PALESTINE
[See the diagrams of flint implements, Illustrations II; pottery,
XII; alphabets, XIV & XV.]
I. General Principles.
1. Study of the pottery of the country, not merely from books but
from actual specimens, is an absolutely essential preliminary.
Without an acquaintance with this branch of Palestinian archaeology,
so thorough that any sherd presenting the least character can be
immediately assigned to its proper period, no field research of any
value can be carried out. (See further V below.)
2. A knowledge of the various Semitic alphabets is necessary for
copying inscriptions. Unless the traveller be also acquainted with
the languages he had better be cautious about copying Semitic
inscriptions; without such knowledge he runs the risk of confusing
different Semitic letters, which often closely resemble one another.
He should, however, be able to make squeezes and photographs.
The following are the languages and scripts which may be found in
Palestinian Epigraphy.
Egyptian, in Hieroglyphics. Greek.
Babylonian Cuneiform. Latin.
Assyrian Cuneiform. Arabic, in Cufic script.
Hebrew, in ancient script. Arabic, in modern script.
Hebrew, in square character. Armenian (in mosaic
Phoenician. pavements, also graffiti
Moabite. in Church of Holy
Aramaic. Sepulchre).
Tables of the chief alphabetic and numeral forms of the West Semitic
scripts are given in Illustrations X & XI; for the Greek, see
Illustration IV.
3. The traveller should have had practice in making measured drawings
of buildings.
4. For some branches of work a good knowledge of Arabic is
indispensable--not the miserable pidgin jargon usually spoken by
Europeans, nor yet the highly complex literary language, which is
unintelligible to the ordinary native, but the colloquial of the
country, spoken grammatically and properly pronounced. Work done
through dragomans is never entirely satisfactory, because it requires
the unattainable condition that the dragoman should be as much a
scientific student of anthropology and of archaeology as the
traveller himself.
5. The student for whom these pages are written should not attempt
any excavation, unless he has been trained under a practical
excavator, and has learnt how work, which is essentially and
inevitably destructive of evidence, can be made to yield profitable
fruit. There is plenty of work that can be done on the surface of the
ground without excavation.
[Illustrations X & XI: Table of West Semitic Alphabets & Numerals.]
II. Sites of Towns and Villages.
1. Nomenclature.
The sites of ancient towns and villages are usually conspicuous in
Palestine, and are recognized in the local nomenclature. They are
denoted by the words _tall_, plural _tulul_, meaning 'mound', and
_khirbah_, plural _khirab_ meaning 'ruin'. These words are commonly
spelt in English _tell_ and _khirbet_ (less correctly _khurbet_) and
we use these more familiar forms here. As a rule, though not
invariably, the sense of these terms is distinguished. A tell is a
site represented by a mound of stratified accumulation, the result of
occupation extending over many centuries, and easily recognizable
among natural hillocks by its regular shape, smooth sides, and flat
top. A khirbet is a field of ruins in which there is little or no
stratification. Nearly all the sites of the latter type are the
remains of villages not older than the Byzantine or Roman period.
2. Identification of ancient sites.
This is a task less easy than it appears to be, and many of the
current identifications of Biblical sites call for revision.
Similarity of name, on which most of these identifications depend, is
apt to be misleading; in many cases sites identified thus with Old
Testament places are not older than the Byzantine Period. [1] This
similarity of name may sometimes be a mere accident; it may also
sometimes be accounted for by a transference of site, the inhabitants
having for some special reason moved their town to a new situation.
In such cases the tell representing the older site may perhaps await
identification in the neighbourhood. In attempting to establish
identifications, the date of the site, as determined from the
potsherds, and its suitability to the recorded history of the ancient
site in question, are elements of equal importance with its name.
[1] An example is Khirbet Teku'a, long identified with the Biblical
Tekoa.
Note: The traveller should be cautioned against embarking on the
study of place-names, identification of scriptural sites, &c., before
mastering the principles of Arabic phonetics. Many of the attempts
made at rendering the names of Palestinian place-names in European
books are simply grotesque. The following are the chief pitfalls:
(1) Confusion of the vowels, the pronunciation of which is obscure.
(2) The consonant _'ain_, to which the untrained European ear is
deaf, and which in consequence is often omitted. Less frequently it
may be over-conscientiously inserted in a place where it does not
exist. Sometimes the _'ain_ and its associated vowel are transposed
(as _M'alula_ for _Ma'lula_) making unpronounceable combinations of
consonants.
(3) The letter _kaf_, often dropped in pronunciation, and therefore
often omitted.
(4) The letter _ghain_, which an unaccustomed ear confuses with
either _g_ or _r_.
(5) The reduplicated letters, which a European is apt to hear and to
write as single.
(6) The nuances between the different _d_, _h_, _k_, _t_, and _s_
sounds.
