued through long
ages—and from this form a prophecy of a golden age to come in the
yet distant future, we shall feel that we have not written in
vain.
The Sphinx
[1] Von Hellwald: “Smithsonian Report,” 1866.
[2] Palgrave,
[3] Lubbock: “Prehistoric Times,” p. 2.
Chapter II
EARLY GEOLOGICAL PERIODS.1
Necessity of a general acquaintance with the outlines of
Geology—A time in which there was no life possible on the
globe—Length of this period—On the formation of rocks—The record
imperfect—The three great periods in animal life on the
globe—Paleozoic age—Animal and vegetable life of this period—The
Mesozoic age—Animal and vegetable life of this period—Advance
noted—Abundance of reptilian life—First appearance of
birds—Nature’s methods of work—The Cenozoic age—Geological
outline—Sketch of the Eocene age—Of the Miocene age—What is
sufficient proof of the presence of man—Discussion of the Thenay
flints—The Pliocene age—Animal and vegetable life of this age—Was
man living during this age?—Discussion of this subject—Summing up
the evidence—Conclusion.
For a clear understanding of questions relating to early man, a
more or less extensive acquaintance with Geology is required.
This is by no means a difficult task to accomplish. What so
interesting as to understand at least the outlines of the history
of life on the globe? To see how, following a definite plan, the
vast continents have grown to their present size and form; to see
how animal and vegetable life have evolved successively higher
and higher forms; to see where in this wondrous drama of
creation, this strange unfolding of life, the first faint,
indecisive traces of man’s presence are to be found; to learn
what great changes in climate, in Geogony, and in life, had
occurred before man’s appearance, let us pass in brief review the
history of early geological periods.
As we have already stated, there must have been a very long
period of time during which no life was possible on the globe. Of
this era we know but little; for we find no strata of rocks of an
earlier date than we know life, in its simplest forms, to have
existed.2 Still we are not less confident of the existence of
this era, and the mind can dimly comprehend the scene, when a
nearly shoreless ocean surged around the globe.3
As to the extent of time during which there was no life, we have
no means of determining. That it was almost infinitely long is
made apparent by the researches of eminent scholars on the
cooling of lava. Toward the close of this extended period of time
faint traces of life appear. Not life as we are apt to think of
it. No nodding flowers were kissed by the sunshine of this early
time. The earliest forms of flowerless plants, such as sea-weeds,
and in dry places possibly lichens covering the rocks, were the
highest forms of vegetable life. Animal life, if present, for the
fact is denied by some, occurs in the very lowest form, merely
structureless bodies, with no especial organs of sense, or
nutrition: and their motion consisting simply in protruding and
withdrawing hair-like processes.4 Such was the beginning of life.
This vast period of time, which includes the beginning, is known
among geologists as Archean time.
From the close of this age, the history of life properly
commences. It might be well to explain the means which the
geologist uses to interpret the history of the globe. It is now
understood that the forces of nature have always produced the
same results as they do now. From the very earliest time to the
present, rocks have been forming. There, where conditions were
favorable, great beds of limestone, formed from shells and
corals, ground up by the action of the sea5—in other places,
massive beds of sandstone or of sand, afterward consolidated into
sandstone—were depositing. On the land surface, in places, great
beds of vegetable _débris_ were being converted into coal. Now we
can easily see how the remains of organic bodies, growing at the
time of the formation of these beds, should be preserved in a
fossil form. Limestone rocks are thickly studded in places with
all sorts of marine formations. Coal fields reveal wonders of
early vegetative growth. From sandstone rocks, and shaly beds, we
learn strange stories of animal life at the time they were
forming. From a careful study of these remains together with the
formation in which they occur, not only in one locality but all
over the earth, geologists have gradually unfolded the history of
life on the globe. It is admitted that, at best, our knowledge in
that direction is fragmentary. This arises from errors in
observation as well as that fossil formations are rare, or at
least localities where they are known to exist are but few. So
our knowledge of the past is as if we were examining some record
from which pages, chapters, and even volumes, have been
extracted.
Paleozoic Forest
In consequence of this imperfect record we can not, as yet, trace
a gradual successive growth from the low forms of animal and
plant life, that characterized the closing period of Archean
time, to the highly organized types of the present. The record
suddenly ceases and when we again pick up the thread we are
surrounded by more advanced types, higher forms of life. Though
we may hope that future discoveries will do much toward
completing the records, we can not hope that they will ever
really be perfected. So, from our present stand-point, the
history of life on the globe falls naturally into three great
divisions.6 This is no more than we might expect, when we reflect
that nature’s laws are universal in their action, and that the
world, as a whole, has been subjected to the same set of changes.
The period following on after Archean time is called, by
geologists, Paleozoic time.
During the long course of time embraced in this age, the forms of
life present wide differences from those of existing time.
This period produced the great beds of coal we use to-day. But
the vegetation of the coal period would present strange features
to our eyes. The vegetation commenced with the lowest orders of
flowerless plants, such as sea-weeds; but, before it was brought
to a close, there was a wonderful variety and richness of plants
of the flowerless or Cryptogamic division. In some of the warmest
portions of the globe, we have to-day tree-ferns growing four or
five feet high. During the closing part of the Paleozoic time,
there were growing all over the temperate zone great tree-ferns
thirty feet or so in height. Some varieties of rushes in our
marshes, a foot or two in height, had representatives in the
marshes of the coal period standing thirty feet high, and having
woody trunks.7 Near the close of the Paleozoic time, vegetation
assumed a higher form of life. Flowering plants are represented.
Pines were growing in the coal measures.
In animal life a similar advance is noted. The class of animals
having no backbone, or invertebrate animals, were largely
represented. But, toward the close of the Paleozoic time, we meet
with representatives of the backbone family. The waters swarmed
with fishes.8 Besides these, there were amphibians; 9 and
reptiles in the closing portions.10
The Pterodactyl
Thus we see what a great advance was made in life during this
period. The forms of life during the early stages of this age
were inferior in this, also, that they were all water species.11
But, before it closes, we have a rich and varied terrestrial
vegetation, and also air-breathing animals. The class Mammalia,
to which man belongs, had no representative on the earth during
the extended Paleozoic time.
We can easily see, from the foregoing, how appropriately this
period has been named that of old life forms. In imagination we
can recall a scene of this old age. The air is sultry and full of
vapors. The soil seems hot and steaming. This is a veritable
forest, but we see none of the beautiful flowers which we
associate with tropical vegetation to-day. In the branches of the
graceful tree-ferns, we will look in vain for birds. They were
yet far in the future. Neither were there any of the higher
orders of animals present. Not a single representative of the
great class of mammals enlivened the depths of the forest. There
were fishes in the waters, but not the fishes of to-day. Some
true reptiles and amphibians disported themselves in swampy
jungles, but they were unimportant. Almost the only sound to
break the stillness, was the hum of marsh-loving insects, the
whistling of the wind, and the roar of the tempests, which we may
well believe raged with the more than tropic severity of the
present.12
The time at last came for the dawning of a new era. Vast changes
had been taking place in the geography of both continents. The
region to the south-west of the Green Mountains was upturned. The
Alleghany Mountains were formed, and the region east of the
Mississippi River became part of the stable land of the
continent.13 In Europe, nearly as great changes occurred. The
conditions of life must have been greatly modified by these
geographical changes. The life-forms bear testimony to this
changed condition. Old forms die away, and are succeeded by those
approaching more nearly our own times. The name of this period is
the Mesozoic time, or the period of middle life forms.14 It is
instructive to notice the steady advance in the type of life,
both animal and vegetable. The abundant flowerless vegetation of
the coal formation of the preceding epoch dwindles away. But the
flowering trees increase in number and importance until, in the
closing period of Mesozoic time, we have trees with deciduous
leaves. A great many of our forest trees had representatives in
the forests of that epoch.
