Note: The spelling of some place names in the index differs
from that given in the main text.
HOW TO OBSERVE IN ARCHAEOLOGY
Suggestions for Travellers in the Near and Middle East
THE BRITISH MUSEUM
1920
CONTENTS
Preface. By Sir F. G. Keynon
PART I
Chapter I. INTRODUCTORY. By G. F. Hill
Chapter II. METHOD. By W. M. Flinders Petrie
LIST OF THE CHIEF BRITISH INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIETIES CONCERNED WITH
THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NEAR AND MIDDLE EAST
LIST OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOINT COMMITTEE
PART II
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
Chapter I. FLINT IMPLEMENTS.
Chapter II. GREECE PROPER. By T. P. Droop
Chapter III. ASIA MINOR. By J. G. C. Anderson and J. L. Myres
Chapter IV. CYPRUS. By J. L. Myres
Chapter V. CENTRAL AND NORTH SYRIA. By D. G. Hogarth
Chapter VI. PALESTINE. By R. A. S. Macalister
Chapter VII. EGYPT. By W. M. Flinders Petrie
Chapter VIII. MESOPOTAMIA. By H. R. Hall
APPENDIX
SUMMARIES OF LAWS OF ANTIQUITIES
INDEX
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND TABLES
Some Hieroglyphic Signs liable to be confused with each other
Flint Implements
Types of Greek Pottery, &c.
Greek Alphabets
Asia Minor Pottery types
Hittite Inscriptions, &c.
Bilingual (Greek and Cypriote) Dedication to Demeter and
Persephone from Curium
Syrian Pottery.
Syrian Weapons, &c.
West Semitic Alphabets
West Semitic Numerals
Palestinian Pottery types
Egyptian Pottery types
Mesopotamian Pottery, Seals, &c.
Cuneiform and other Scripts
PREFACE
This Handbook is intended primarily for the use of travellers in the
Near and Middle East who are interested in antiquities without being
already trained archaeologists. It is the outcome of a recommendation
made by the Archaeological Joint Committee, a body recently
established, on the initiative of the British Academy and at the
request of the Foreign Office, to focus the knowledge and experience
of British scholars and archaeologists and to place it at the
disposal of the Government when advice or information is needed upon
matters connected with archaeological science. The Committee is
composed of representatives of the principal English societies
connected with Archaeology, and it is hoped that it may be recognized
as the natural body of reference, both for Government Departments and
for the public, on matters connected with archaeological research in
foreign lands. It represents no one institution and no one interest.
Its purpose is to protect the interests of archaeological science, to
secure a sane and enlightened administration of antiquities in the
lands which are now being more fully opened to research, and to
promote the advance of knowledge in the spheres to which its
competence extends.
One means of serving this cause is to provide information for the
guidance of travellers in the lands of antiquity. Much knowledge is
lost because it comes in the way of those who do not know how to
profit by it or to record it. Accordingly, just as the Natural
History Museum has issued a series of pamphlets of advice to the
collectors of natural history specimens, so it has been thought that
a handbook of elementary information and advice may be found of
service by travellers with archaeological tastes; and the Trustees of
the British Museum have undertaken the publication of it. The
handbook has been prepared by a number of persons, whose competence
is beyond dispute; and the thanks of all who find it useful are due
to Mr. G. F. Hill (who has acted as general editor as well as part
author), Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie, Mr. D. G. Hogarth, Prof. J. L.
Myres, Mr. J. G. C. Anderson, Mr. J. P. Droop, Prof. R. A. S.
Macalister, Mr. H. R. Hall, Mr. A. J. B. Wace, Mr. 0. M. Dalton, Mr.
R. L. Hobson, Mr. E. J. Forsdyke, Mr. A. H. Smith, Mr. R. A. Smith,
Mr. A. B. Cook, and Prof. G. A. Cooke. Each contributor has been left
considerable latitude as to the method of treatment of the subject
allotted to him, and no attempt has been made to bring the various
sections into uniformity of pattern. Owing to Prof. Petrie's absence
in Egypt, it has not been possible to submit final proofs of his
contributions to him.
Suggestions for improvement in future editions will be welcomed, and
will no doubt be forthcoming as the result of experience. Meanwhile
it is hoped that this little book will accompany many travellers in
foreign lands, and that the labour expended on it will bear fruit in
the improved observation and record of archaeological data, in
establishing sound principles for the administration of antiquities,
and in enforcing proper methods of excavation and conservation. It
may also be found of service by those who study the results of
research as they appear in museums.
F. G. KENYON.
PART I
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
The hints which it is the object of this volume to convey are not
meant for experienced archaeologists. They are rather addressed to
those who, while anxious to observe and record the antiquities which
they may see on their travels, are likely, owing to lack of training,
to miss things that may be of importance, or, having observed them,
to bring home an imperfect record. It is hoped also that they may
catch the attention of some of those who are not interested in the
subject, but, coming into possession of antiquities, may unwittingly
do incalculable harm by allowing them to be destroyed or dispersed
before any record has been made.
Most, if not all, of the countries with which we are concerned, have
their Laws of Antiquities. It cannot be too strongly insisted that
those laws, even if they might be better than they are, should be
obeyed by the traveller. He should familiarize himself with their
main provisions, which are summarized in an Appendix. The traveller
who makes it his object to loot a country of its antiquities,
smuggling objects out of it and disguising the sources from which
they are obtained, does a distinct dis-service to archaeological
science. Although he may enrich collections, public or private, half
or more than half of the scientific value of his acquisitions is
destroyed by the fact that their provenance is kept secret or falsely
stated. Such action is equivalent to tearing out whole pages from a
history and destroying them for ever, for each antiquity, whatever it
may be, is in its way a part of history, whether of politics, arts,
or civilization. For the same reason anything like unauthorized
excavation, especially by unskilled hands, is gravely to be
deprecated. To dig an ancient site unskilfully or without keeping a
proper record is to obliterate part of a manuscript which no one else
will ever be able to read. The tendency of recent legislation is to
allow more generous terms in the matter of licences for export to
excavators and collectors, and the harsher provisions of some of the
existing laws are likely soon to be amended.
