[Illustration: Alexander C. Kirk (signature)

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

PORTRAIT

AND

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

BENJAMIN MARTELL.

BENJAMIN MARTELL.

CHIEF SURVEYOR, LLOYDS’ REGISTER OF BRITISH AND FOREIGN SHIPPING;

MEMBER OF THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE, AND MEMBER OF COUNCIL OF THE

INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS.

Mr Martell served the term of apprenticeship and was educated as

a Naval Architect in the Royal Dockyard, Portsmouth, during a

portion of which time he was engaged under Mr John Fincham, Master

Shipwright, in preparing designs of war ships for the Royal Navy.

Subsequently he became manager for a private shipbuilding firm, and

in 1856 was appointed a surveyor to Lloyds’ Register of British and

Foreign Shipping, for which important Society he has been Chief

Surveyor during the last twelve years. Is a Member of Council of the

Institution of Naval Architects, and takes an active part in the

annual proceedings of that Institution, being the author of several

papers on important professional subjects read before its members.

Is the author of Rules and Tables for determining the Freeboard

of Merchant Steamers and Sailing Vessels, which, issued under the

authority of Lloyds’ Register, have met with pretty wide acceptance

amongst shipowners. Was deputed by the Committee of Lloyds’ Register

to represent them on the Government Departmental Committee appointed

to enquire into the Load Line of Vessels.

[Illustration: B. Martell (signature)

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

PORTRAIT

AND

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

WILLIAM H. WHITE.

WILLIAM HENRY WHITE.

FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SCHOOL OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE; MEMBER OF THE

COUNCIL OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS; MEMBER OF THE

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS; AND OF THE ROYAL UNITED SERVICE

INSTITUTION; LATE CHIEF CONSTRUCTOR OF THE ROYAL NAVY.

Born at Devonport in 1845. Entered the Royal Dockyard, Devonport,

in 1859. Appointed to an Admiralty Scholarship in the Mathematical

School there in 1863, and received a preliminary training in

shipbuilding, ship-drawing, and applied mathematics. In 1864

appointed an Admiralty student in the Royal School of Naval

Architecture and Marine Engineering, South Kensington, standing

first in the competitive entrance examination, and maintaining

the first place throughout the course of training. Received his

diploma of Fellowship (first class) of the Royal School of Naval

Architecture in 1867, and was at once appointed to the Constructive

Department of the Admiralty. From 1867 to 1883 continued in the

Royal Navy Service, and attached to the Admiralty Department, rising

to be Secretary to the Council of Construction in 1873, Assistant

Constructor in 1875, and Chief Constructor in 1881. Was appointed

Professor of Naval Architecture at the Royal School of Naval

Architecture in 1870, and continued to hold that position at South

Kensington, and at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, until 1881,

concurrently with his appointment at the Admiralty. Resigned his

position in the public service in March, 1883, in order to assume

the office of Naval Constructor to the firm of Sir W. G. Armstrong,

Mitchell & Co. (Limited), Newcastle-on-Tyne. Is the author of “A

Manual of Naval Architecture,” well known and highly valued by all

classes in the profession, and of numerous papers on professional

subjects separately published, or read before the Institution of

Naval Architects, the Royal United Service Institution, and kindred

Societies.

[Illustration: Yours truly W. H. White (signature)

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

PORTRAIT

AND

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

JOHN INGLIS, Jun.

JOHN INGLIS, JUN.,

MEMBER OF COUNCIL OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS; MEMBER OF

THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS AND SHIPBUILDERS IN SCOTLAND, ETC.

Born in Glasgow in 1842, where his father, Mr Anthony Inglis, and

Mr John Inglis, his uncle, were marine engineers, subsequently also

becoming iron shipbuilders. Under the designation of A. & J. Inglis

the combined businesses—the engineering works at Warroch Street, and

the shipyard at Pointhouse—have been conducted with marked success.

Having for some years attended the Glasgow Academy, Mr INGLIS,

at the age of fifteen, entered the University, where for several

sessions he studied under such teachers as the late Professors

Ramsay, Blackburn, and Rankine, and also under Sir William Thomson.

Of Professor Blackburn’s mathematical and Professor Rankine’s

engineering classes Mr INGLIS was a distinguished student; in the

former—although the youngest on the roll—carrying off several prizes,

and in the latter acquiring a sound knowledge of applied mathematics

as concerned with engineering and naval architecture. This experience

was afterwards supplemented by a term’s apprenticeship in the

practical work of the engine shop. The art of naval construction,

however, had always irresistible attraction for Mr INGLIS, and in

1867 he seriously applied himself to the concerns of the shipyard,

taking an active share in its management ever since. Mr INGLIS’

career, though uneventful, has been one of assiduous devotion to

the profession of Naval Architecture, especially as directed to

scientific investigation and analysis. The fruits of this are

reflected in many noteworthy and specialized steam vessels produced

by his firm. Was the first shipbuilder on the Clyde to follow the

practice of inclining vessels to ascertain their stability, and was

one of the earliest on the Clyde to apply the correct method of

estimating longitudinal strains to the hulls of steamers. His firm

have been noted for the careful and elaborate trials of steamers on

the measured mile, and the digesting of such data. Is the author of

several papers read before the societies with which he is connected,

one of which fully described the system of speed trial and analysis

above referred to. The designing and sailing of yachts are favourite

pursuits of Mr INGLIS; and the system of yacht ballasting by means

of a lead keel forming portion of the hull structure was first

instituted by him in one of the many yachts built for his own use.

Under the title of “A Yachtsman’s Holidays,” he published, some years

ago, a volume giving a racy account of yachting experiences in the

West Hebrides. He wields a forcible pen, and it is not unfrequently

employed anonymously in the interests of shipbuilding and naval

science.

[Illustration: Yours faithfully John Inglis Junr (signature)

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

PORTRAIT

AND

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

SIR EDWARD J. REED.