Ichthyosauri
Palms and species like the big tree of California were growing
side by side with species akin to our own common trees. But in
the animal world there were many strange forms. This was the age
of reptiles. They domineered on the land, in the air, and in the
sea. On the land there stalked huge reptiles fifty and sixty feet
long, and, when standing erect, at least thirty feet high.15 Some
of these huge creatures were carnivorous, living on other
animals. Others fed on the foliage of trees. In the air, huge
reptilian bats, veritable flying dragons with a spread of wings
from ten to twenty feet, disported themselves.16 In the sea there
swam great reptilian whales, seals, and walruses.17 There was a
marvelous abundance of reptilian life. At the present day, there
are not more than six species of reptiles in the whole world
having a length of over fifteen feet, and not more than eighteen
species exceeding ten feet in length. But from one limited
locality, representing but one era of this age in England, there
have been discovered four or five species of carnivorous reptiles
twenty to fifty feet long, ten or twelve species of crocodiles,
lizards, and swimming reptiles from ten to sixty feet
long—besides multitudes of great flying reptiles and turtles.
Doubtless similar scenes of animal life were everywhere
represented.
The Labyrinthodon.
Birds made their first appearance during the Mesozoic time, and
here we obtain a clear view of nature’s methods of work. There is
no longer a doubt but that the first birds were simply modified
reptiles. The first bird had a long jointed tail, and a bill well
supplied with formidable teeth.18 It was during this period that
the first representative of the class Mammalia, to which man
belongs, appears.19 It is in the rocks of this era that we meet
with remains of marsupials, the order to which opossums belong.
This is the lowest of the Mammalian class. To the class Mammalia
belong the most highly organized animals. They have been the
ruling animals since the close of Mesozoic time. We must now
watch their development with especial care. For this brief
review, as far as it has gone, has shown a steady and gradual
progress in life forms, the lower invariably preceding the
higher. We therefore feel that it will be vain to seek for any
trace of man until we find undoubted proofs of the existence of
all the forms of animals below him. The last great division of
time is called Cenozoic.20 This means new life forms. In this
age, the forms of life are much nearer our own. As it was some
time during this epoch when man makes his appearance, we deem it
best to go into more detail, and give the subdivisions of this
period. It has been amply sufficient to give simply the outlines
of the other periods. In order to fix more clearly the sequence
of life, we will give an outline showing the periods we have
reviewed, and also the subdivisions of the Cenozoic time, which
we are now to examine with more care.
OUTLINE.
LIFE.
Archæan Time.
_The Beginning._ Includes the long lapse of time when the
globe could not support life, but towards its close faint
traces of life, both animal and vegetable appeared.
Paleozoic Time.
_The Period of Old Life Forms._ Forests of flowerless trees;
but pines grew in the coal measures. Animal life largely
invertebrate; but amphibians and reptiles among the
vertebrate appear at the close.
Mesozoic Time.
_The Period of Middle Life Forms._ Flowering trees increasing
in number and importance. Deciduous trees make their
appearance. Animal life largely reptilian. The class Mammalia
represented by marsupials.
Cenozoic Time.
_Tertiary,_ or Age of Mammals.
Eocene. Miocene. Pliocene.
_Quaternary,_ or Age of Man.
Glacial or Pleistocene. Recent.
At the close of the Mesozoic time, great elevations of land took
place in both America and Europe, especially in the northern
portions.21 This could not fail to have a great effect on life,
both animal and vegetable.
During the Eocene, or first division of the Tertiary Age, we have
simply to note the steady progress of life. There were forests of
species of oaks, poplars, maples, hickories, and other common
trees, and others now found only in tropical regions. Palm trees
were growing in the upper Missouri region of the United States.
And England was decidedly a land of Palms, as no less than
thirteen species are known to have been growing there. Cypresses,
yews, and pines graced the scene.22 Our special interest centers,
however, in the mammals of this epoch.
The Paleotherium.
In the preceding epoch marsupials only were represented. But in
beds of the middle and closing portions of the Eocene period we
meet with a sudden increase of Mammalian life. Whale-like animals
were especially abundant in the seas; and on our Western plains
were animals like the tapirs of India, and rhinoceros-like
animals as large as elephants23 but having no trunks, and
diminutive little animals not larger than foxes, from which have
come our horses. Europe also had a varied Mammalian fauna. There
were numerous hog-like animals. Animals, like the tapirs of
tropical Asia and America, wandered in the forests and on the
banks of the rivers. Herds of horse-like animals, about the size
of Shetland ponies, fed on the meadows.24 Animals that chew the
cud were present, or at least had near representatives.25
Among the flesh-eating animals were creatures resembling foxes,
wolverines, and hyenas.26 This shows what a great advance had
been made. But, besides all these, we are here presented with
representatives of the order of Quadrumana, or four-handed
animals. Several genera of lemurs are found in both America and
Europe.
Now the Quadrumana are the order below man. Therefore it seems
that in the Eocene period, all the forms of life _below_ man are
represented. The time seems to be at hand when we can look, with
some confidence, for traces of the presence of man himself. We
must therefore be more cautious in our investigations.
The epoch following on after the Eocene is designated as the
Miocene. We must remember that, though recent in a geological
sense, yet it is immensely remote when measured by the standard
of years. We must inquire into all the surroundings of this far
away time. The geographical features must have been widely
different from the present.
In the first place, the elevation of land to the north must have
been sufficient to have connected the land areas of the Northern
Hemisphere—North America, with Asia27 and Greenland; and this
latter country must have been united with Iceland, and, through
the British Islands, with Europe. But, to compensate for this
land mass to the north, large portions of Central and Southern
Europe were beneath the waves.28 The proof of this extended mass
of land is to be found in the wide distribution of similar
animals and plants in the Miocene time. All the chief botanists
are agreed that the north Polar region was the center from which
plants peculiar to the Eocene and Miocene epochs spread into both
Europe and America.29 We may mention that the famous big trees of
California are simply remnants of a wide-spread growth of these
trees in Miocene times. They can be found in a fossil state at
various places in British America, in Greenland, and in Europe.
They are supposed to have originated somewhere in the north, and
spread by these land connections we have mentioned into both
Europe and America. But this is not the only tree that grew in
the Miocene forests of both continents. The magnolia, tulip-tree,
and swamp cypress are other instances.30 Eleven species, growing
in the Rocky Mountain regions in Rocene times, found their way to
Europe in the Miocene times,31 driving before them the plants of
a tropical growth that had hitherto flourished in England. Now
this implies land connection between the two continents.
Furthermore, animals both large and small are found common to the
two countries.32 The climate over what is now the North Temperate
Zone, and even further. north, must have been delightful. There
is ample testimony to this effect in the rich vegetative remains
over wide areas.
In Spitzbergen, within twelve degrees of the pole, where now a
dwarf willow and a few herbaceous plants form the only
vegetation, and the ground is most of the time covered with snow
and ice, there were growing, in Miocene times, no less than
ninety-five species of trees, including yews, hazels, elders,
beech, elms, and others.33 But it is in the Miocene forests of
the continent of Europe where we meet with evidence of a
singularly mild climate.
There were at least eleven species of palms growing in
Switzerland; and one variety of them grew as far north as
Northern Germany.34
We can not give a list of all the species. On the one hand, there
were elms, willows, poplars, oaks, and beeches, thus far similar
to the forest growth of temperate regions. Mingled with these
were forests of trees like the tulip-tree, swamp cypress, and
liquid amber or sweet gum of the southern part of the United
States—plants whose home is in the warm and moist regions of the
earth. But there were also representatives of the tropical
regions—such as fig-trees, cinnamon-trees, and camphor-trees:
these are found growing now in tropical countries. Fruit-trees of
the cherry, plum, and almond species were also to be seen. Prof.