Before leaving home, the traveller will be well advised to make
inquiries at the museums or at the head-quarters of the
archaeological societies which concern themselves specially with
the places which he intends to visit. A list of these museums and
societies is appended to this section (p. 26). It is hardly necessary
to warn him that archaeological training cannot be acquired in a few
days, and that he will have to buy his experience in various ways;
but the more time he can devote to working through the collections in
this country, the more useful will be his observations abroad. He
will be able to learn what kind of antiquities it is especially
desirable to look for, not merely with the object of filling gaps in
the public collections, but for the advancement of archaeological
knowledge in general.
The object of archaeological travel and excavation is not to collect
antiquities so that they may be arranged according to the existing
catalogues of museums, but to collect fresh information to amplify
and correct what we now know, to make our knowledge of the past more
complete and useful.
On arrival in the country of his choice, he is recommended to
continue at the National Museum the study, which we suppose he has
already begun in the museums at home, of the kind of antiquities
which he is likely to come across. But he should also take an early
opportunity of getting into touch with the local British
Archaeological School or other similar institution, where he will
receive advice what to look for and where and how to look, and
assistance in procuring suitable equipment. Thus the traveller who
starts from Athens or Jerusalem should apply at the British School of
Archaeology. He may there, it he desires, receive instruction in any
of the methods described in Chapter II, in which a little practical
demonstration is worth pages of print, and will be given all possible
assistance in obtaining such articles of equipment as are available
on the spot. (Photographic supplies and all scientific instruments
should be brought out from England.) The best maps of the district
will also be accessible for examination (but the traveller is
recommended to make inquiries in this respect before leaving
England); the libraries will provide the literature dealing with the
routes he proposes to take; and such a collection as the type-series
of pottery and the Finlay collection of prehistoric antiquities at
the British School at Athens may be useful to supplement his previous
studies at museums, and enable him to observe with intelligence the
potsherds, &c., that he may find on an ancient site. In return, he
will be expected to report his results either to the School or to
some other scientific society or museum at home. It should be
unnecessary to remind him that the conditions of the law of the land
relating to the reporting of discoveries to the competent authorities
should be strictly observed. Such authorities should also be informed
of any destruction or removal of monuments which may be noticed.
Another matter which should not be neglected is the obtaining
of such licences as may be required by law for the acquisition in the
country or export therefrom of objects of antiquity. Advice on this
matter can be obtained at the local School or National Museum.
It is possible that the traveller will begin his journey at a point
other than the capital. Inquiries should be made at the London head-
quarters of the Schools concerning residents at such places who may
be able to give advice to intending travellers.
The traveller will doubtless bring back with him such antiquities as
he is permitted to export. A word of general advice on this matter
may not be out of place here. The essential value of antiquities,
apart from their purely artistic interest, lies in the circumstances
in which they are found. The inexperienced traveller is apt to pick
up a number of objects haphazard, without accurately noting their
find-spots, and even, getting tired of them, as a child of flowers
that he has picked, to discard them a mile or two away. If the first
act is a blunder, the second is a crime; it is better to leave them
lying in place. For the same reason, it is highly desirable that
objects found together (e.g. the contents of a tomb) should as far as
possible be kept together, or at least that accurate record of the
whole group should be made, since the archaeological value of a find
may depend on a single object, apparently of small importance.
Nothing, for instance, is more common, or more distressing to the
numismatist, than the division of a hoard of coins among various
persons before they have been examined by an expert. If they must be
divided, good impressions should at least be made by one of the
methods described in Chapter II, and, if the coins are of gold or
silver, the weights should be noted. This should be done even if the
coins, to the inexperienced eye, appear to be all alike. The
knowledge that any coin from a hoard may be of greater value than a
similar coin found singly may induce finders to report such finds
before dispersing them. What applies to coins is equally applicable,
in various ways, to all classes of antiquities.
It is assumed that the primary object of the traveller is not
speculation in the pecuniary value of the antiquities that he may
acquire, although he may be not unreasonably inclined to recover some
of his expenses by disposing of objects which do not appeal to him.
Should that be so, although the authorities of public museums
obviously cannot be agents or valuers in such transactions between
the owner and private collectors, they are as obviously willing to
consider offers which are made to their museums in the first instance
and, if the objects are not required by them, to advise the owner in
what quarter he may be likely to meet with a purchaser.
CHAPTER II
METHOD
1. Outfit.
Each traveller will require to provide for his special interests; but
for any archaeological work the following things are desirable. Note-
books of squared paper. Drawing-blocks of blue-squared paper. Paper
for wet squeezes, and for dry squeezes. Brush for wet squeezes (spoke
brush). One or two so-metre tapes. A few bamboo gardening canes for
markers in planning. Divide one in inches or centimetres for
measuring buildings. A steel rod, 3 ft. x 1 inch for probing. Field-
glass, or low-power telescope. Prismatic compass with card partly
black, to see at night. Large and small celluloid protractors for
plotting angles on plans. Plotting-scale, tenths of inches and
millimetres. Maps of the district, the best available. Aneroid
barometer, if collecting flints; small size; can be tested by
observing in a tall lift, or by putting in a tumbler and pressing the
hand air-tight over the mouth. The zero error, or absolute values,
are not wanted for levelling, only delicacy in small variations.