SIR EDWARD J. REED, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.P.

VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS; MEMBER OF

COUNCIL OF THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, AND MEMBER OF THE

INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.

Born at Sheerness, September 20th, 1830. Educated at the School of

Mathematics and Naval Construction, Portsmouth, and served in the

Royal Dockyard, Sheerness. Leaving the Government service, he became

the editor of the “Mechanics’ Magazine,” in which position he first

became known as an authority on Naval Architecture. Was one of the

originators of the Institution of Naval Architects in 1860, and for a

number of years acted as Secretary to that body. Submitted proposals

to the Admiralty concerning the construction of iron-clad ships,

which were adopted in practice, and were so highly approved by the

Board of Admiralty that their author was appointed Chief Constructor

of the Royal Navy in 1863. During the time he held that office,

designed iron-clad ships and vessels of war of every class for the

British Navy, and also—with the consent of the Government—some

iron-clad frigates for the Turkish Navy. In consequence of his

objections to rigged sea-going turret ships with low freeboard, of

the “Captain” class, and of the favour that type of ship found with

the Board of Admiralty, resigned his office in July, 1870—a step

rendered remarkably significant by the lamentable capsizing of the

“Captain” two months later. Since his resignation, has designed

iron-clad vessels and other classes of war ships for various Foreign

Powers; numerous steam yachts, and smaller vessels. Has recently

devised and patented a method of construction for war ships which

will reduce to a minimum the destructive effect of marine torpedoes,

and which promises to revolutionise present structural systems.

Is the author of “Shipbuilding in Iron and Steel,” “Our Iron-clad

Ships,” “Our Naval Coast Defences,” “Japan: Its History, Traditions,

and Religions,” as well as of several papers contributed to the

Institutions with which he is connected. Since his retirement from

the Admiralty has received numerous recognitions of his professional

skill and ability, including various decorations from Foreign Powers.

Was created a Knight Commander of the Bath, in 1880. In 1874 was

returned to Parliament in the Liberal interest as Member for the

Pembroke Boroughs, which he represented till 1880, when he was

elected for the important constituency of Cardiff. During the summer

of 1883 was deputed by the Government to investigate and report

upon the “Daphne” catastrophe on the Clyde, the results of which

are elsewhere referred to in this work. In February of the present

year was entrusted with the Presidency of the Committee appointed to

enquire into the subject of the Load Line of vessels.

[Illustration: Yours truly E. J. Reed (signature)

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

PORTRAIT

AND

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

PROF. FRANCIS ELGAR.

PROF. FRANCIS ELGAR,

FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SCHOOL OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AND MARINE

ENGINEERING; MEMBER OF THE COUNCIL OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL

ARCHITECTS; MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS; AND

PROFESSOR OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW.

Born at Portsmouth in 1845. Received a preliminary training in

practical shipbuilding, and in the drawing office, at the Royal

Dockyard, Portsmouth, and studied in the Mathematical School there.

Was appointed an admiralty student in the Royal School of Naval

Architecture and Marine Engineering, South Kensington, in 1864. In

1867 was a draughtsman and assistant surveyor, in the Admiralty

Service, and in 1870 was foreman of the Royal Dockyard, Portsmouth.

Left the Admiralty Service at the end of 1871 to become the principal

assistant of Sir E. J. Reed, K.C.B., M.P., in the designing and

surveying of war-ships, building for various Governments. In 1874

was general manager of Earle’s Shipbuilding & Engineering Company at

Hull. From 1876 to 1879 practised as a naval architect in London;

and in 1879 went to Japan, by request of the Imperial Japanese

Government, to advise upon matters relating to their navy. In

1880 visited the principal arsenals and workshops of China, and

returned to this country in 1881. Since then has practised in London

as a Consulting Naval Architect and Engineer, and designed and

superintended the construction of numerous vessels. At the request

of the builders and owners respectively, investigated the causes

of the disasters which befell the “Daphne” and “Austral,” and gave

evidence respecting the same at the official inquiries, held in

1883. Immediately upon the “John Elder” Chair of Naval Architecture

being founded in Glasgow University, through the munificence of Mrs

Elder, the University Court unanimously elected Mr ELGAR as the first

Professor. In 1884 was nominated by the Council of the Institution of

Naval Architects as their representative upon the Board of Trade Load

Line Committee. Is the author of an illustrated work upon “The Ships

of the Royal Navy,” and of papers read before the Royal Society and

Institution of Naval Architects; and was formerly sub-editor of the

Quarterly Magazine “Naval Science.”

[Illustration: Francis Elgar (signature)

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

PORTRAIT

AND

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

WILLIAM DENNY.

WILLIAM DENNY, F.R.S.E.,

MEMBER OF COUNCIL OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS, MEMBER OF

THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, OF THE INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL

ENGINEERS, OF THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE, AND OF THE INSTITUTION OF

ENGINEERS AND SHIPBUILDERS IN SCOTLAND.

Eldest son of Mr Peter Denny, head of the old-established firm of

William Denny & Bros., Leven Shipyard, Dumbarton. Mr DENNY was

born at Dumbarton in 1847, and was educated at the High School

of Edinburgh, under the late Mr John Carmichael, one of its most

distinguished teachers. In his seventeenth year, he left the

High School, and entered on a course of practical training as a

shipbuilder in Leven Shipyard, serving for stated terms in the

various departments. Since 1870 he has been a partner, and of late

the managing partner, in the shipbuilding firm, and he has also

shared in the partnership of the separate engineering business

of Messrs Denny & Company. In addition to discharging the many

arduous duties pertaining to his business position, Mr DENNY is

enabled to take a prominent part in the proceedings of several of

the professional societies with which he is connected. His whole

theoretical training has been acquired in business, his previous

education having been of a purely classical nature. In Mr DENNY

this experience has been eminently fruitful of results, evidence of

which may be seen in the part he has taken—both personally and as

representing his firm—in various important movements dealt with in

the present work. Early in the present year, on a Committee being

formed by the Board of Trade to enquire into the subject of the Load

Line of Vessels, Mr DENNY was appointed a member.