3. Surface-exploration of a tell.
The stratification can rarely be studied on the surface only:
superficial indications of this are obscured by the plough, weather,
vegetation, and the activities of modern natives who grub for
building-stone and for the chance of buried treasure. Only by
trenching can the strata be exposed. An exception to this rule is
afforded by _Tell el-Hesy_ (Lachish) explored by Dr. Petrie in 1890-
1: here the erosion of a stream had exposed enough of the strata for
a reconnaissance. In the majority of cases the most that a visitor
can hope to do is to pick up stray antiquities on the surface of the
ground, and ascertain therefrom the limits of date.
The chief clue is afforded by the pottery (see below, V), sherds of
which, large and small, are strewn in considerable numbers on every
ancient site. Scarabs, seals, bronze implements, iron fragments,
beads, bone ornaments, and the like may also be noticed. A trained
eye is essential even for such surface finds: one man may walk over a
mound and find nothing, another may walk in his steps and gather
quite an interesting harvest of small objects.
Surface indications of buried buildings (or rather foundations) may
be noted both on the top and on the sides of a tell. Lines of wall
may not infrequently be traced. Often the vegetation growing on the
surface indicates the presence of structures underneath (either by
burnt-up patches amid luxuriant growths, or vice versa).
4. Surface exploration of a khirbet.
The task here is, generally sneaking, simpler. In a khirbet there is
usually no great depth of accumulation; indeed, the bare rock
frequently crops up in the middle of such a site. There is,
therefore, as a rule only one historical period represented.
Potsherds, coins (Roman, Jewish, Byzantine, early Islamic, sometimes
Crusader), tesserae of mosaic pavements, fragments of iron nails,
beads, minute metal ornaments (as bronze wire finger-rings) are to be
picked up on khirbet sites.
The remains of walls are usually more easily traceable in khirbet
than in tell sites, though much damage has been done by quarrying for
modern buildings. These walls should be carefully examined: buildings
other than mere houses (churches, synagogues, baths) may sometimes be
detected. Cisterns should be noted. Some of these are not very
obvious and the traveller should be on his guard against falling into
them.
All stones should be examined, as there is a chance of finding
inscriptions.
5. In all work on ancient sites the investigator must make a point of
noting everything, irrespective of its apparent importance, and of
carefully training a critical judgement in interpreting his
observations. It is impossible to lay down general principles that
govern every case completely: every site presents its own individual
problems.
III. Rock-cut Tombs.
1. All Palestine is honeycombed with rock-cut tombs, which form a
fascinating and inexhaustible field of study. Unfortunately all that
are in the least degree visible have long ago been rifled, and in
recent years those pests, the curio-hunting tourists, have done
incalculable harm by stimulating the native tomb-robber and dealer.
2. The explorer of rock-cut tombs must be indifferent to mud, damp,
evil smells, noxious insects, and other discomforts, and he must be
prepared to squeeze through very narrow passages, much clogged with
earth. He is recommended to be on his guard against scorpions and
snakes.
3. A plan and vertical section of the tomb should be drawn. The
measurements should be taken carefully, not only for the sake of the
accuracy of the plan, but also for metrological purposes.
4. The rock outside the entrance of the tomb-chamber should be
examined. It often shows rebating or other cutting, designed to
receive the foundations of a masonry mausoleum (resembling in general
style the rock-hewn monuments in the Kedron Valley at Jerusalem). As
a rule such structures have been entirely destroyed for the sake of
their stones.
5. The tool-marks of the tomb-quarriers should be examined, as they
sometimes reveal interesting technical points.
6. Every inch of the surface of the excavation, inside and out, must
be examined for ornaments, symbols, or inscriptions. These may be
either cut or painted, and often are very inconspicuous. Ornaments
are usually floral in type, though in late tombs figure-subjects are
occasionally to be found. Symbols are either Jewish (the seven-
branched candlestick) or Christian (the cross, A-omega, or the like).
Inscriptions are not necessarily formally cut: they are sometimes
mere scratched graffiti, which would be sure to escape notice unless
carefully looked for (as in the so-called 'Tombs of the Prophets' on
the Mount of Olives).
7. Dating of tombs.
The savage rifling to which Palestinian tombs have been subjected has
much reduced the material available for dating them. The following
general principles apply to Southern Palestine: those in Northern
Palestine and Syria still await a more exact study:
The earliest tombs known in the country were mere natural caves, into
which the dead were cast, often very unceremoniously.
In the Second Semitic Period (circa 1800-1400 B.C.) hewn chambers
began to be used. These are in the form of cylindrical shafts with a
doorway at the bottom leading sideways into the burial-chamber.
Natural caves are still frequently used.