Magnifiers, a few pocket size; will also serve for presents.
Indelible pencils, pens, and ink in strong corked pocket bottle.
Reservoir pens dry up too much in some climates. China ink for
permanent marking. Strips of adhesive paper, about a inch and a
inches wide, to put round objects for labelling. Strong steel pliers,
wire-cutting. A few pocket-knives will serve for presents. It is best
to carry money in a little bag or screw of paper, loose in the jacket
pocket, it in a risky district. It can then be dropped on any alarm
and picked up afterwards.
Photographic.[1]
In the selection of a camera much will depend upon the nature of the
work to be undertaken, the conditions of travel, and the climate to
which the camera will be exposed. For accurate work a stand camera is
always to be preferred to one of the hand variety, and care should be
taken to choose an instrument that is strongly made and of simple
construction. The essentials of a good stand camera are that it shall
be rigid, possess a rising and falling front, a swing back, and
bellows which will be capable of extension to fully double the focal
length of the lens to be used with it.
[1]Prof. Petrie is not responsible for this section, which is due to
the kind assistance of some professional photographers.-ED.
The rising and falling front gives a power of modifying the field of
view in a vertical direction. The swing back preserves the
verticality of architectural subjects. In some cases, when used with
the pivots vertical, it is a help in focussing the subject. The
possible extension of the distance between the lens stop and the
ground glass to twice the focal length (which is as a rule the
distance between the same points, when a distant object is in focus)
enables a small subject to be reproduced in natural size.
For work abroad where extremes of temperature or excessive variations
have to be contended with, a special tropical camera is supplied by
most of the leading makers. Its well-seasoned hard wood and metal-
bound joints render it suitable for hard wear, and reduce the risk of
leakage through warping or shrinkage. The tripod stand should be of
the so-called threefold variety, with sliding legs which can be
adapted to broken ground. If a loose screw is used for attaching the
camera to the stand, a spare screw should be kept in reserve. It is
important that this stand should be strongly made, and light patterns
subject to undue vibrations in the wind should be discarded. For
photographing small objects in the studio, a small table is more
convenient than a tripod support. If the camera will not sit flat on
the table, a bed can easily be designed for it. Better work will be
done if this is prepared in advance than if an improvised support is
used. As regards the size of the outfit, quarter-plate (3 1/4 x 4 1/4
inches) will usually be found to be large enough for the traveller.
For anything in the nature of studio work in a museum or in connexion
with an excavation a half-plate camera (6 1/2 x 4 3/4 inches) is more
satisfactory. Where a hand camera is preferred it should be one
capable of adjustment of focus, and here again, strength and
simplicity should be looked for. It should be provided with effective
tripod legs, for studied exposures. Plates or flat films are
preferable to roll fills [2] which are difficult to manipulate away
from home. Flat films are less bulky and less breakable than glass,
and can be sent by post. They are supplied by the makers in packs of
12 for daylight loading into a film-pack adapter, which must be
provided to take the place of the ordinary dark slides for glass
plates. The lens should be a modern anastigmatic by a good maker. A
focal length of about six inches will be best for a quarter-plate
camera. A bad lens makes success impossible even by accident.
[2] Transcriber's note: 'fills' in the original text is possibly a
misprint for 'films'.
The stops will probably be of the Iris pattern, incorporated in the
lens and so not likely to be lost, as often happens with loose stops.
A few words on the theory and use of the stops and on the F-notation
may be of service. The speed of a photographic lens depends on the
ratio of the effective aperture to the focal length. Thus any two
lenses used at apertures of F/8, that is at apertures having
diameters one-eighth of their respective focal lengths, should be of
the same speed, though both lenses and apertures may be very
different. In a given lens, the speed varies directly with the area
of the aperture admitting the light, that is with the square of the
diameter of the aperture. The series of stops usually employed is
calculated so that each aperture is half the area of the preceding.
Stated in terms of the focal length they are known as F/5.6, F/8,
F/11.3, F/16, F/22.6, F/32, &c. Since the squares of those numbers,
31.4, 64, 127.7, 256, 510.7, 1024 are approximately each twice the
preceding number of the series, the apertures, F(ocal length),
divided by the successive numbers as denominators, are each half the
area of the preceding and require twice the exposure, F/16 requires
twice the 'exposure of F/11.3, and four times that of F/8, and so
throughout the scale.
Stops are used to regulate either 'depth of focus' or length of
exposure. The 'depth of focus' means the distance before and behind
the point in theoretically accurate focus, at which objects are
sufficiently focussed, for the purpose the photographer has in view.
This length is greatest when only the central portion of the lens is
in use. It is greatest with a pinhole, and least with a full
aperture. Hence a small stop is required if the picture is to include
near and far objects, while a large aperture may be used if all the
subject is far enough away to be in clear focus--say more than 25
feet--or if it is a flat surface. The small stop is also required when
the rising front or the swing back is in use. The power of regulating
the time of exposure is convenient for shortening long exposures in
dark interiors, or for lengthening inconveniently short exposures in
a bright light.
In practice it will be best to become familiar with the use of about
three stops, say the full aperture (perhaps F/5.6 or F/8), F/16, and
F/32.
For judging long exposures, the use of an actinometer (issued in many
inexpensive forms) is helpful.
A telephoto attachment increases the photographer's power of
rendering distant details on a large scale. The results are greatly
superior to enlargements of a small plate. It is, however, useless in
a wind, unless the camera is specially supported, and is otherwise
rather tricky to use. The traveller is strongly advised to master its
management at home. It should be adjusted by the maker to the camera
for which it is intended.