[Illustration: Wm. Denny (signature)

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

PORTRAIT

AND

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

WILLIAM JOHN.

WILLIAM JOHN,

FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SCHOOL OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AND MARINE

ENGINEERING; MEMBER OF COUNCIL OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL

ARCHITECTS; MEMBER OF THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE.

Born at Narberth, Pembrokeshire, in July, 1845. Was educated in the

Mathematical School at the Royal Dockyard, Pembroke, and received a

practical training in shipbuilding in that dockyard. Was appointed

an Admiralty student in the Royal School of Naval Architecture and

Marine Engineering, South Kensington, in 1864, and passed out in

1867 with the diploma of Fellow of the First Class. In 1867 was

appointed a draughtsman in the department of the Controller of the

Navy at the Admiralty, and served in that capacity till 1872, when he

left the Admiralty service for that of Lloyd’s Register of British

and Foreign Shipping, in which Society he was shortly afterwards

appointed Assistant Chief Surveyor. In 1881 he left Lloyd’s Register

to become general manager to the Barrow Shipbuilding and Engineering

Co. (Limited), at Barrow-in-Furness, which position he now occupies.

While at the Admiralty, distinguished himself in original scientific

work in naval architecture—notably in 1868, by constructing the first

curve of stability which was ever produced; in 1870, by investigating

the stability of H.M.S. “Captain,” and pointing out, only a few

days before she was lost, the dangers to which she was liable; also

by his calculations relating to the strength of war-ships, and

constructing for them the first curves of hogging and sagging and

sheering strains. Since leaving the Admiralty, has enhanced his high

reputation for scientific skill through his investigations into the

stability and strength of mercantile ships, and the numerous valuable

papers upon these and other subjects, which he has read before the

Institution of Naval Architects, and other scientific bodies. Has

devoted himself largely and very successfully to the consideration

of the principal causes of loss of ships at sea—both of sailing

vessels and steamers; and has given most instructive evidence in

some of the principal cases which have been enquired into in recent

years. Several years ago, when sailing ships were being frequently

dismasted, made a very lengthy and complete investigation of the

circumstances in which these casualties happened, and of their

causes; and the same is embodied in an elaborate report upon the

subject to the Committee of Lloyd’s Register. Was selected by the

Committee appointed to enquire into the loss of H.M.S. Atalanta to

investigate the stability of that vessel as an independent check upon

the official Admiralty calculations, and his report and evidence

showed conclusively that she was capsizable, and probably did capsize

at sea.

[Illustration: Wm. John (signature)

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

PORTRAIT

AND

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

CHARLES M. PALMER.

CHARLES MARK PALMER, M.P.,

CHAIRMAN OF THE PALMER SHIPBUILDING AND IRON COMPANY; MEMBER OF THE

IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE, ETC.

Born at South Shields, on the Tyne, in 1822. Son of Mr George

Palmer, who was in early life engaged in Greenland whaling, and was

subsequently a merchant and shipowner at Newcastle-on-Tyne. Was

trained for a mercantile life, and having completed his education in

France, became, at an early age, partner with his father in the firm

of Palmer, Beckwith & Co., export merchants, timber merchants, and

sawmill owners: a firm since styled Palmer, Hall & Co., and of which

he is now the senior. In 1845 assumed partnership with Mr John Bowes,

the late Sir William Hutt, and the late Mr Nicholas Wood, in the

Marley Hill colliery and coke manufacture, and subsequently acquiring

the collieries of Lord Ravensworth & Partners, and of others, the

concern known as John Bowes, Esq. & Partners, has become, under Mr

Palmer’s sole management, one of the largest colliery concerns in the

north of England. In 1852, in partnership at first with his elder

brother George, commenced iron shipbuilding at Jarrow, in which year

they launched the _John Bowes_, notable as the first screw collier.

Through gradual extension the works at Jarrow have become the great

establishment described in the body of this work. Many vessels of war

have been built by Mr PALMER’S firm, and it was in the construction

of the iron-clad _Terror_, in their works, at the time of the Crimean

war, that rolled in place of forged armour plates were first used,

the superiority of the change—since universally recognised—being then

experimentally demonstrated at considerable cost by Mr PALMER’S firm.

Among other enterprises which owe their existence wholly or partially

to Mr PALMER may be mentioned the General Iron Screw Collier Company,

the Tyne Steam Shipping Company, several of the great lines of

Atlantic and Mediterranean steamers, the Bede Metal Company, the Tyne

Plate Glass Company, and Insurance Clubs for Steamers. In politics Mr

PALMER is a Liberal, and after unsuccessfully contesting his native

town in 1868 he was, in 1874, elected M.P. for the northern division

of Durham, a seat which he continues to hold. His country residence

is at Grinkle Park, in Cleveland, but Parliamentary and other duties

necessitate his being much in London, where he has a town house. The

interest he has taken in behalf of the English shipowners has lately

resulted in his appointment as one of the new English directors of

the Suez Canal.

[Illustration: Yours faithfully Chas. M. Palmer (signature)

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

PORTRAIT

AND

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.

JAMES LAING.

JAMES LAING,

EX-PRESIDENT OF THE CHAMBER OF SHIPPING OF THE UNITED KINGDOM;

MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS; OF THE IRON AND STEEL

INSTITUTE; AND MEMBER OF COMMITTEE OF LLOYD’S REGISTER.