Heer points out how all this should convince us that a large part
of Europe, in the Miocene Age, possessed a climate not unlike
that of the Madeira or Canary Islands to-day. He calls especial
attention to the fact that these trees were nearly all of
evergreen species, and that a severe winter would destroy them.
He finds one hundred and thirty-one species of the Temperate
Zone—species that can stand a moderate amount of cold, but not
very hot and dry climates. He finds eighty-five species of
tropical plants that could not possibly live where the Winters
are severe. Mingled with these were nearly three hundred species
whose natural home is in the warm, temperate portions of the
earth. The only way you can explain this motley assemblage of
trees is, to suppose that in what is now Europe was a climate
free from extremes, allowing the trees to put forth flowers and
fruits all the year round. “Reminding us,” says Prof. Heer, “of
those fortunate zones where Nature never goes to rest.”35
Miocene Mammals.
Let us now inquire as to the animals that roamed through these
great forests we have been describing. The Miocene period
extended over a long lapse of time, and considerable change took
place among the animals belonging to the different parts of this
age. We will only give a general outline for the whole period.
The marsupials lingered along into the early stages of this
period, and then disappeared from Europe. The rhinoceros were
present in the early stages, and continued through the entire
age. We meet in this period animals of the elephant kind, two
species, the mastodon and deinotherium. Antelopes and gazelles
wandered in vast troops over the plains of Hungary, Spain, and
Southern France. Carnivorous animals resembling tigers and hyenas
found abundance of animal food. Herds of horse-like animals fed
on the rich herbage of the meadows. The birds were largely
represented. In the woods were to be seen flocks of gayly
feathered paroquets and trogons. On the plains secretary-birds
hunted the serpents and reptiles, which furnished them food—and
eagles were on the watch for their prey. Cranes waded in the
rivers for fish. Geese, herons, and pheasants must have been
abundant.
Our main interest centers in the order Quadrumana. We must
remember that this order appeared in the Eocene. Several species
were present in the Miocene. They wandered in the forests of
France, Switzerland, Germany, and Italy, and doubtless found
abundant food in the figs and bread-fruit, walnuts, almonds,
dates, and other nuts growing there.36 One of the most important
is regarded as belonging to the same genus as the Gibbons.37 This
is the genus which has been sometimes regarded as making a nearer
approach to man than any other monkey.38 Others, however,
consider it as belonging to an extinct family.39 In addition to
this species there were at least three other species: thus there
was no absence of simian life in the Miocene.40
From the sketch we have thus far drawn of the Miocene Age, it
seems to have been a very favorable one in every respect. One
writer41 affirms, that “the world never experienced a more
beautiful period.” And indeed it seems as if the facts bear out
this statement. A genial, temperate climate was the rule, even to
high northern latitudes. We need not doubt but that there were
grassy plains, wooded slopes, and rolling rivers. Was man present
to take advantage of all these favorable surroundings? Did he
wander through the evergreen forests, and hunt the deer,
antelope, and hogs—the hipparions, and mastodons, and
deinotheres—then so numerous?42 We know of no inherent
improbability of his existence at that time. An ape belonging to
a highly organized genus was then living in Europe. Every
condition considered necessary for the primeval Garden of Eden
was then satisfied. Let us stop for a minute and examine the
nature of the evidence considered sufficient to prove the
presence of man during any of the past geological ages.
Should we be so fortunate as to find portions of the bones of the
human skeleton in a geological formation in such positions that
they could not possibly have been introduced there since the
deposition of the containing bed, it would of course prove that
man was at least as old as the formation itself. But it happens
that human remains in beds of a previous geological age are very
rare. Indeed, human remains in formations of the Pleistocene
Age,43 during which we have ample testimony, as we shall see, of
the presence of man, are very rare. The cases in which there can
be no doubt can be reckoned on the fingers. The explanation of
this state of things is not at all difficult, for it is only
under very rare circumstances that portions of the bones of
animals even larger than man are preserved to us in geological
strata. Vast numbers die and vanish away without leaving a trace
behind them for every fragmentary bone we recover. In the case of
man we must remember that, in previous eras, he was present in
very small numbers; that, owing to his intelligence, he would not
be as liable to be drowned and swept away, and so mingle his
remains with beds of river detritus then forming, as were
animals. Mr. Lyell has made some remarks on the draining of the
Haarlem Lake by the government of Holland in 1853, which shows
that even favorable circumstances do not always preserve remains
for future inspection. Though called a lake, this body of water
was an arm of the sea, covering about forty-five thousand acres.
The population which had lived on the shores of the lake was
between thirty and forty thousand souls. “There had been many a
shipwreck, and many a naval fight on those waters, and hundreds
of Dutch and Spanish soldiers and sailors had met there with a
watery grave,” yet not a solitary portion of the human skeleton
was to be found in its bed.44 Thus we see that, in the majority
of cases, we must rely on other evidence than the presence of
human bones to prove the existence of man in the geological
periods of the past. In the case of the Haarlem Lake again, there
was found the wreck of one or two vessels, and some ancient
armor. So, had it been a disputed point whether man was a denizen
of this planet at the time when the area in question was covered
by water, it would have been settled beyond a doubt by these
relics of his industry, even though portions of the human frame
itself were entirely wanting. And, in reality, proofs of this
nature are just as satisfactory as it would be to discover human
bones. If, on a desert island, we find arrow-heads, javelins, a
place where there had been a fire, split bones, and other
_débris_ of a feast, we are as much justified in asserting that
man had been there, as we would be had we seen him with our own
eyes. In the same manner, if we detect in any strata of the past
any undoubted products of human industry—such as weapons, or
implements and ornaments—in such position that we know they could
not have been deposited there since the formation of the bed
itself, we have no hesitancy in asserting that man himself is of
the same antiquity as the strata containing the implements. In
the great majority of cases, this is the only kind of evidence
possible to advance.
It is now well known that the first stage in the culture of any
people, is what is called the Stone Age. That is to say, their
weapons and implements were made from stone, or at least the
majority of them were. We will discuss on another page this
point, and also the grounds leading us to infer that many of the
extremely rude forms are really the work of man.
Let us now return to the Miocene Age, in which we are to seek for
the presence of man. In 1867 a French geologist, by the name of
Bourgeois, who had been searching some beds of the Miocene Age,
near Thenay, France, found a number of flints of such a peculiar
shape, that he concluded they could only be explained by
supposing that man formed them. In this case there is to question
as to the age of the stratum containing the flints. All
geologists are agreed that it is of the Miocene Age. The question
then is, whether the flints were artificially cut or not. On this
question there has been a great division of opinion, and we can
not do better than to examine and see where the Principal
scientific men stand on this point.
In 1872, at the scientific congress in Brussels, this question
was referred to a committee composed of the most competent men
from the different countries of Europe. We are sorry to say that,
after a thorough consideration of them, the judges were unable to
agree. Some accepted them, others rejected them, and still others
were undecided. Some of the latter have since become convinced by
recent discoveries.45
Since this discovery, similar specimens have been described as
having been found in Portugal, and from another locality in
France. Some men of the highest authority accept these flints as
proving the presence of man in Miocene times. This is supported
by such men as Quatrefages, Hamy, Mortillet, and Capellini.46
These are all known to be competent and careful geologists.
Another class does not think the evidence strong enough to
declare these flints of human origin, and so do not think it
proved that man lived in Europe in Miocene times; but do believe
that we will eventually find proofs of his existence during that
era in the warm and tropical regions of the globe. This is the
view of such men as Lubbock, Evans, Huxley, and Winchell. Still
others say that, during the vast lapse of years since Miocene
times, all the species of land mammals then alive have
perished47—their place being taken by other species—and therefore
it is incredible that man, the most highly specialized of all
animals, should have survived. And hence, if these Thenay flints
are really artificial in their origin, it is more reasonable to
suppose they were cut by one of the higher apes, then living in
France, than by man. This is the view of Prof. Dawkins and Prof.