Unless a photographer's dark room can be had the developing of the
bulk is best left until the return home, but tests should be made to
see that the exposures are correct. A piece of ruby fabric or ruby
paper tied over an electric light will give a safe light after dark,
and 'Scalol' or some such one-solution developer which requires
merely the addition of water, will give all that is needed for
developing. For fixing use 4 oz. hypo to a pint of water.
In warm climates, use cold water. If it is not cool enough, the
gelatine of the negatives may give trouble. In that case, get colder
water, and use an alum bath. If water is precious, plates can be
sufficiently washed by moving them forward in succession, through
half-dozen soup plates filled with water.
If habitual use is not made of tabloid developers, &c., it is
advisable to have some in reserve, for use in the case of broken
bottles and spilt solutions.
Useful notes and maxims.
An over-exposed plate gives no dark shadows in the print.
An under-exposed plate gives no high lights. When in doubt, choose
the risk of over-exposure.
To test the safety of your camera--Half draw the shutter, and expose
part of the plate in the camera, in the sunshine, without uncapping
the lens, and develop.
To test the safety of your red light--Expose a plate, divide it into
two, develop half in the dark, and half for the same time, with the
same solution by the light you are testing, and compare the results.
This test is worth making, as photographers are apt to give
themselves much discomfort from exaggerated caution.
2. Itinerary.
Where there are efficient maps the only need is to mark in the
position of any antiquities, by cross-bearings to clear points, with
the compass, drawn in with a sharp pencil. Where the maps are too
small, or deficient, a continuous register of time should be made,
noting the minute of starting and of stopping; this over known
distances will serve to give the value over the unknown. Note whether
mounted or walking, and the compass bearing of the track; also the
bearings of known points around, whenever stopping. Without any known
bearings pacing and compass used carefully may go over the roughest
ground without five per cent. error in the day.
It is better when on unknown ground to plot a map as you go, so that
no misunderstanding of notes can arise after. If a squared block
cannot be used, at least draw the bearings and distances roughly,
writing in the amounts. This should be plotted up accurately in the
evening. A photograph may be unintelligible later in its detail. It
is best where known features, a temple, tombs, &c., are in a view, to
sketch the outline when photographing, and write in the details, so
as to give a key to the photograph. Inquire about antiquities
whenever stopping. When camping, villagers usually come up to see who
it is; then tell them the directions of the places around. They will
ask how you know; show them the map, and they are puzzled; talk over
all the names a few miles round, and then anything notable in the
district may be remarked, and inquiries made. Several men together
help each other to remember, and bring out more remarks. Sometimes an
intelligent man will describe all the antiquities he knows in the
district: this should be followed closely on the map, and
difficulties resolved at once, so as to get a clear record noted.
Of course, enormous exaggerations are met with, and not one report in
ten will prove to be anything. Tracking up the source of bought
antiquities is one of the best methods, and the one by which
Naukratis was found.
If travelling by camel, it is practicable to diverge widely on foot,
if objects are looked for well ahead. A foot track diverging 4.5
degrees, and then converging likewise, will easily keep in touch with
a baggage camel. Fix on the camping-place in the morning, and let
every one know of it, so that if accidentally parted all can rejoin
by night.
3. Recording.
Buildings or ruins.
Fix position by bearings to mapped points; also note bearings of any
prominent feature near by, which may serve for finding the position
again. Sketch a plan, always north up in the book, note bearing of
main wall, and then measure with bamboo rod all original dimensions,
with some diagonals to fix angles; do not forget the thickness of the
walls. It is best for a long length to stretch a tape, pegged down by
the ring, and pulled tight by hand: read off all positions of doors,
windows, cross-walls, &c., on one long length, and not as separate
short lengths. If possible plot the measures on squared paper as you
go, and then any errors or omissions will be checked at once. 'E. and
O.E.' has no place in a plan.
Town mounds.
Estimate height over bare land outside; eye height is a trifle over
five feet. At the foot of the mound see where the horizon cuts the
shoulder of it to find eye height; walk up to that point, and sight
another five feet; so on, till you see over the top. If there is any
section, by a stream side, or digging, or land-slip, look for strata,
stone or brick walls and floor levels, and for any distinctive
potsherds; observing levels as before. Look all over the top for
potsherds, to find the latest period of the town. Look around the
mound for any early potsherds. Sherds on the slopes are worth less;
as they have probably slipped down. Red burnt brick in Egypt is all
Roman or Arab; in Greece and Asia Minor, red brick and mortar is
Roman, Byzantine, or later.
Walk to the middle of the site or mound, and see its extent. Then
walk round the wall line, or circuit of it, pacing and compass
noting, to sketch the shape and size of the site: especially look for
any straight lines of wall showing. Sometimes a mud-brick wall may be
entirely denuded away, yet the position is shown by the sharp edge of
the strew of potsherds on the surface.
Look for any slag-heaps; these are the remains of lime burning, and
show where stone buildings existed; sometimes foundations still
remain. Look for any recent pits or trenches; these show where stone
or burnt brick has been dug out in modern times, and may give the
position and plan of a temple or church.
See if any rubbish mounds can be traced outside of the town site;
usually marked by a gentle walk-up slope, and a steep thrown-down
slope, and mainly consisting of pottery, e.g. Monte Testaccio at
Rome, and mounds east of Cairo.
Town sites rise in Egypt about forty inches a century, by the dust,
rubbish, and decay of mud-brick buildings. In Palestine the rise is
five feet a century, owing to the rains.