MR LAING was born at Deptford House, Sunderland, on 11th January,

1823, and is the only son of Mr Philip Laing, who, as early as

1793, in partnership with his brother John, commenced the business

of shipbuilding which, nearly a century later, is still carried

on, under greatly transformed conditions, by his son. Mr LAING’S

earliest impressions and associations were connected with what was

afterwards to become his life’s vocation, his boyhood having been

spent in a home contiguous to his father’s yard. While a youth, he

served as an ordinary workman in the shipyard, and in 1843, his

father, on launching the “Cressy,” signalised the jubilee of a

singularly successful career by handing over to him the care and

titles of the business. Mr LAING continued to build wooden vessels

until 1853, in which year the “Amity,” his first iron ship, was

launched. In 1866 he entirely ceased building in wood, and since then

has built a very large number of iron vessels for various owners,

amongst others for such well-known companies as the Peninsular and

Oriental Steam Navigation Company, the Royal Mail Company, the Union

Steamship Company of Southampton, etc. In 1883, he built for the

last-mentioned company the Mail Steamer “Mexican,” of 4669 tons.

Besides the shipyard, he is the owner of graving docks connected

therewith, as well as extensive copper and brass works, and is

principal proprietor of the Ayres Quay Bottle Works, which are

capable of turning out 33,000 bottles per day. For upwards of thirty

years Mr LAING has served as a member of the River Wear Commission,

and as chairman since 1868. For years he has taken a leading position

among shipbuilders and shipowners, not only in his own district,

but throughout the country. In 1883 he was chosen President of

the Chamber of Shipping of the United Kingdom, and as official

representative of that interest has performed signal service, both

with reference to the Shipping Bill introduced to Parliament by Mr

Chamberlain and the recent agreement come to between the shipowners

and the Suez Canal Company, of which company he has since been

appointed a Director. For twenty years Mr LAING has acted as a member

of the Board of Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, and at present is

Vice-President of the Load Line Committee, appointed by the Board of

Trade for the settlement of a most important and intricate question.

In the shipbuilding and other cognate businesses Mr LAING is now ably

assisted by his three sons, Philip, Arthur, and James.

[Illustration: James Laing (signature)

INK-PHOTO, SPRAGUE & C^o. LONDON.]

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Since the above was written, the _Aurania_ and the _Oregon_ have

resumed their services on the Atlantic, the results in the case of

the latter vessel being extraordinarily successful. On Saturday,

the 5th April, she arrived at Queenstown, having left New York on

Saturday, the 29th March, making the trip in 7 days, 2 hours, 18

minutes, her daily runs being:—45, 407, 396, 400, 302, 410, 384, 412,

and 60; total, 2816 knots. Leaving Queenstown on Sunday, the 13th

April, she arrived at New York on Saturday, the 19th April, in the

unprecedentedly short period of 6 days, 9 hours, 22 minutes.

[2] While these sheets were passing through the press, the _America_

was tried unofficially on the Clyde, and attained a speed of 17

knots, with about 6,500 indicated horse-power. On her passage from

the Clyde to the Mersey she maintained, it is stated, 18¼ knots over

the whole distance.

[3] This list with those which follow other chapters, have been

compiled at considerable trouble in the hope that they may be of

use to technical readers in directing them at once to accurate and

detailed information. In this connection also, the excellent work by

Mr A. S. Seaton, “Manual of Marine Engineering,” and that by Mr W. H.

White, “Manual of Naval Architecture,” may be referred to with every

satisfaction.

[4] For full and excellent treatment of this subject, see the paper

on “Causes of Unseaworthiness in Merchant Steamers,” by Mr Benjamin

Martell, Chief Surveyor to Lloyd’s Register, with the ensuing

discussion: Trans. Inst., N.A., vol. xxi., 1880.

Several of the causes above named it is doubtless the province of the

scientific shipbuilder, and the duty of the shipowner, to obviate

by furnishing the captain and officers—especially in the case of

entirely new vessels—with particulars and data of the vessel’s

technical character, such as are now left to be found out by slow

and sometimes bitter experience. Of these it may be sufficient

to instance:—Stability, steadiness, trim, carrying capability,

and steaming powers. Mr William Denny, of Dumbarton, has recently

publicly declared his firm’s intention of supplying such particulars

to the vessels built by them. It is to be hoped this worthy example

may be extensively followed.

[5] In this, as in other matters dealt with, the full appreciation of

which involves careful technical study, readers are referred to the

papers enumerated at the end of chapter, as well as to the “Manuals”

already referred to in this work.

[6] The principle which underlies the experiment is this:—If any

one body forming part of a system of heavy bodies be moved from one

position in the system to another, the weight of the body moved

multiplied into the distance through which it is moved, is precisely

equal to the weight of the whole system of bodies multiplied into

the distance through which the common centre of gravity of the whole

has moved. If in a ship, therefore, a movable weight of known amount

is moved across the deck through a given known distance, the centre

of gravity of the ship itself, with all on board, has been moved

in a line parallel to that through which the small weight has been

transferred, and through a distance inversely proportioned to the

weight of the whole ship to the weight moved. If, for instance, a

weight of five tons should be moved through a distance of twenty

feet, then multiplying this weight into this distance and dividing by

the total weight of the ship, the distance through which the ship’s

centre of gravity has travelled parallel to the deck is obtained. If,

at the same time, an exact measure of the angle through which the

ship has been inclined by moving the five tons through the distance

named has been taken, and the position of the ship’s metacentre has

been obtained, then the elements of a triangle are known—namely, the

degrees in each of its angles, and the length of one of the sides—and

from these the length of the remaining sides of the triangle is

easily deduced. One of these sides will be the distance between the

metacentre of the ship and its centre of gravity, and, consequently,

the metacentre being known from calculation, the position of the

centre of gravity becomes known also.

[7] The classification of strains here given is as contained in

White’s “Manual of Naval Architecture.” To this authoritative source

readers must turn who wish a full exposition of the several problems

go shortly dealt with in these pages.

[8] This will be more fully referred to further on, but it may be

stated here that the need for independent calculation is largely

obviated, owing to the existence of “co-efficients,” deduced from

investigations made by experts. Further, the existence and influence

of the Registration Societies are such that the codes of scantling

and the structural supervision instituted by them together constitute

the only guarantee of structural strength generally desiderated.