Gaudry.48 As to the last view, it is surely but reasonable to
suppose, with Quatrefages,49 that the superior intelligence of
man would serve to protect him from the operation of causes that
would effect the extinction of lower animals. Hence, unless some
evidence be produced to show that species of apes are known to
make rude stone implements, or some evidence that they did this
in past ages, we must believe, with Geikie and others, that these
flints prove that Miocene man lived in France, unless indeed we
refuse to believe that they are artificial.
It also seems to us that those who hold to the view that man was
living in other parts of the world, as Asia, during the Miocene
Age, ought readily to admit that a few wandering bands might
penetrate into Europe.50 The climate was tropical, there was an
abundance of animal life, and, if man was living anywhere, it is
very reasonable to suppose that, at some epoch during the course
of the Miocene Age, he would have found his way to Europe, unless
shut off by the sea. It therefore seems to us that the presence
of those cut flints is conclusive of the presence of man in
Europe during the Miocene Age. At the same time we can not affirm
that this is the conclusion of the scientific world. They seem to
have heeded the remark of Quatrefages, that “in such a matter
there is no great urgency,” and are waiting for further
discoveries.
Thus far in our review we have noticed the steady progress in the
forms of life. In the Miocene Age we have seen all the types of
life below man present, and some indications of the presence of
man himself. We must now learn what we can of the Pliocene Age,
the last division of the Tertiary Age.
The Pliocene Age need not detain us long. Considerable changes in
the geography of both Europe and America were going forward
during the Miocene Age, and the result was quite a change in
climate. There was a steady elevation of the Pacific coast region
of America, and, as a consequences a period of great volcanic
outbursts in California and Oregon.51 At the same time the bridge
connecting Asia and America was severed.52 In Europe the
Mediterranean area was elevated; but the land connecting
Greenland with Europe sank, allowing the cold waters of the
Arctic to communicate with both the North Sea and the
Atlantic—England at that time forming part of the great peninsula
extending north and west from Europe.53 The climate during the
Pliocene Age was cooler than that of the Miocene. This is marked
in the vegetation of that period. The palms and the cinnamon
trees, which in Miocene times grew in Germany, flourished no
farther north than Italy during the Pliocene.54
Count DeSaporta, who made special researches in the flora of this
period, found the remains of a forest growth buried under lava on
the side of a mountain in Cantal France, at an elevation of about
four thousand feet above the level of the sea. This consisted
principally of pines. This shows that probably all Northern
Europe was covered with somber forests of pine. In the same
section he found, buried under volcanic ash, a vegetation
consisting mostly of deciduous trees—maples, alders, poplars,
willows, elms, and ashes. As this was growing at the height Of
about twenty-three hundred feet in Cantal France, it probably
represents the vegetation of Britain and Northern Germany.
Finally, the vegetation of Central and Southern France, as well
as Northern Italy, was intermediate in character between the
luxuriant evergreen forests of the Miocene Age and that now
growing there. The tropical character of the vegetation was
evidently passing away. The climate over a large part of Europe
was now temperate, though probably warmer than at present.55
In the Mammalia we have to notice the disappearance of some
species, and the arrival and spread of some others. The apes
living as far north as Germany in the Miocene Age were restricted
to Southern France and Italy in the Pliocene, and, at its close,
vanished altogether from Europe. The first living species of
mammals is found in the remains of the hippopotamus that
frequented the rivers of Pliocene times. The mastodon of Miocene
times was still to be seen, but along with it was a species of
true elephants. The hipparion survived into this epoch, but the
horse also makes its appearance. Great quantities of deer roamed
over the land; and, as might be expected where they were so
abundant, the carnivorous animals allied to the bears and wolves,
panthers, linxes, and tigers, were also to be found. “At night,”
says Mr. Dawkins, “the Pliocene forests of Central France echoed
with the weird laughter of the hyena.”
The gradual lowering of the climate is also shown by the remains
of the mollusks deposited in beds of marine or sea formation
during different eras of this age. It is found that the earlier
the bed, the more southern mollusks are found in it. This shows
us that, all through the Pliocene Age, the waters of the seas
surrounding England were gradually growing cooler, thus
compelling the retreat of those mollusks fitted only for a warm
climate, and allowing a gradual increase in those species fitted
for cold or northern latitudes. We also find, in deposits made
near the close of Pliocene times, numbers of stone which show all
evidence of having been borne thither by means of ice. So we may
conclude that rafts of ice came floating down the North Sea
during the closing period of the Pliocene Age.56 Still, during
the entire length of the Pliocene Age, Europe certainly offered
an inviting home for man. Not only were the higher orders of
animals present, but at least one living species was known. We
find more proofs of his presence, but whether they are sufficient
to convince us that man really lived during that epoch is to be
seen.
Prof. Whitney has brought to the attention of the scientific
world what he considers ample evidence of the presence of
Pliocene man in California. We reserve this for discussion in
another place. We will only remark, at present, that the evidence
in this case is regarded as sufficient by some of the best of
American Scholars.57 We simply mention them here, so that they
may be borne in mind when we see what evidence Europe has to
offer on this point. In 1863, M. Desnoyers, of France,
discovered, in a stratum which he considered Pliocene, some bones
of elephants and other animals cut and scratched in such a manner
that he considered the cuts to be the work of man. As showing how
cautious geologists are of accepting such conclusions, we mention
this case. There was found in the same bed the remains of an
extinct beaver. The question was at once raised, whether rodents
by gnawing these bones could not have produced the cuts in
question. Sir Charles Lyell, by actual experiments in the
Zoological Gardens in London, soon showed that this was probably
the fact.58 Yet Sir John Lubbock thinks it quite likely some of
them were of human origin.59 Subsequently, however, M. Bourgeois
discovered in the same bed worked flints, about the human origin
of which there seems to be no doubt;60 but a more careful study
of the formation in which they occur has raised questions as to
its age. Though usually held to be Pliocene, some careful
observers consider it to be of a later age. Geologists can not be
accused of rashly accepting statements as to the antiquity of
man.
In 1867 there was discovered, in Northern Italy, a human skull in
a railway cutting at a depth of nearly fifty feet. This stratum
contains remains of several Pliocene animals. This is held to
prove the existence of Pliocene man by several eminent observers,
amongst others Prof. Cocchi, of Italy, and Forsyth Major.61 But
in this case Mr. Dawkins contends that it was not found under
such conditions as render it certain that the stratum had been
undisturbed, and so does not prove to a certainty that it was of
the same age as the stratum.62 And Mr. Geikie thinks that the
stratum itself is of a later age than the Pliocene.63 It is but
right that geologists should thus carefully scan all the evidence
produced.
Cut on Bones of a Whale from Pliocene Deposit.
In 1876 Prof. Capellini discovered, in a Pliocene deposit in
Italy, the bones of a whale, which were so marked with cuts and
incisions that he thought the only explanation was to say they
had been cut by men. In this case64 there is no dispute as to the
age of the stratum. Neither is there much doubt but that the cuts
are the work of man. It is quite true that Mr. Evans has
suggested that they may be the work of fishes. In this he is
followed by Prof. Winchell.65 But there appears to be little
ground for such belief, because the cuts are all on the outside
faces of rib-bones, and the outer faces of the backbones. From
the position occupied by the remaining portions of the skeleton,
Prof. Capellini is sure that the animal had run aground, and, in
that condition, was discovered and killed by men, who then, by
means of flint knives, cut away such portions of food as they
wished. It must have been lying on its left side, since the cuts
were all made on bones of the right.66 It is not probable that
fishes would have been apt to choose the outside faces of the
ribs on the right side for their meals. These cut bones have been
carefully examined by many competent men, who have agreed with
Capellini that they are the work of men.67 Mr. Dawkins thinks the
cuts were artificial, but he says, “It is not, however, to my
mind satisfactorily shown that these were obtained from
undisturbed strata.”68 Now these bones have been found in several
localities, always in Pliocene deposits, which formed the shores
of the Pliocene sea.69 Knowing how carefully geologists inquire
into all the surroundings of a find, surely, if Capellini and
others are the competent men they are admitted to be, they would
have informed us long ago if they were not found in undisturbed
strata.