Cemeteries.
These have generally been more or less plundered; if recently, the
pits show; if anciently, there are scraps of pottery lying about. If
there are pebbles or marl thrown up from deep levels, there is
evidence of tombs, and they may be unplundered. Blown sand or grass
may hide all trace of tombs. Sometimes the whole masonry of a tomb
may have been removed, and the gravel filling-in have spread so
uniformly that there is no sign of building, although a course or two
of stone may yet remain under the surface. The surface of ground
should be closely looked over at sunrise or sunset to show up the
slight hollows or ridges by the shadows. After rain differences will
often appear in the drying of the ground. Ask any one near a site if
he knows of any one getting stones, or bronze, or plunder from tombs.
Anything found will probably be greatly exaggerated, and no clear
idea of the time of finding can be reached; yet any such detail may
be useful.
Any large town site must have a cemetery, which is near it in most
cases. In Egypt the towns being in the inundated land, the cemeteries
are at some miles distant on the desert. The prehistoric cemeteries
may be anywhere; the historic cemeteries are usually round the ends
of the dyke roads, which were thrown up in the early dynasties as
irrigation dams, and still serve as the roads of the country. In
Greek lands cemeteries are always outside a town, usually by the side
of the roads.
Caves should always be carefully explored; the roof and sides
searched for inscriptions or carvings; rock pockets in the sides
examined; and the floor dug over for potsherds and any small objects.
If there are different strata these should be each removed
separately, and the depth and positions of objects noted.
4. Methods of Planning.
Though we cannot here give full technical details of all the methods
for plans and surveys, it will be useful to state the scope of each
method, so that they may be kept in mind, and whichever is best
suited to the individual and his work may be provided for.
1. Plain pacing.
After pacing lengths of a few hundred feet, up and down hill and
flat, tape the distances, and learn true value of pace. Careful
pacing can be done to one or two per cent. of the whole; and properly
used, in triangles, may give a useful plan.
2. Pacing and compass.
This covers large spaces quickly, but the compass is less accurate
than the pace.
3. Tape.
Lines of taping must be well planned, with triangle ties to secure
the angles. Pulling up straight is difficult in a wind, especially on
broken ground, and one per cent. error is quite possible then. When
working alone peg the tape down by the ring, or round a stone.
4. Tapes and cross lines.
Stretch two strings crossing squarely on the ground: fix the square
by laying a squared drawing block below and looking at strings over
it. Two helpers each hold a tape, zero on a string, and the two tapes
are held together by the observer and read off, giving the distance
to each string; this is to be plotted at once on squared paper, and
the plan is completed in detail as it progresses, without any note-
book or later plotting. The helpers must be capable of holding the
tape square to the string. Good for sites up to two hundred or three
hundred feet.
5. Plane table.
Excellent for some ground, where objects are visible from a distance:
otherwise it requires a marker put up at every point to be fixed.
Cumbrous to carry, much slower than 4.
6. Box sextant, used as giving angular accuracy to any of the
foregoing; most useful with taping, and in following.
7. Sextant and three points.
The most rapid accurate method is to adopt three points visible all
over the ground (as trees or chimneys) or set up three markers. Find
shape and size of this triangle. Then at any point take two angles
visible between the points, and this fixes position of observer. A
large site may have forty points fixed in two hours thus to about 1
in 1000. For detail and plotting see Petrie, _Methods and Aims in
Archaeology_.
8. Theodolite.
For the most accurate work a theodolite is used, giving points to
about 1 in 5000. It is almost essential for any astronomical meridian
or latitude.
None of these methods necessitate any helper, except 4 which needs
two helpers. The observation is from the point to be fixed in 1, 2,
3, 4, and 7; but it is _to_ the point, needing signals or visible
features on the points, in 5, 6, and 8, and for those methods a large
stock of rods must be taken, and the whole ground gone over, before
the work of observation; such methods take far more time than the
others. The able surveyor will know by instinct how to use all the
inferior methods as supplements to the higher, whenever time demands
and accuracy allows.
When first searching a site, note the direction of any wall to the
horizon point, and so see if other walls are parallel.
In all cases a plumb line is wanted for alining foundations and
scattered blocks. Always carry six feet of thin string, and pick up
the nearest suitable stone for a weight, up to three or four pounds
in a wind.
5. Drawing and Copying.
Inscriptions.
If there is any chance of being interrupted by any claimant, or by
crowds, always make a hand copy at once, as quickly as possible.
After a squeeze or photograph is taken, yet the hand copy is often of
value to explain positions of squeeze slips or detail of photographs.
If there is no chance of interruption, then a carefully drawn copy
full size should be made. For this a dry squeeze is the ground work.
Lay a sheet of thin paper, such as thin wrapping or plain paper, on
the stone, and press all the letters over with the fingers, so as to
make a sharp bend; a break in the deep hollows does not matter. Then,
putting the paper on a drawing-board or sheet of millboard, cock it
up so that the shadow of the squeeze is seen, and draw over the lines
(starting at right base), referring to the stone whenever uncertain.
This is the only right way to copy hieroglyphics by hand. Note that
the edges are usually rather worn, and the drawn lines should be
inside the squeeze lines. If the stone is large, several lesser
sheets are best.
Where there is writing, or the relief is too faint to squeeze, put
the paper immediately below the first line, and draw it sign for
sign, so that the spacing is preserved and no omission is possible.
Fold back the paper as each line is copied, and so always keep the
copying close below the line of inscription.
If the signs are in an alphabet that is not familiar, refer to the
table of alphabets.