[9] Suppose the dimensions of a proposed vessel to be 320 × 36 × 26½

feet, then, according to a method of approximation largely in use,

the sum of these dimensions divided by 100 gives what is known as the

“cubic number”—(320 × 36 × 26½ ÷ 100) = 3052 cubic number. Suppose

that for a vessel already built, similar in type and dimensions,

or of similar proportions, to the one proposed, the cubic number,

when divided into the ship’s actual weight (_i.e._, the displacement

_minus_ the weight of machinery and the dead-weight carried),

gives say ·53, then this figure represents the “co-efficient” of

ship’s weight, and applying it in the case supposed gives:—3052 ×

·53 = 1620, the weight of hull for proposed vessel. This example

illustrates the manner in which the weight of machinery is estimated,

and indicates the nature and use of the general term “co-efficient:”

frequently employed in this chapter.

[10] One such method, devised and followed by Mr C. Zimmermann in

his daily practice as chief draughtsman to the Barrow Shipbuilding

Company, and described by him before the Institution of Naval

Architects in 1883, gives with very little preliminary calculation,

and at once, a close approximation to the correct displacement.

Another system, originated and used in practice by Mr Chas. H.

Johnson, chief designer to Messrs Wm. Denny & Brothers, consists of

an analysis of the lines of vessels of various degrees of fineness

and fulness previously built, formulated for daily use in a series of

curves of areas, giving, for sections at certain fixed distances from

midships—in terms of percentage to the midship area—the particular

area specially suited to afford the required displacement; and at

the same time to maintain the general form of hull which in actual

practice has proved satisfactory with respect to speed. In his later

practice, Mr Johnson has found it preferable to use the block form of

analysis of Mr A. C. Kirk (considered further on in matters relating

to speed), using the three sides of that form as a basis upon which

to group the water-lines.

[11] For illustrated descriptions of this and other improved

calculating instruments referred to in this chapter, see Appendix.

[12] This experimental method, it may be explained, has long been

practised in connection with ships built for the Royal Navy, and for

a considerable number of years it has been systematically followed in

some leading merchant shipyards. Messrs A. & J. Inglis, Pointhouse,

Glasgow, and Messrs Wm. Denny & Bros., Dumbarton, were amongst the

earliest firms to systematically adopt the practice. With the former

it has been customary to incline every vessel of distinctive type

built by them since 1871, and with the latter the practice has been

constantly followed from a date somewhat subsequent. For some years

past other firms on the Clyde and elsewhere have adopted the method,

the data so accumulated being found an admirable basis from which to

estimate the height of the centre of gravity in proposed vessels.

Tables giving the results of inclining experiments made on various

types of merchant steamships and sailing vessels will be found in

“White’s Manual of Naval Architecture,” pages 82-87.

[13] From the first volume (1860) of the Transactions of the

Institution of Naval Architects, it is seen that Dr Inman, Samuel

Read, and Dr Woolley had each already found different methods of

simplifying Atwood’s calculations.

[14] Various other methods of simplifying the calculations based on

Atwood’s theorem were subsequently proposed, and one or two different

methods also brought forward—notably one in 1876 by the late Mr

Charles W. Merrifield, afterwards improved by the late Professor

Rankine, and one by Mr J. Macfarlane Gray, of the Board of Trade,

described by that gentleman in 1875, but since considerably improved.

Most of them were laid before the Institution of Naval Architects in

papers which will be found enumerated in the list at end of chapter.

While such propositions did not contribute directly to bring the

problem of stability to its presently accepted form, they deserve to

be remembered as tokens of the great labour and skill which have been

expended in founding and developing this branch of scientific naval

architecture.

[15] “On Cross-Curves of Stability; their Uses, and a Method of

Constructing Them, Obviating the Necessity for the Usual Correction

for the Differences of the Wedges of Immersion and Emersion.”

[16] A detailed description of this valuable instrument will be found

in Appendix.

[17] Space forbids any detailed reference to these, but the names of

the papers and their respective authors will be found enumerated in

the list at end of chapter.

[18] An obvious means of dealing approximately with stability, to

which limits of space will not permit more than simple reference,

consists in so manipulating the data obtained by calculation for

known ships that it may be made available, either in the form of

curves or of tables, for determining the stability of proposed

vessels. Methods of accomplishing this may of course vary to suit

the ideas and convenience of designers. A well-arranged system was

brought forward, jointly by Mr F. P. Purvis, head of Messrs W. Denny

& Brothers’ scientific staff, and Mr B. Kindermann, one of his

assistants, in a paper (see list at end of chapter) read before the

Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in April last. While the

results exhibited in the paper are immediately applicable to ships of

one particular form, whatever the length, breadth, depth, or draught

may be, this method still requires much development to make it at all

universally applicable.

[19] It is the usual practice to assume vessels to be laden with

homogeneous cargo of such a density as to fill the holds, and for

this condition to estimate the position of centre of gravity to be

used in calculation.

[20] See paper by Mr Kirk “On a Method of Analysing the Forms of

Ships and Determining the Lengths and Angles of Entrance.”—Trans.

Inst. N.A., vol. xii., 1880.

[21] With the view of effecting an economy in time, and to enable

the trials at progressive speeds to be carried out while vessels are

in a lengthened run out to sea, a method has been proposed by Mr J.

H. Biles, naval architect to Messrs J. & G. Thomson, and adopted on

board the vessels tried by that firm, and also experimented with on

some of the vessels turned out by Messrs W. Denny & Bros., by which

the necessity for running with and against the tide on the measured

mile is entirely obviated. The principle of the method is to measure

the time that a certain part of the length of the ship takes to pass

an object thrown from the bows of the vessel well clear of the side.

For full particulars, both of the apparatus employed and of the

results of actual trials by this method compared with trials made on

the measured mile, see paper on “Progressive Speed Trials,” by Mr

Biles, in the Transactions: Institution of Naval Architects, vol.

xxiii., 1882.