Mr. Dawkins also objects because fragments of pottery were found
in the strata. “Pottery,” says he, “was unknown in the
Pleistocene Age,70 and therefore is unlikely to have been found
in the Pliocene.”71 Mr. Geikie says this objection is founded on
a mistake, as Prof. Capellini told him the pottery was found
lying on the surface, and was never for a moment imagined by him
as belonging to the same age as the cut bones.72 There is also
the objection, that, inasmuch as all the mammals then alive
except one have perished, it is more than likely that, had man
been in existence then, he too would have disappeared.
We considered this point fully when speculating as to the
presence of man in the Miocene: so we have nothing further to
offer. We might, however, suggest that, if the hippopotamus
amongst mammals could survive all the changing time since the
Pliocene, as it has done, it seems no more than fair to admit
equal power of endurance to the human species. The position then
of the scientific world as to the Pliocene Age of man is, on the
whole, more decided in its favor than for the Miocene Age. Quite
a number of eminent scholars, whose conclusions are worthy of all
respect, unhesitatingly affirm the existence of Pliocene man in
Europe. Others are not quite ready to admit his existence in
Europe, but do think he was in existence elsewhere. Still others,
with all due respect for the discoveries of Capellini, think it
more prudent to await further discoveries. The reader, who has
followed us through this brief outline of the past, can join
which of the classes he will, and be sure of finding himself in
good company.
This completes our review of past geological ages. With the
termination of the Pliocene Age we find ourselves on firmer
ground. We only wish to call attention once more to the gradual
unfolding of life. We see that the rule has been that everywhere
the lower forms of life precede the higher. In the plant world
flowerless plants precede the flowering ones. The coal we burn
to-day is mainly the remains of the wonderful growth of the
flowerless vegetation of the Paleozoic Ace. When flowering plants
appear, it is the lower forms of them at first.
It was long ages before trees with deciduous leaves appeared. The
growth of animal life is equally instructive. First invertebrate
life, then the lowest forms of vertebrate life. The fishes are
followed by amphibians—then reptiles, then birds. The first
mammal to appear was the lowest organized of all—the marsupials.
And we have seen the sudden increase of mammalian life in
Tertiary times. We notice, in all the divisions of life, a
beginning, a culmination, and a decline. There has never been
such a growth of flowerless plants as in the Paleozoic, and
flowering plants probably culminated in the Miocene. The same
rule holds good for the animal world also. As man is the most
highly organized of all the animals, we can not hope to find any
evidence of his presence until we find proofs of the presence of
all the lower types of life. Of course future discoveries may
change our knowledge when the series is complete; but, from our
present stand-point, he could not have lived before the Miocene
Age, and we have seen how faint and indecisive are the proofs of
his presence even then. But should it finally be proved, beyond
all dispute, that man did live in the Miocene Age, we must
observe that this is but a small portion, but a minute fraction,
of the great lapse of time since life appeared on the globe. We
are a creation of but yesterday, even granting all that the most
enthusiastic believer in the antiquity of man can claim.
The Mastodon.
REFERENCES
The manuscript of this chapter was submitted to Prof. Winchell,
of the University of Michigan, for criticism.
Dana’s “Manual of Geology,” p. 146.
Ibid. p. 147.
Nicholson’s “Manual of Zoology,” p. 59.
Dana’s “Manual of Geology,” p. 74.
Nicholson’s “Manual of Zoology,” p. 42.
Dana’s “Manual of Geology,” p. 323.
Nicholson’s “Zoology,” p. 402.
Dana’s “Geology,” p. 302.
Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” p. 6.
Dana’s “Geology,” p. 382.
Haywood’s, Heer’s, “Primeval World of Switzerland.”
Dana’s “Man. Geology,” p.395.
Nicholson’s “Man. Zoology,” p.42.
Marsh: “American Assoc. Rep.,” 1877.
Marsh: “American Assoc. Rep.,” 1877.
Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” p. 6.
Nicholson’s “Manual of Zoology,” pp. 419 and 504.
When we talk of first appearance, we mean the discovery of
remains. All who believe in the doctrine of evolution, know
that the class Mammalia must have appeared early in Paleozoic
times. Thus, Mr. Wallace says, “Bats and whales—strange
modifications of mammals—appear perfectly well developed in the
Eocene. What countless ages back must we go for the origin of
these groups—the whales from some ancestral carnivorous animal,
the bats from the insectivora!” and even then we have to seek
for the common origin of these groups at far earlier periods.
“So that, on the lowest estimate, we must place the origin of
the Mammalia very far back in Paleozoic times.” (“Island Life,”
p. 201.)
This word is also spelled Kainozoic, and Cainozoic. We follow
Dana, p. 140.
Dana, “Manual of Geology,” p. 488.
Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” p. 28.
Many of these animal forms were common during the early Eocene.
(Winchell.)
Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” p. 29.
Dana, “Geology,” p. 517.
Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” p. 32.
Marsh. “American Assoc. Rep.,” 1877.
Haywood’s Heer’s “Primeval World of Switzerland,” p. 296.
Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” p. 20.
Ibid., p. 43.
Dana’s “Manual of Geology,” p. 498.
Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” p. 42.
Dana’s “Manual of Geology,” p. 514.
Haywood’s Heer’s “Primeval World of Switzerland,” p. 334.
Haywood’s Heer’s “Primeval World of Switzerland.”
Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” pp. 57 and 64.
Ibid., p. 57: also, Haywood’s Heer’s “Primeval World of
Switzerland.”
Nicholson’s “Manual of Zoology,” p. 605.
Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” p. 58.
Ibid. 58.
McLean: “Mastodon, Mammoth, and Man,” p. 67.
Dawkins’s “Early Man in Europe,” p. 66.
See “Outline,” p. 41.
Lyell’s “Antiquity of Man,” p. 193.
Quatrefages’s “Human Species,” p. 151.
Prof. Winchell says: “Quatrefages does not now consider the
proof decisive (_Hommes Fossiles et Hommes Sauvages,_ Paris,
1884, p. 95).” He cites, as agreeing with him, MM. Cotteau,
Evans, “and, I believe, most of the members who have not
publicly pronounced themselves.”
Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” p. 67.
Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” p. 68.
“Human Species,” p. 152.
Prof. Winchell remarks that, though some savage races might
have been living in tropical lands during the Miocene, still
the oldest skull and jaws obtainable in Europe are of a higher
type than these.
Dana’s “Manual of Geology,” p. 523.
Marsh: “American Assoc. Rep.,” 1877.
Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” p. 73.
Ibid., p. 78.
Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” p. 77.
Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain,” p. 76.
Winchell’s “Pre-Adamites,” Whitney’s “Auriferous Gravels of
California,” Marsh’s “Address before American Assoc.,” 1879.
“Antiquity of Man,” p. 234.
“Prehistoric Times,” p. 433.
Geikie’s “Prehistoric Europe,” p. 343.
Dawkins’s “Early Man in Britain.”
Ibid.
“Prehistoric Europe,” p. 318.
Quatrefages’s “Hum. Species,” p. 150; Geikie’s “Prehistoric
Eur.,” p. 345.
“Pre-Adamites.”
Geikie’s “Prehistoric Europe,” p. 344.
Ibid.
“Early Man in Britain,” p. 92.
Geikie’s “Prehistoric Europe,” p. 344.
Same as Glacial. See “Outline,” p. 41.