Sculpture
Sculpture in low relief can be copied best by dry squeeze. As the
connexion of the sheets used should be exact, put up the first sheet
truly vertical, and mark little pencil crosses at the corners on the
stone. Then the corners of successive sheets should be fitted into
the angles of the crosses. When inking in the pencil drawings, do not
carry the lines within two inches of the edges of the sheets. Then
place sheets edge to edge, adjust them to fit as best they may,
weight them heavily with books, turn back one edge and weight it, and
then slip a strip of wetted adhesive paper half-way under the edge
that is down; at once liberate the edge that is up, and dab (not rub)
both heavily down on the adhesive. This makes a joint free of
cockling, and when dry the inking can be completed across the joint.
Where there is any colour remaining on sculpture or inscription, only
dry squeezing is permissible.
Where signs are worn or decayed it is needful to try various
lighting. This can be done in the open air, by shading the part by
the hands placed around it as a sort of tube, the head blocking out
the light over the tube. Then quickly raise a hand alternately, so as
to reverse the oblique lighting, and watch the effect on the sign.
If the stone has not too tender a face, careful washing often brings
out an inscription; and in such cases it is usually far easier to
copy from a wet than from a dry stone.
If reliefs have been much weathered they can be made plain for
photographing by laying horizontal and covering with sand; on wiping
away the sand from the relief the ground will be left flat sand, so
hiding the confused hollows of weathering.
The safest way for drawings to travel is to post them at the nearest
post direct to where they will be worked up. The Postal Union takes
rolls of 21 cm. thick, 60 cm. long, up to 5 kilos as parcels, or
rolls of 10 cm. thick, 75 cm. long, up to 2 kilos by book post open
at ends. This is far better than carrying rolls by hand.
Wet squeezing. Where there is no colour, and the stone is strong and
not crumbling, a wet squeeze is the best copy. There are three
purposes for it, and the method differs for each; (1) thin single
sheet kept fresh on the outer face for photographing later; or (2)
single sheet well beaten in and patched, depending on pricking the
outlines and hand-copy from it, or blacking over the relief on the
inner side and photographing; or (3) double sheet hard beaten, and
patched in the hollows, for plaster casting afterwards.
For (1) there is no need to get an impression of the hollows to the
bottom, and the face of the paper should be smooth. A soft paper,
with little or no size, and a soft clothes-brush will do well for
this. The sheet should cover the whole inscription, or have as few
joints as may be. The stone should be dabbed with a wet brush so as
to saturate the face, the sheet of paper well soaked in water laid
upon it, taking care not to leave bubbles, and then dabbing firmly
with the brush will drive the paper into the hollows. If the stone is
polished or very smooth, it is needful to peel off the paper while
wet by holding two corners, and lay it reversed on a flat surface to
dry; if left on the stone the contraction will destroy the impress.
Out of doors the paper can be held down by pebbles around it, or by
sand on the edges, to prevent the wind catching it.
(2) The stronger squeeze should be of a tough paper with moderate
sizing. Cut the paper to the form of the stone. Thrust it into a pail
of water, knead it about vigorously, roll it into a ball and pummel
it, so as to break the grain and let the water well into it. Then wet
the stone, shake out the paper like a wet handkerchief, full of
creases, lay it on the stone and begin to beat it in with a hard,
long spoke-brush. A few strokes round the edge will catch it down so
that the wind does not disturb it. Then begin to beat it heavily
along the top edge; beat it to a pulp, and patch with strips left
soaking in the water wherever breaks occur. If the stone is porous
the paper may part from it, especially if expanded by beating; the
only course then is to slush more water on the face so that it will
go through the breaks and hold the paper down again. It may be
needful to slit the paper to let the water go below it. Beat down
again, enough to fix it.
(3) For casting purposes a final backing sheet, moderately beaten on,
is needed to hold the squeeze together and stiffen it. Either (2) or
(3) can be left on the face of the stone till quite dry, and then
carefully detached by lifting up from one corner, and slipping a
dinner-knife or a slip of wood under the paper to lift any part that
sticks.
Stiff squeezes as (3) must be packed flat; thin, as (1) and sometimes
(2), may be rolled in a large curve, but this always deteriorates a
squeeze.
For plaster casting, a squeeze should be heated on a stove and
brushed over with melted paraffin, or better wax, sufficient to cover
the face without choking the finer detail. Before each cast the face
should be lightly oiled with a tuft of wool.
Small objects.
These can be copied by a thin paper squeeze, and the squeeze may be
mounted by pasting a card and lightly pressing the squeeze back down
on it. This will take out all cockling and make it lie flat for
photographing.
Tin-foil is very handy for squeezes, and may be saved from chocolate
for this. Press it firmly on a coin or seal with a tuft of wool, or
beat it with a soft tooth-brush, being careful to avoid creases. The
foil should then be floated on water, hollow back up, and blazing
sealing-wax dropped into it to back it. The resulting positive can be
then stuck on card.
For plaster casts of coins the face should be dusted with French
chalk, as also a smooth bed of plasticine; the coin can then be
pressed in safely without any possible risk, and afterward plaster
cast in the mould. Sealing-wax is said to be sharper, but there is a
risk of its sticking to the coin. If it is used, breathe hard on the
coin, or wet it, before impressing; and when first set lift it
slightly to detach it, and then replace till cold. Or tin-foil may be
used, as in making positives; but, instead of floating on water,
press plasticine on the foil while it is still on the object.
For curved surfaces, as cylinders, any of these methods can be used;
the plasticine is the more successful.