[22] A general outline of the operations conducted in Messrs Denny’s

tank will be found in the description of their large works in Chap.

VI. For a detailed account of the _modus operandi_ in the same

establishment, see abstract of a paper delivered in Dumbarton by Mr

E. R. Mumford, of Messrs Denny’s Experimental Staff, printed in the

_Engineer_ for 15th February and the _Steamship_ for 15th February of

the present year.

[23] From experimental data obtained by Mr Froude, this correction

can be made with certainty. The reasons for it may be explained as

follows:—If an extremely thin short plane is drawn through the water

it meets a certain resistance due entirely to surface-friction; that

is, supposing the plane to be thin enough to eliminate wave-making

and eddy-making. If the length of the plane is doubled while the

depth is kept the same, the resistance at the same speed is not, as

might at first appear to be the case, doubled accordingly. Owing to

the friction of (say) the first half of the plane, the water is made

to partake of the motion of the plane, so that the second half of

the length, rubbing not against stationary water, but against water

partially moving in its own direction, does not experience so much

resistance from it. Adding a third equal length, it would have less

surface friction than the second, and so on to infinity.

[24] See papers by Mr Mansel, enumerated in list at end of chapter.

[25] For description of apparatus, see Trans. Inst. Mechanical

Engineers, 1877.

[26] A body which shortly afterwards joined with a kindred society in

forming the “Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland,”

hereafter noticed.

[27] Following the methods laid down in the Treatise on Shipbuilding,

edited by Prof. Rankine, Mr John Inglis, Pointhouse, instituted

calculations in 1873 of the longitudinal strains of two steamers

built by his firm, the form of the waves being assumed trochoidal.

The result of these calculations—which, under Mr Inglis’ directions,

were got out by Mr G. L. Watson, subsequently distinguished as a

yacht designer, and then in the employ of Messrs Inglis—appeared in

the form of curves of hogging moments in _Engineering_ for 1st May,

1874. Mr Inglis found that entering upon the work of calculation had

a very decided effect in giving him clearer ideas of how distribution

of weight and buoyancy affected the structure of a vessel.

[28] The substance of this paper is contained in a series of three

articles on the Strength and Strains of Ships given in “Naval

Science” (vol. i. and ii., 1872-3), a high-class journal ably edited

by Sir E. J. Reed, but unfortunately abandoned after the fourth year

of publication.

[29] It should be stated that under certain circumstances of lading

and support the value assigned by Mr John for the maximum bending

moment may be exceeded in merchant vessels, and that in some special

classes of ships—particularly light-draught vessels in certain

circumstances of lading and support—the sagging moment may prove of

most consequence. Instances are indeed on record of light-draught

vessels giving way completely under the excessive sagging strain

brought upon them at sea.

[30] The Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland was

formed in 1865 through the amalgamation of two separate bodies—“The

Institution of Engineers in Scotland” and “The Scottish Shipbuilders’

Association.” The former of these was founded in 1857 and the

latter in 1860, the same year in which “The Institution of Naval

Architects” was established. The membership of the Institution at the

present time numbers nearly seven hundred, and comprises honorary

members, members, associates, and graduates: the latter being a

special section of the Institution, designed to embrace students or

apprentices in the profession, and fulfilling a very useful end.

The various offices have long been filled by gentlemen more or less

actively engaged in the practice of shipbuilding or of engineering

on the Clyde, and the proceedings have assumed, on this account

alone, a richer practical interest. Scientific subjects have also

received their share of attention, and of the members taking the

lead in this connection the names of Mr J. G. Lawrie and Mr Robert

Mansel are worthy of special mention. Along with Mr Robert Duncan

and Mr Lawrance Hill, these gentlemen have, from the foundation of

the Institution, taken a specially warm interest in its prosperity,

and have contributed not a little thereto by the numerous valuable

papers they have brought before its meetings. The secretary of the

Institution is Mr W. J. Millar, C.E., himself the author of numerous

papers, and the editor of the Transactions.

[31] For interesting and reliable information on this head, as well

as on other matters dealt with in this and the preceding chapter,

see Sir E. J. Reed’s excellent treatise on “Shipbuilding in Iron and

Steel.”

[32] This method of graphically representing tonnage output was

applied for the first time by the author to the Clyde district from

the figures supplied by the _Glasgow Herald_ for each of the years

since 1860, and appeared, with much of the descriptive matter now

given, in the issue of that journal for March 4th of the present year.

[33] The following fragmentary returns have, through the kindness

of a friend engaged in shipbuilding on the Tyne, been forwarded

while those sheets were in the press. They have been gathered from

occasional records in the local press, supplemented by personal

knowledge, but may only be taken as approximate:—

Year. | No. of Vessels. | Tons.

| |

1864 | 97 | 49,820

1865 | 123 | 77,500

1866 | 110 | 51,800

1867 | 81 | 34,080

1868 | 86 | 45,390

1869 | — | ——

1870 | 95 | 86,420

1871 | — | ——

[34] These instruments, and the others here noticed, are supplied in

this country by Mr W. F. Stanley, the noted scientific instrument

maker of Great Turnstile, Holborn, London. They are described in

his treatise on “Mathematical Drawing Instruments,” from which

work, it should be stated, some of the present notes concerning

them are derived. A source of accurate information on the theory of

planimeter, to which Mr Stanley himself expresses indebtedness, is

the paper by Mr —now Sir—F. J. Bramwell, read before the British

Association in 1872, and contained in the Association Reports for

that year.

[35] The following is a list of the multipliers for converting the

planimeter readings to square feet for any required scale:—

1/16-in. scale = 256

⅛-in. do. = 64

3/16-in. do. = 28·44

¼-in. do. = 16

5/16-in. scale = 10·24

⅜-in. do. = 7·11

½-in. do. = 4·00

¾-in. do. = 1·77

1-in. scale = 1·00

1½-in. do. = ·44

3-in. do. = ·111

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Dynamite.