“Early Man in Britain,” p. 92.
“Prehistoric Europe,” p. 345, note 2.
Chapter III
MEN OF THE RIVER DRIFT.1
Beginning of the Glacial Age—Inter-glacial Age—Man living in
Europe during this age—Map of Europe—Proof of former elevation of
land—The animals living in Europe during this age—Conclusions
drawn from these different animals—The vegetation of this
period—Different climatic conditions of Europe during the Glacial
Age—Proofs of a Glacial Age—Extent of the Glacial Ice—Evidence of
warm Inter-glacial Age—The primitive state of man—Early English
civilization—Views of Horace—Primitive man destitute of
metals—Order in which different materials were used by man for
weapons—Evidence, from the River Somme—History of Boucher de
Perthes’s investigations—Discussion of the subject—Antiquity of
these remains—Improvement during Paleolithic Age—Description of
the flint implements—Other countries where these implements are
found—What race of men were these tribes—The Canstadt race—Mr.
Dawkins’s views—When did they first appear in Europe—The
authorities on this question—Conclusion.
The tertiary age, with its wonderful wealth of animal and plant
life, gradually drew to its close. In our “Outline” we have named
the period that next ensued the Glacial Age.2 This was
sufficiently exact for our purpose then, but we must remember
this is the name3 for a long series of years. During this period
great changes in climate occurred. At its commencement, a genial
temperate climate prevailed throughout Europe; and this, as we
know, was preceded, during the Miocene Age, by a warm tropical
one.4 This succession, then, shows us that, for some reason or
other, the climate had been gradually growing colder. This change
went forward uninterruptedly. Doubtless very gradually, from
century to century, the seasons grew more and more severe, until,
finally, the Summer’s sun no longer cleared the mountains of the
Winter’s snow. This was the beginning of the Glacial Age proper.
The best authorities also suppose that the reign of snow and ice
was broken by at least one return (possibly more) of genial
climate, when animals and plants from the south again visited the
countries of Northern Europe—only, however, to be once more
driven forth by a return of arctic cold. But finally, before the
increasing warmth of a genial Climate, the glaciers vanished, not
to return again, and the Glacial Age became merged in that of the
present.
It is no longer a question that man lived in Europe during the
largest portion of this age, if not from the beginning. It is
necessary, then, to come to a clear understanding of the
successive stages of this entire age, and to trace the wonderful
cycles of climate—the strange mutation of heat and cold, which
must have exerted a powerful influence on the life, both animal
and vegetable, of the period—and see when we first find decisive
proofs of man’s presence, and learn what we can of his condition.
The map of Europe, at the close of Pliocene times and the
commencement of the Glacial Age, is of interest to us in several
ways. From this it will be seen that it was considerably more
elevated than at the present. As this is no fancy sketch, but is
based on facts, it is well to outline them. Without the aid of
man, land animals can not possibly pass from the mainland of a
continent to an island lying some distance off the shore. But it
is well known that animals like the rhinoceros, and several
others, wandered as well over the surface of the British Islands
as on the adjacent coast of Europe. We are therefore compelled to
assume, that at that time the English Channel and the Irish Sea
were not in existence. This necessitates an elevation of at least
four hundred feet, which would also lay bare a large portion of
the North Sea.5 In proof of this latter statement is the fact,
that, at a distance from land in the North Sea, fishermen at the
present day frequently dredge up bones and teeth of animals that
then roamed in Europe.6
Map of Europe.
While there is no necessity for supposing an elevation greater
than that required to lay bare a passage for animals back and
forth, yet soundings undertaken by the British government have
established the fact, that the ocean deepens very gradually away
from the shores of the main-land until a depth of six hundred
feet is reached, when the shore falls away very suddenly. This is
supposed to be the sea-coast of that time. The English Channel
would then have existed as the valley of the Seine, and the Rhine
have prolonged its flow over the present bed of the North Sea. As
the land stood at this height through a large portion of the
Glacial Age, it is not at all unreasonable to suppose that
primitive tribes hunted back and forth along these valleys, and
so doubtless many convincing proofs of their presence at that
early day lie buried underneath the waves of the sea. In like
manner, at the south, we know that elephants, lions, and hyenas
passed freely from Africa to Spain, Italy, and the Island of
Crete,7 and, consequently, the Mediterranean Sea must have been
bridged in one or two places at least.8
The change from Pliocene times to early Glacial was so gradual
that quite a number of animals lived on from one to the other,
and, as we have already stated, one of these species has even
survived to our own times.9
But we note the arrival in Europe of a great number of new
animals, and the diversity of species seems at first an
inexplicable riddle. The key, however, is to be found in the
great climatic changes, which we have already mentioned as
occurring during this age. On the one hand, we find such animals
as the musk-sheep, reindeer, and arctic fox, animals whose
natural home is in high northern latitudes, where snow and ice
prevail most of the year.10 Yet during this age they lived in
Southern France and Italy, which must then have had a far
different climate than that at present.
Were we to confine our attention to these alone we would be
convinced that the climate of Europe at that time was arctic in
its severity. But side by side with the remains of these animals
are found others which imply an altogether different climate. The
hippopotamus, now frequenting the rivers of Africa, during that
period roamed as far north as Yorkshire, England.11 This animal
could not live in a country where the cold was severe enough to
form ice on the rivers. The remains of a number of other animals
are found whose natural home is in the warm regions of the
earth.12 These two groups of animals, one from the north and one
from the south, show how varied was the climate of Europe during
the Glacial Age.
In addition to these, there was also a large number of animals
whose home is in the temperate regions of the earth—animals that
thrive in neither extremes of heat and cold. This includes a
great many animals of the deer kind, several varieties of bears
and horses; in fact, the majority of those with which we are
acquainted.13
Now, what conclusion follows from this assemblage of animals?
Many theories have been put forward in explanation. It has been
suggested that Europe at that time had a climate not unlike that
of some portions of the earth at present; that is, a long and
severe Winter was followed by a short but warm Summer. During the
Winter reindeer and other northern animals would press from the
north in search of food, but would retire on the approach of
Spring, when their feeding grounds would in turn be occupied by
bisons and animals of a southern habitat. In confirmation of this
view it is pointed out that a vast collection of bones, from the
bottom of a sink-hole or pond in Derbyshire, England,
conclusively show that in the summer-time it was visited by
bisons with their calves, and in Winter by reindeer.14 This
theory is open to a great many objections. As is well known, some
animals make quite extensive migrations annually, but we can
scarcely believe that heavy, unwieldy animals like the
hippopotamus, were then such industrious travelers as to wander
every year from Italy to Northern England and return.15 But the
very ground on which this theory rests, that of strongly
contrasted summers and winters, could not be true of Europe or
the western portions of it, owing to the presence of the Atlantic
Ocean, and the influence which it inevitably exerts on the
climate.16 We see, then, that the presence of these different
animals can be explained only by supposing great secular changes
in climate. Let us see if we can strengthen this view by an
appeal to the vegetation of this period.
We have seen how important a guide as to climate were the remains
of the vegetation of the early times. We therefore turn with more
confidence to such discoveries as will tell us of the flora of
this age. But there are many reasons why remains of plant growth
should be few. As we shall soon learn, this was a period of
flooded rivers; and in the gravels and loams thus formed is found
our principal source of information as to the life of the age.
But such a rush of waters would form gravelly banks or great beds
of loam, and would sweep any plants which might be washed into
its floods far out to sea; or if by chance they should become
buried in such gravel beds, the action of water would speedily
cause the decay of the tender portions, such as leaves, bark, and
soft wood, in which case no profitable investigation could be
made. Occasionally, however, around the shores of old lakes,
vegetable beds have been buried, and we know that some mineral
springs deposit a sort of protecting sediment on every thing with
which they come in contact. By such means, at rare intervals,
leaves, seeds, and fruits have been sealed up for future
inspection, and from a careful study of all such instances much
valuable information has been obtained. At one place in the
valley of the Seine was discovered, under a bed of tufa, the
remains of a forest growth. It is not doubted that the deposit
belongs to the Glacial Age.17
Yet the forest growth reminds us of that prevalent during the
Miocene Age. The fig-tree, canary, laurel, and box-tree grew in
profusion. These are all southern forms. One severe winter would
kill them all, and even hard frosts would prevent the ripening of
their fruits.