In the Third Semitic Period (circa 1400-1000 B.C.) the shaft: form
disappears and an artificial cave, rudely hewn out, takes its place.
The entrance is in the side of the chamber, though not necessarily at
the level of the floor. Rude shelves for the reception of the bodies
are sometimes, but not always, cut in the sides of the chamber.
In the Fourth Semitic Period (circa 1000-550 B.C.) the tomb-
chambers are of the same kind, but are as a rule smaller.
In Southern Palestine the well-made tomb-chambers, such as are to be
seen in great numbers around Jerusalem, are all post-exilic. There is
an immense variety in plan, some tombs being single chambers, others
complications of several chambers. The late excavation absurdly
called the 'Tombs of the Kings' at Jerusalem is quite a labyrinth of
rockcut chambers. In exploring such a structure a careful search
should be made for devices for deluding thieves: special precautions
are sometimes taken to conceal the entrance to inner groups of
chambers. There are some interesting examples of this in the cemetery
in the _Wadi er-Rababi_, south of Jerusalem. However, all tombs of
this period fall into two groups, _kok_ tombs and _arcosolium_ tombs.
In the former the receptacles for bodies are of the kind known by the
Hebrew name _kokim_--shafts, of a size to accommodate one body
(sometimes large enough for two or three) driven horizontally into
the wall of the chamber. In the normal _kok_ tomb-chamber there are
nine _kokim_, three in each wall except the wall containing the
entrance doorway. But there are many other arrangements. In the
'Tombs of the Judges' there is a double row of _kokim_ in the
entrance chamber. The explorer should not forget that a _kok_
sometimes contains a secret entrance to further chambers at its inner
end. In _arcosolium_ tombs the receptacles are benches cut in the
wall, like the berths in a steamer's cabin. These are sometimes sunk,
so as to resemble rock-cut sarcophagi.
The late tombs round Jerusalem are in the form of caves driven
horizontally into the hill-sides. Further south, e.g. in the region
round Beit Jibrin, they are more frequently sunk vertically, the
entrance being in the roof of the burial chamber, or approached by a
square shaft (a reversion to the Second Semitic form, except that
these latter have _round_ shafts).
IV. Caves.
The history of the artificial caves hewn in the soft limestone of
Palestine, is quite unknown. The caves of the neighbourhood of Beit
Jibrin provide ample material for several months' exploration.
Though the caves are labyrinthine there is little fear of an explorer
losing his way: he should, however, be well provided with lights, as
it would be extremely awkward to be left in the innermost recess of a
cave consisting of ten or a dozen chambers united by narrow creep-
passages, without adequate illumination. There are occasionally
unexpected and dangerous pitfalls: and hyenas and serpents often
shelter in the caves. The present writer has explored many of them
entirely alone, but this is, on the whole, not to be recommended.
Besides planning the cave, its walls should be searched for
inscriptions, &c. It should be remembered, however, that these may
have been added at any time and do not necessarily belong to the
original excavation. Symbols, apparently of a phallic nature, are
sometimes cut on the walls, as well as crosses and other Christian
devices, and Cufic inscriptions. Frequently the walls are pitted with
the loculi of a columbarium, which, however, appear to be too small
to receive cinerary urns and must be intended for some other purpose.
V. Pottery.
Owing to the importance of the subject a special section on Pottery
is given here, and the two accompanying plates (XII) show some of the
commonest types of vessels. But the student cannot learn all he will
need to know of Palestinian pottery from a few pages of print. A
representative series of specimens will be found in the Jerusalem
Museum: he may supplement his study of these by the perusal of
reports on excavations, such as Petrie, _Tell el-Hesy_ (pp. 40-50);
Bliss, _A Mound of Many Cities_ (passim); _Excavations in Palestine_
(pp. 71-141); Macalister, _Excavation of Gezer_ (vol. ii, pp.
128-239; and plates); Sellin, _Jericho_; Schumacher, _Tell
et-Mutasellim_.
Pre-Semitic Period (down to circa 2000 B.C.).
Ware hand-modelled, without wheel, coarse, gritty, and generally
soft-baked and very porous. The section of a clean fracture is
usually of a dirty yellowish colour, resembling in appearance coarse
oatmeal porridge. Bases usually flat, loop-handles or wavy handles on
the bodies of the vessels: mouths wide and lips curved outward. The
body of the vessel often decorated with drip lines or with a criss-
cross, in red paint.
First Semitic Period (circa 2000-1800 B.C.).
Similar to the last: but the potter's wheel is used, and horizontal
painted and moulded rope-like ornament also found. Combed ornament
and burnished lines frequent.
Second Semitic Period (circa 1800-1400 B.C.).