Electro-Metallurgy—(Cleaning, Dipping, Scratch-brushing, Batteries,

Baths, and Deposits of every description).

Enamels.

Engraving on Wood, Copper, Gold, Silver, Steel, and Stone.

Etching and Aqua Tint.

Firework Making—(Rockets, Stars, Rains, Gerbes, Jets, Tourbillons,

Candles, Fires, Lances, Lights, Wheels, Fire-balloons, and minor

Fireworks).

Fluxes.

Foundry Mixtures.

Freezing.

Fulminates.

Furniture Creams, Oils, Polishes, Lacquers, and Pastes.

Gilding.

Glass Cutting, Cleaning, Frosting, Drilling, Darkening, Bending,

Staining, and Painting.

Glass Making.

Glues.

Gold.

Graining.

Gums.

Gun Cotton.

Gunpowder.

Horn Working.

Indiarubber.

Japans, Japanning, and kindred processes.

Lacquers.

Lathing.

Lubricants.

Marble Working.

Matches.

Mortars.

Nitro-Glycerine.

Oils.

Paper.

Paper Hanging.

Painting in Oils, in Water Colours, as well as Fresco, House,

Transparency, Sign, and Carriage Painting.

Photography.

Plastering.

Polishes.

Pottery—(Clays, Bodies, Glazes, Colours, Oils, Stains, Fluxes,

Enamels, and Lustres).

Scouring.

Silvering.

Soap.

Solders.

Tanning.

Taxidermy.

Tempering Metals.

Treating Horn, Mother-o’-Pearl, and like substances.

Varnishes, Manufacture and Use of.

Veneering.

Washing.

Waterproofing.

Welding.

Besides Receipts relating to the lesser Technological matters and

processes, such as the manufacture and use of Stencil Plates,

Blacking, Crayons, Paste, Putty, Wax, Size, Alloys, Catgut, Tunbridge

Ware, Picture Frame and Architectural Mouldings, Compos, Cameos, and

others too numerous to mention.

Crown 8vo, cloth, 485 pages, with illustrations, 5_s._

WORKSHOP RECEIPTS,

SECOND SERIES.

BY ROBERT HALDANE.

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.

Acidimetry and Alkalimetry.

Albumen.

Alcohol.

Alkaloids.

Baking-powders.

Bitters.

Bleaching.

Boiler Incrustations.

Cements and Lutes.

Cleansing.

Confectionery.

Copying.

Disinfectants.

Dyeing, Staining, and Colouring.

Essences.

Extracts.

Fireproofing.

Gelatine, Glue, and Size.

Glycerine.

Gut.

Hydrogen peroxide.

Ink.

Iodine.

Iodoform.

Isinglass.

Ivory substitutes.

Leather.

Luminous bodies.

Magnesia.

Matches.

Paper.

Parchment.

Perchloric acid.

Potassium oxalate.

Preserving.

=Pigments, Paint, and Painting=: embracing the preparation of

_Pigments_, including alumina lakes, blacks (animal, bone, Frankfort,

ivory, lamp, sight, soot), blues (antimony, Antwerp, cobalt,

cœruleum, Egyptian, manganate, Paris, Péligot, Prussian, smalt,

ultramarine), browns (bistre, hinau, sepia, sienna, umber, Vandyke),

greens (baryta, Brighton, Brunswick, chrome, cobalt, Douglas,

emerald, manganese, mitis, mountain, Prussian, sap, Scheele’s,

Schweinfurth, titanium, verdigris, zinc), reds (Brazilwood lake,

carminated lake, carmine, Cassius purple, cobalt pink, cochineal

lake, colcothar, Indian red, madder lake, red chalk, red lead,

vermilion), whites (alum, baryta, Chinese, lead sulphate, white

lead—by American, Dutch, French, German, Kremnitz, and Pattinson

processes, precautions in making, and composition of commercial

samples—whiting, Wilkinson’s white, zinc white), yellows (chrome,

gamboge, Naples, orpiment, realgar, yellow lakes); _Paint_ (vehicles,

testing oils, driers, grinding, storing, applying, priming, drying,

filling, coats, brushes, surface, water-colours, removing smell,

discoloration; miscellaneous paints—cement paint for carton-pierre,

copper paint, gold paint, iron paint, lime paints, silicated

paints, steatite paint, transparent paints, tungsten paints, window

paint, zinc paints); _Painting_ (general instructions, proportions

of ingredients, measuring paint work; carriage painting—priming

paint, best putty, finishing colour, cause of cracking, mixing the

paints, oils, driers, and colours, varnishing, importance of washing

vehicles, re-varnishing, how to dry paint; woodwork painting).

JUST PUBLISHED.

Crown 8vo, cloth, 480 pages, with 183 illustrations, 5_s._

WORKSHOP RECEIPTS,

THIRD SERIES.

BY C. G. WARNFORD LOCK.

Uniform with the First and Second Series.

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.

Alloys.

Aluminium.

Antimony.

Barium.

Beryllium.

Bismuth.

Cadmium.

Cæsium.

Calcium.

Cerium.

Chromium.

Cobalt.

Copper.

Didymium.

Electrics.

Enamels and Glazes.

Erbium.

Gallium.

Glass.

Gold.

Indium.

Iridium.

Iron and Steel.

Lacquers and Lacquering.

Lanthanum.

Lead.

Lithium.

Lubricants.

Magnesium.

Manganese.

Mercury.

Mica.

Molybdenum.

Nickel.

Niobium.

Osmium.

Palladium.

Platinum.

Potassium.

Rhodium.

Rubidium.

Ruthenium.

Selenium.

Silver.

Slag.

Sodium.

Strontium.

Tantalum.

Terbium.

Thallium.

Thorium.

Tin.

Titanium.

Tungsten.