Neither were the Summers hot and dry. This is shown by the
presence of numerous plants which can not thrive in hot and dry
localities, but live in the shady woods of Northern France and
Germany. The evidence of this forest growth surely presents us an
inviting picture of Europe during a portion of the Glacial Age.
We are not without evidence, also, of a much more severe climate.
In a lignite bed (a species of coal) found in nearly the same
latitude as the forest growth just mentioned, we detect the
presence of trees that grow only in cold northern climates, such
as birch, mountain pine, larch, and spruce.18 And in some
peat-bogs of Southern Europe belonging to this age19 are found
willows now growing only in Spitzbergen, and some species of
mosses that only thrive far to the north. It is quite evident
that this deposit testifies to an altogether different climate
from that indicated by the deposit before mentioned. No theory of
migration can explain this assemblage of plants, unless it be
migration taking place very slowly, in consequence of an equally
slow change of climate.
From what we have just learned of the animals and plants living
in Europe during this age, we can frame some conception of the
different climatic conditions of Europe. On the one hand, we have
a country with a mild and genial climate. Trees of a warm
latitude were then growing as far north as Paris, and we may well
suppose Europe to have abounded in shady forests and grassy
plains, through which flowed large rivers. It was just such a
country as that in which elephants and southern animals would
flourish, while vast herds of deer and bovine animals wandered
over the entire length and breadth of the land. Where animal life
was so abundant there were sure to be carnivorous animals also,
and lions, hyenas, tigers, and other animals added to the variety
of animal life.
This, however, is but one side of the picture. The other presents
us with a very different scene; instead of an abundant forest
growth, the land supported only dwarf birch, arctic willows, and
stunted mosses. Arctic animals, such as musk-sheep and reindeer,
lived all the year around in Southern France. The woolly mammoth
lived in Spain and Italy. In short, the climate and conditions of
life were vastly different in the two stages.
We must now turn our attention to the proofs of glaciers in
Europe, the phenomena from which this age derives its name.
Descriptions of Alpine glaciers are common enough, but as
glaciers and the Glacial Age have a great deal to do with the
antiquity of man, we can not do better than to learn what we can
of their formation, and their wonderful extension during this
period. The school-boy knows that by pressure he gives his
snowball nearly the hardness of ice. He could make it really ice
if he possessed sufficient strength. The fact is, then, that snow
under the influence of pressure passes into the form of ice. In
some cases nature does this on a large scale. Where mountains are
sufficiently elevated to raise their heads above the snow line we
know they are white all the year around with snow. What is not
blown away, evaporated, or, as an avalanche, precipitated to
lower heights, must accumulate from year to year. But the weight
pressing on the lower portions of this snow-field must soon be
considerable, and at length become so great, that the snow
changes to the form of ice. But as ice it is no longer fixed and
immovable. We need not stop to explain just how this ice-field
moves, but the fact is that, though moving very slowly, it acts
like a liquid body. It will steal away over any incline however
small, down which water would flow. Like a river it fills the
valleys leading down from the mountains. But, of course, the
lower down it flows the higher the temperature it meets, and it
will sooner or later reach a point where it will melt as fast as
it advances. This stream of ice flowing down from snow-clad
mountains is called a glacier. Those we are best acquainted with
are but puny things compared with those of the polar regions,
where in one case a great river of ice sixty miles wide, flowing
from an unknown distance, some thousands of feet in depth (or
height), pours out into the sea.20
We at once perceive that such a mass of ice could not pour down a
valley without leaving unmistakable signs of its passage. The
sides of the mountains would be deeply scarred and smoothed.
Projecting knobs would be worn away. The surface of the valley,
exposed to the enormous grinding power of the moving ice, would
be crushed, pulverized, and dragged along with it. Pieces of
stone, like that here represented, would form part of this moving
_débris,_ and as they were crowded along they would now and then
grate over another piece of stone more firmly seated, and so
their surface would be deeply scratched in the direction of their
greatest length. There is always more or less water circulating
under the Alpine glaciers, and the streams that flow from them
are always very muddy, containing, as they do, quantities of
crushed rock, sand, and clay.
Scratched Stone.
If, for any reason, this earthy matter was not washed out it
would form a bed of hard clay, in places packed with these
striated stones. Such beds of clay are known as “till” or bowlder
clay.21
This is descriptive, though in a very general way, of the
glaciers as they exist to-day. Geologists have long been aware of
the fact that they have convincing proofs of the former presence
of glaciers in Northern Europe, where now the climate is mild.
The mountains of Scotland and Wales show as distinct traces of
glaciers as do those of the Alps. It is not necessary, in this
hasty sketch, to enumerate the many grounds on which this
conclusion rests. It is sufficient to state that by the united
labors of many investigators in that field we are in possession
of many conclusions relating to the great glaciers of this age
which almost surpass belief; and yet they are the results of
careful deductions. The former presence of this ice sheet itself
is shown in a most conclusive manner by the bowlder clay formed
underneath the great glacier, containing abundant examples of
stone showing by their scratched surface that they have been
ground along underneath the glacier. The rocks on the sides of
the mountains are scratched exactly as are those in the Alps. By
observing how high up on the mountains the striæ are, we know the
thickness of the ice-sheet; and the direction in which it moved
is shown in several ways.22
Briefly, then, the geologist assures us that when the cold of the
Glacial Age was at its maximum glaciers streamed down from all
the mountains of Scotland, Wales, and Northern England; that the
ice was thick enough to overtop all the smaller hills, and on the
plains it united in one great sea of ice some thousands of feet
in thickness, that it stretched as far south as the latitude of
London, England. But that to the west the ice streamed out
across, the Irish Sea, the islands to the west of Scotland, and
ended far out into what is now the Atlantic.23 But these
glaciers, vast as they were, were very small compared with the
glaciers that streamed out from the mountains of Norway and
Sweden. These great glaciers invaded England to the south-west,
beat back the glacier ice of Scotland from the floor of the North
Sea, overran Denmark, and spread their mantle of bowlder clay far
south into Germany.24
While such was the condition of things to the north, the glaciers
of the Alps were many times greater than at present. All the
valleys were filled with glacier ice, and they spread far out on
the plains of Southern Germany and westward into France. The
mountains of Southern France and the Pyrenees also supported
their separate system of glaciers. Ice also descended from the
mountains of Asia Minor and North Africa.25 In America we meet
with traces of glaciers on a vast scale; but we can not pause to
describe them here.26
It need not surprise us, therefore, to learn of reindeer and
musk-sheep feeding on stunted herbage in what now constitutes
Southern France. When a continuous mantle of snow and ice cloaked
all Northern Europe, it is not at all surprising to find evidence
of an extremely cold climate prevailing throughout its southern
borders. We thus see how one piece of evidence fits into another,
and therefore we may, with some confidence, endeavor to find
proofs of more genial conditions when the snow and ice
disappeared, and a more luxuriant vegetation possessed the land,
and animals accustomed to warm and even tropical countries roamed
over a large extent of European territory. In Switzerland it was
long ago pointed out that after the ancient glaciers had for a
long time occupied the low grounds of that country they, for some
cause, retreated to the mountain valleys, and allowed streams and
rivers to work over the _débris_ left behind them. At Wetzikon
most interesting conclusions have been drawn. We there learn
that, after the retreat of the glaciers, a lake occupied the
place, which in course of time became filled with peat, and that
subsequently the peat was transformed into lignite. To judge from
the remains of animals and plants, the climate must have been at
least as warm as that at present; and this condition of things
must have prevailed over a period of some thousands of years to
explain the thick deposits of peat, from which originated the
lignites.27
But we also know that this period came to an end, and that once
more the ice descended. This is shown by the fact that directly
overlying the lignite beds are alternating layers of sand and
gravel, and, resting on these, glacier-born bowlders. The same
conclusion follows from the discoveries made at many other
places.