In all casting of plaster on a small scale, use a soft camel-hair
brush. Mix the plaster in the palm of the hand with a knife, take up
some of the wettest to brush over the face of the moulds (a dozen
scarabs or small coins done at once); then put he brush in water, and
take up thicker plaster with a pocket-knife to drop on as a backing.
This avoids air bubbles without using too weak a plaster.
Copying hieroglyphic inscriptions.
Where possible a wet or a dry squeeze should be taken of any
inscription. When hand copying is necessary, the main matter is to
get the cartouches of king's names accurately, and the date at the
beginning, examining specially whether single strokes, I I I I, have
been connected above, n n, forming the ten sign. The main difficulty
for any one not knowing the 800 signs is to distinguish between those
that are alike, especially when damaged. For this purpose the
commonest signs that may be confused are here placed together, so
that the essential points of difference may be noticed. A small cross
is placed here by small points of distinction which might escape
notice.
[Illustration I: SOME HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS LIABLE TO BE CONFUSED WITH
EACH OTHER]
6. Photography.
The camera and material have been described under outfit.
Lighting and preparation of objects is a main element of success.
When first looking over any ruins, make a list of every view wanted,
with the time of day when the sun will be right for it. Then follow
the time-table, and so get the best lighting all in one day.
For movable stones or figures place them in half-shade, as a doorway,
and then tilt every way until the best lighting is found, fix them in
that position, and then set up the camera square with them.
The camera should usually be fixed to look downward vertically, and
then variation up to 40 degrees can be got by the legs. Hold the
camera in the right position, keeping the legs off the ground, and
then drop the legs to find their own place; thus very skew positions
can be fixed quickly.
Small objects are best laid on black velvet, and taken vertically.
Scraps of charcoal are useful to prop them in exact positions. A
sheet of white paper stuck on a leg of the stand may be useful to
prevent shadows being too heavy. Where outline, and not flat detail,
is wanted, then a light ground is best; the most perfect is a sheet
of ground glass with white paper a foot or two below it. If the
ground glass cannot be had, a good substitute-also useful for a
camera glass-is plain glass with a sheet of tissue paper (or the
packing paper of films) stuck on with paraffin wax.
The dressing of objects to show up clearly is often needful. Incised
objects can be filled in with charcoal powder if light, or chalk if
dark; in any case a coarse powder, so as not to stain the object. For
faint cutting on glass or crystal go over the lines with 'China ink
in a pen, so as to cover them. Harden the ink in the sun, and then
gently wipe with a damp finger until all the excess is removed and
only the roughness of the lines remains black. On large objects light
dust or sand is often useful, to make relief clearer.
For objects in a bad light, or in the interior of tombs, reflected
light must be used. Lids of biscuit tins serve well; a lid in the sun
sixty feet off, and another lid reflecting the light on to a wall,
will suffice for a two minutes' exposure of a slow plate. Three or
four successive reflections into a totally dark chamber will suffice
in five or six minutes.
When an important subject cannot be revisited it is well to take
duplicates; the camera should be shifted laterally a few inches for a
near object, or a few feet for a distant view, and then the two films
will form a stereograph, if both succeed.
In arranging groups of small objects, put together what will go in a
three-inch circle, and minor pieces around, and then the best in the
middle can be printed direct on lantern slides.
7. Preservation and Packing.
While travelling little can be done for preserving objects. Papyrus
rolls should be wrapped at once in a damp handkerchief, to be
carried, and then wrapped in paper, packed in a tin box, and filled
round with cotton wool. Small papyri can be safely damped in a wet
cloth, and flattened out between the leaves of a book; secure one
edge straight in the hinge, and gradually press flat and secure by
advancing leaves over it. Glass, if perfect, should be packed in tins
with wool; old food or tobacco tins do well for tender things.
Flint implements and coins, though hardy, should be saved from
grinding by wrapping in waste paper.
Ivory, if it has been buried, is very liable to flake. The cure is to
soak it in paraffin wax; but temporarily it is secured by winding
cotton thread round it in many directions. Some anoint it with
vaseline, but if vaseline penetrates the ivory, it will not take up
paraffin or gelatine later. Tender wood may be likewise saved.
A much-cracked glazed jar was packed by winding string round it in
all directions, with tufts of wool under the string.
A whole mummy in most fragile condition, so that it could not be
lifted, was made up solid with 40 lb. of paraffin wax which was
melted out of it afterwards in England, making hardly any change. If
contracted burials should be preserved, dust carefully, splash on
about 5 lb. of paraffin wax heated to smoking-point. When cold,
detach from soil, turn over, paraffin the lower side, and build up
weak parts with a sludge of melted paraffin and sand, nearly chilled.
About 8 to 10 lb. of wax will do the whole. The skull should be
packed separately. Pad all hollows of the body with soft rag to
spread pressure in packing. Paraffin wax is the best preservative as
it is tough, and may be used as a coat over an object for safety.
When not needed it can be cut away, or melted away, and cleaned off
completely with benzol. It should be melted in an iron saucepan, as
solder will give way if it is superheated. As it melts at about 120
degrees F., and boils at about 600 degrees F., it can be greatly
superheated, and used when smoking, so as to penetrate deeply into
wood or porous material. It is perfect for strengthening skulls; most
rotten examples slopped with paraffin, and finally soused for a few
seconds so as entirely to cover the bone in and out, will travel
safely, if not crushed.
Boxes must always have corner posts, inside or out; see that the
sides are nailed up to the edges to the posts, or the lid or bottom
may part by the side splitting. See that all nails--except for the
lid--are driven slanting alternately one way and reversed, this
prevents sides or bottom drawing off. Nail the lid with many short
nails, so that it can be raised without splitting.