During this period imports from Egypt, Crete, the Aegean Sea, and
especially Cyprus were common, and potsherds originating in those
countries are frequently to be picked up: also local imitations of
these foreign wares. The ware of this period is on the whole well-
refined and well-modelled: the most graceful shapes, in jugs and
bowls, belong to it. Elaborate polychrome decoration, including
figures of birds. But little moulded ornament.
Third Semitic Period (circa 1400-1000 B.C.).
The same foreign influences are traceable, but rather as reminiscent
local imitations than as direct imports. Late Minoan [Mycenaean]
sherds are, however, frequent. The shapes of vessels are less
artistic than in the preceding period: the painted ornament is also
degenerated, being traced in wiry lines rather than in the bold wash
of the preceding period.
Fourth Semitic Period (circa 1000-550 B.C.).
Late Cypriote imports. The local ware very poor, coarse, gritty,
inartistic. No painted ornament except mere lines: clumsy moulded
ornament frequent.
Post-Exilic and Hellenistic Period (circa 550-100 B.C.).
Imports from Greece (sometimes fragments of black or red figured
vases, or lekythoi) and from the Aegean Islands (especially wine-jars
from Rhodes: stamped handles of such are frequent). The native ware
is easily recognizable by its smoothness and hardness; when struck
with a stick a sherd emits a musical clink. The vessels are very fair
imitations of classical models, occasionally with painted ornament,
but more frequently moulded.
Roman and Byzantine Period (circa 100 B.C.-A.D. 600).
The unmistakable character of the ware of this period is the ribbed
surface, with which nearly all vessels are decorated. Fragments of
ribbed pottery are strewn almost over all Palestine. Ornament
consisting of repeated impressions of stamps now begins to appear.
Lamps with decoration, inscriptions, Christian or Jewish symbols
common. Glass vessels also frequent.
Arab Period (circa A.D. 600 onwards).
The early Arab ware often bears painted decoration singularly like
that on Second and Third Semitic pottery, but a fatty soapy texture
characterizes the Arab ware, which is absent from the earlier sherds.
There is likewise a complete absence of representation of natural
forms (birds and the like). In or about the Crusader period the use
of ornamental glaze makes its appearance.
[Illustration XII: PALESTINIAN POTTERY TYPES]
VI. Sanctuaries.
The hill-top shrines, now consecrated to saints of Islam, are
doubtless in origin ancient Canaanite high places. There is here a
rich but a very difficult field for investigation. The difficulty
lies in (a) gaining the confidence of those to whom the sanctuaries
are holy, and (b) guarding against wilful or unconscious deception.
Only long residence and frequent intercourse, with the Muslim
population will make it possible for any one to obtain really
trustworthy information as to the traditions or the sites of these
ancient sanctuaries. A knowledge of Arabic is essential for a study
of the sites themselves, as there are frequently inscriptions cut or
painted on the walls which should be studied. The casual traveller
cannot hope to carry out researches of any value on these ancient
sites.
Sometimes the buildings are Crusaders' churches transformed. The one
really certain fact as to masonry dressing in Palestine may here
conveniently be noticed--that Crusader structures are built of well-
squared stones with a plane surface finished off with a dressing
consisting of very fine diagonal lines. Once seen, this masonry
dressing is absolutely unmistakable.
Buildings thus identified as Crusader should be examined for masons'
marks.
VII. Miscellaneous.
The following are some other types of ancient remains with which the
traveller may meet almost anywhere in Palestine:
(1) Prehistoric (Stone Age) sites. Marked by being strewn with flint
implements and chips: see a fine collection in the Museum of the
Assumptionists (Notre-Dame de France) at Jerusalem. Specimens should
be collected and the site mapped.
(2) Dolmens. Frequent east of Jordan; rare, though not unknown, in
Western Palestine. Should be measured, photographed, described, and
mapped.
(3) Rock-cuttings of various kinds, which should be measured,
planned, and mapped. Among these the commonest are:
(a) Cisterns (usually bottle-shaped, a narrow neck expanding below).
(b) Cup-markings, common everywhere. Often associated with cisterns.
(c) Wine and olive presses: there is a great variety in form, but
they generally consist of two essential parts--a shallow _pressing-
vat_ on which the fruit was crushed, and a deeper _receiving-vat_ in
which the expressed juice was collected. The vats are often lined
with cement containing datable potsherds, and are sometimes paved
with mosaic tesserae.
(d) Quarries.
(4) Sacred trees and bushes, recognized by the rags with which they
are festooned. Should be photographed and mapped, and their legends
ascertained, subject to the cautions given above under the head of
Sanctuaries.
(5) Castles and churches, usually of the Crusader period: early
Saracenic buildings. Should be recorded by means of plans,
photographs, measured drawings, and written descriptions.
(6) Mosaic pavements, usually belonging to Byzantine buildings;
should be recorded by means of coloured drawings.