In Scotland it is well known that the bowlder clay contains every
now and then scattered patches of peat and beds of soil either
deposited in lakes or rivers. The only explanation that can be
given for their presence is that they represent old land
surfaces; that is, when the land was freed from ice, and
vegetation had again clothed it in a mantle of green. In this cut
is shown one of these beds. Both above and below are the beds of
bowlder clay. The peat in the centre varies from an inch to a
foot and a half in thickness, and contains many fragments of
wood, sticks, roots, etc.; and of animals, numerous beetles were
found, one kind of which frequents only places where deer and
ruminant animals abound.
Interglacial Bed.
From a large number of such discoveries it is conclusively shown
that, after all, Scotland was smothered under one enormous
glacier, a change of climate occurred, and the ice melted away.
Then Scotland enjoyed a climate capable of nourishing sufficient
vegetation to induce mammoths, Irish deer, horses, and great oxen
to occupy the land. But the upper bowlder clay no less
conclusively shows that once more the climate became cold, and
ice overflowed all the lowlands and buried under a new
accumulation of bowlder clay such parts of the old land surface
as it did not erode. Substantially the same set of changes are
observed in English and German geology.28
Having thus given an outline of the climatic changes which took
place in Europe during the Glacial Age, and the grounds on which
these strange conclusions rest, we must now turn our attention to
the appearance of man.
The uncertainties which hung over his presence in the earlier
periods, spoken of in the former chapter, do not apply to the
proofs of his presence during this age, though it is far from
settled at what particular portion of the Glacial Age he came
into Europe. We must remember we are to investigate the past, and
to awaken an interest in the history of a people who trod this
earth in ages long ago. The evidence on which we establish a
history of the early tribes of Europe is necessarily fragmentary,
but still a portion here and a piece there are found to form one
whole, and enable us to form quite a vivid conception of manners
and times now very far remote.
It is not claimed that we have surmounted every difficulty—on the
contrary, there is yet much to be deciphered; but, in some
respects, we are now better acquainted with these shadowy tribes
of early times than with those whose history has been recorded by
the historian’s facile pen. He has given us a record of blood. He
acquaints us with the march of vast armies, tells us of pillaged
cities, and gives us the names of a long roll of titled kings;
but, unfortunately, we know little of the home life, the
occupation, or of those little things which make up the culture
of a people. But the knowledge of primitive tribes, gathered from
the scanty remains of their implements, from a thorough
exploration of their cavern homes, has made us acquainted with
much of their home life and surroundings: and we are not entirely
ignorant as to such topics as their trade, government, and
religion. We must not forget that this is a knowledge of tribes
and peoples who lived here in times immeasurably ancient as
compared with those in existence at the very dawn of history.
We must try and form a mental picture of what was probably the
primitive state of man; and a little judicious reasoning from
known facts will do much for us in this direction. Some writers
have contended that the first condition of man was that of
pleasing innocence, combined with a high degree of enlightenment,
which, owing to the wickedness of mankind, he gradually lost.
This ideal picture, however consonant with our wishes, must not
only give way before the mass of information now at our command,
but has really no foundation in reason; “or, at any rate, if this
primitive condition of innocence and enlightenment ever existed,
it must have disappeared at a period preceding the present
archæological investigations.”29 Nothing is plainer than that our
present civilization has been developed from barbarism, as that
was from savagism.30 We need go back but a few centuries in the
history of any nation, before we find them emerging from a state
of barbarism. The energy and intelligence of the Anglo-Saxon has
spread his language to the four corners of the globe; he has
converted the wilderness into fruitful fields, and reared cities
in desert lands: yet his history strikingly illustrates our
point. A century back, and we are already in a strange land. The
prominent points of present civilization were yet unthought of.
No bands of iron united distant cities; no nerves of wire flashed
electric speech. The wealth of that day could not buy many
articles conducive of comfort, such as now grace the homes of the
poor. The contrast is still more apparent when we recall another
of the countless centuries of the past. England, with Europe, was
but just awakening to modern life. Printing had but just been
invented. Great discoveries had been made, and mankind was but
just beginning those first feeble efforts which were to bring to
us our modern comforts. But a millennium of years ago, and the
foundation of English civilization had but just been laid by the
union of the rude Germanic tribes of the Saxons and the Angles.
Similar results attend the ultimate analysis of any civilization.
It was but yesterday that wandering hordes, bound together by the
loose cohesion of tribal organization, and possessing but the
germ of modern enlightenment, held sway in what is now the
fairest portion of the world: and we, the descendants of these
rude people, must reflect that the end is not yet—that the onward
march of progress is one of ever hastening steps—and that, in all
human probability, the sun of a thousand years hence will shine
on a people whose civilization will be as superior to ours as the
light of day exceeds the mellow glow of a moon-lit night.
If such are the changes of but a few centuries, what must we not
consider the changes to have been during the countless ages that
have sped away since man first appeared on the scene! The early
Greek and Roman writers were much nearer right when they
considered primitive man to have been but a slight degree removed
from the brute world. Horace thus expresses himself: “When
animals first crept forth from the newly formed earth, a dumb and
filthy herd, they fought for acorns and lurking places —with
their nails, and with fists—then with clubs—and at last with
arms, which, taught by experience, they had forged. They then
invented names for things, and words to express their thoughts;
after which they began to desist from war, to fortify cities, and
enact laws.” The learning of modern times leads to much the same
conclusion.
It is evident that primitive man must have been destitute of
metals; for it requires a great deal of knowledge and experience
to extract metals from their ores. In the eyes of savages, the
various metallic ores are simply so many varieties of stone— much
less valuable for his purposes than flint, or some other
varieties. We know it to be historically true, that a great many
nations have been discovered utterly destitute of any knowledge
of metals.
When we reflect how much of our present enlightenment is due to
the use of metals, we can readily see that their discovery marks
a most important epoch in the history of man. There is, then,
every reason to suppose that stone was a most important article
for primitive man. It was the material with which he fought his
battle for existence, and we need not be surprised that its use
extended through an enormously long period of time. Not only was
primitive man thus low down in the scale, but of necessity his
progress must have been very slow.
The time during which men were utterly destitute of a knowledge
of metals, far exceeds the interval that has elapsed since that
important discovery.31 Scholars divide the stone age into two
parts. In the first, the stone implements, are very few, of
simple shapes, and in the main formed of but one variety of
stone—generally flint~-and they were never polished. In the
second division, we meet with a great many different implements,
each adapted to a different purpose. Different varieties of stone
were employed, and they also made use of bone, shell, and wood,
which were often beautifully polished.
From what we have learned of the development of primitive
society, it will not surprise us to learn that the first division
of the age of stone comprises a vastly greater portion of time,
and is far more ancient, than the second. We will give an outline
showing the order of use of different materials; but it is here
necessary to remark that Bronze was the first metal that man
learned to use, and Iron the second.
ORDER IN WHICH DIFFERENT MATERIALS WERE USED FOR WEAPONS AND
IMPLEMENTS BY PRIMITIVE MAN.
Age of Stone.
Rough, or Old Stone Age
Paleolithic
Polished, or New Stone Age
Neolithic
Age of Metals.
Bronze Age. Iron Age.
In this outline the words Paleolithic and Neolithic are the
scientific terms for the two divisions of the Stone Age, and will
be so used in these pages.