Uranium.

Vanadium.

Yttrium.

Zinc.

Zirconium.

Aluminium.

JUST PUBLISHED.

In demy 8vo, cloth, 600 pages, and 1420 Illustrations, 6_s._

SPONS’

MECHANIC’S OWN BOOK;

A MANUAL FOR HANDICRAFTSMEN AND AMATEURS.

CONTENTS.

Mechanical Drawing—Casting and Founding in Iron, Brass, Bronze, and

other Alloys—Forging and Finishing Iron—Sheetmetal Working—Soldering,

Brazing, and Burning—Carpentry and Joinery, embracing descriptions

of some 400 Woods, over 200 Illustrations of Tools and their

uses, Explanations (with Diagrams) of 116 joints and hinges, and

Details of Construction of Workshop appliances, rough furniture,

Garden and Yard Erections, and House Building—Cabinet-Making

and Veneering—Carving and Fretcutting—Upholstery—Painting,

Graining, and Marbling—Staining Furniture, Woods, Floors, and

Fittings—Gilding, dead and bright, on various grounds—Polishing

Marble, Metals, and Wood—Varnishing—Mechanical movements,

illustrating contrivances for transmitting motion—Turning in Wood

and Metals—Masonry, embracing Stonework, Brickwork, Terracotta,

and Concrete—Roofing with Thatch, Tiles, Slates, Felt, Zinc,

&c.—Glazing with and without putty, and lead glazing—Plastering and

Whitewashing—Paper-hanging—Gas-fitting—Bell-hanging, ordinary and

electric Systems—Lighting—Warming—Ventilating—Roads, Pavements, and

Bridges—Hedges, Ditches, and Drains—Water Supply and Sanitation—Hints

on House Construction suited to new countries.

London: E. & F. N. SPON, 125, Strand.

New York: 35, Murray Street.

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

For consistency the titles Mr. Mrs. Dr. and Messrs. have been changed

to Mr Mrs Dr and Messrs throughout the book.

Eight occurrences of ‘Robert Mansell’ have been replaced by

‘Robert Mansel’.

Fig 3 and Figures 18-21 are missing, but were missing also from the

original book.

Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been

corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within

the text and consultation of external sources.

Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added,

when a predominant preference was found in the original book.

Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,

and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.

Pg v: ‘SAFETY AND COMPORT’ replaced by ‘SAFETY AND COMFORT’.

Pg v: ‘The Bessmer Channel’ replaced by ‘The Bessemer Channel’.

Pg 1: ‘stuctural arrangements’ replaced by ‘structural arrangements’.

Pg 9: ‘not only permissable’ replaced by ‘not only permissible’.

Pg 9: ‘ducility renders it’ replaced by ‘ductility renders it’.

Pg 16: ‘for cargo-carrrying’ replaced by ‘for cargo-carrying’.

Pg 18: ‘the best concensus’ replaced by ‘the best consensus’.

Pg 20: ‘other longtitudinal’ replaced by ‘other longitudinal’.

Pg 20, 21, 22, 23: ‘rivetting’ replaced by ‘riveting’.

Pg 25: ‘a maintainence also’ replaced by ‘a maintenence also’.

Pg 26: ‘Marc Berrier-Eontaine’ replaced by ‘Marc Berrier-Fontaine’.

Pg 33 Footnote 2: ‘tried inofficially’ replaced by ‘tried unofficially’.

Pg 42: ‘comsumption of coal’ replaced by ‘consumption of coal’.

Pg 49: ‘with Three Cylnders’ replaced by ‘with Three Cylinders’.

Pg 51: ‘marked accesions to’ replaced by ‘marked accessions to’.

Pg 57: ‘by Messsrs Denny’ replaced by ‘by Messrs Denny’.

Pg 58: ‘its great ducility’ replaced by ‘its great ductility’.

Pg 63: ‘with original structure’ replaced by ‘with the original

structure’.

Pg 64: ‘deek-houses’ replaced by ‘deck-houses’.

Pg 66: ‘amount permissable’ replaced by ‘amount permissible’.

Pg 69: ‘of the traditionary’ replaced by ‘of the traditional’.

Pg 118: ‘similiarly constructed’ replaced by ‘similarly constructed’.

Pg 121: ‘determine dircetly’ replaced by ‘determine directly’.

Pg 128A: ‘On the Assesment’ replaced by ‘On the Assessment’.

Pg 128A: duplicate ‘N.A.,’ removed.

Pg 129: ‘and carpentery’ replaced by ‘and carpentry’.

Pg 132: ‘superior homogeniety’ replaced by ‘superior homogeneity’.

Pg 134, 135: ‘portable rivetters’ replaced by ‘portable riveters’.

Pg 135: ‘oftentimes harrassing’ replaced by ‘oftentimes harassing’.

Pg 136: ‘made to guage’ replaced by ‘made to gauge’.

Pg 137: ‘necesitate them replaced by ‘necessitate them’.

Pg 182: ‘Société Anomyne’ replaced by ‘Société Anonyme’.

Pg 195: ‘109| I49,100|’ replaced by ‘109| 149,100|’.

Pg 200: This very wide table has been split into three parts.

Pg 200: ‘Eastern Steampship’ replaced by ‘Eastern Steamship’.

Pg 200: ‘Barrow Steampship’ replaced by ‘Barrow Steamship’.

Pg 200: ‘Mississipi and’ replaced by ‘Mississippi and’.

Pg 213: ‘the plainimeter just’ replaced by ‘the planimeter just’.

Biographies:

of Pierce: ‘in existance, of’ replaced by ‘in existence, of’.

of Martell: ‘professonal subjects’ replaced by ‘professional subjects’.

of White: ‘the Royal Docykard’ replaced by ‘the Royal Dockyard’.

of Palmer: ‘the colleries of’ replaced by ‘the collieries of’.

of Palmer: ‘since universelly’ replaced by ‘since universally’.