To secure heavy objects in a mixed box, an inverted rough stool is
the best, the cross piece on the object below, and the sides coming
up to the lid. If cross bars are nailed in a box, damage may be done
to an object in forcing the bars loose. It is often best to put heavy
and light things in the same box, to equalize weights in journeying;
if well secured, a mixed boxful travels well. Be very careful that a
wedge-shaped stone cannot force itself loose by repeated jolts, or it
may split a box.
Slabs of stone ire best packed in open shallow boxes face down on
straw or wool, secured by a few diagonal cross bars on the top, as
then they do not need to be opened for customs. All stones of regular
form should be supported at a fifth of the length from each end. No
bedding on a box is worth anything, as the box will bend more than
the stone, and the strain will all come on the middle. Very heavy
blocks are best with sacking on the face, and roped round in various
parts.
Pottery is most difficult to pack safely. For large jars, mark the
points of contact on the box, and nail on cushions of old cloth
stuffed hard with straw, so as to pad the jar on all sides; make sure
that it cannot twist about into a diagonal position off the pads.
Long boxes, five or six feet, with three or four cross divisions, are
best. Begin packing, say four pots with straw, at one end of the box,
press up a cross board tight on them, and nail through the sides:
then another batch likewise; about one inch thick of hard-pressed
straw is needful at each contact. Twist straw into rough bands, and
wind it round each pot. Fill up corners to prevent the bands shifting
loose. Empty small tins make good stuffing for blank spaces. Old
newspapers torn to bits and rolled into balls make good packing for
pots and hold them firmly, but this method is dangerous if the
packing becomes wetted. Pots should always be packed tight. Old
sacking or cotton stuff may be tied on over the mouth of large pots,
to prevent straw slipping in, and loosening the packing.
Bronzes and coins should not be cleaned in any way, till in a settled
work place.
8. Forgeries and. Buying.
Most travellers wish to buy some things of interest, and in remote
districts they may do good service in rescuing important objects
which may be wanted in museums. Forgeries are ubiquitous, even in
most obscure places in the hands of peasants, either supplied by
dealers, or casually obtained, often in good faith. It is best to
inquire of local collectors and museums as to the kinds of forgeries
met with. The following notes are to show the novice how far he may
go safely.
Bronze figures with a thick red patina, which scales off readily
sometimes, or with thick green patina cracked, or hard green or brown
patina, are safe. Thin green patina, or bare brown or black metal is
dubious.
Papyri in roll, flexible though fragile, in known Greek or Egyptian
writing, are fairly safe. Lumps stuck together, brown and scrappy,
are made up.
Coins cannot be safely bought unless patinated, copper or silver.
Only an expert can judge of gold or 'clean silver.
Jewellery of small size, as earrings and bracelets, is generally
safe, if the age of the design is known. Modern wire is always drawn,
ancient is irregular. Look for concretions of lime in the hollows,
and for the dull face of old gold. If once cleaned there is little to
distinguish old from modern gold.
Stone vases if turned are Roman or modern. The ancient irregularities
should be studied from specimens.
Scarabs with nacreous or decomposed glaze in the hollows (as in the
deep cuts at the side) are safe; also, if there are natural cracks by
age, which would prevent modern cutting. There is a large variety of
skilful forgeries.
Stone statuettes: a skilled forger may be paid up to 100 pounds for a
figure to order. Only an expert can judge.
Never buy in the dusk or in dark rooms. When buying never have any
one at hand who calls attention to things, nor let any attendant
interfere. Seem entirely unconcerned.
Get the reputation of never advancing on offers, or bargaining; let
taking or leaving things at once be the rule. Time and delays are
money to the traveller, and it is worth much to save time in
haggling. Your donkey-boy will soon spread your character.
When offering for single things to a peasant, put the money by the
side of the antiquity, and say that he must take one or the other:
fingering the cash is irresistible, and no time is lost.
If it is likely that the source of an object will not be truly
stated, the way is to make the best guess you can, and say it
dogmatically: the pleasure of setting you right will often bring out
the truth, or if you guessed right it will gain you credit and break
down reserve.
As a principle it is well to be looked on as a liberal buyer, so as
to encourage the offer of antiquities. A little more thus spent will
be a trifling extra on the whole journey, and may largely increase
the results in objects and information for future work.
Though prices can only be learned by practice, and they vary in time
and place, yet the following scale may be taken as fairly safe.
Bronze figures if good work, inches high squared = shillings: except
in bad state, or Osiris, or bad clumsy work, or votive animals.
Papyri or parchment, continuous text, 1 pound a square foot,
accounts, half or a third.
Jewellery, between weight in coin and double that, according to work.
Scarabs, common but fair 2s., names 2s.-5s.; up to 5 pounds or 10
pounds if beautiful. Engraved gems, small common Roman, 2s.-4s. in
London, more in East; for a fair Greek 1 pound-10 pounds.
Coins often higher in the East than in London. In Greek lands copper
coins may be bought by weight, and picked over at leisure, and the
worthless coins rejected. For single coins fix a price, say half a
franc, and offers of large numbers may come in, from which the best
can be chosen and the rest refused.
Glass vases, blown, inches high squared at 4d. or 6d. each. Coloured
glass double or triple.
Ushabtis, poor 1s.-4s., fair 5s.-10s., fine blue or engraved 1 pound-
10 pounds.
LIST OF THE CHIEF BRITISH INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIETIES CONCERNED WITH
THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE NEAR AND MIDDLE EAST.
LONDON.
BRITISH MUSEUM, Bloomsbury, W.C.1.
Director, Sir F. G. Kenyon, K.C.B., P.B.A.
Keeper of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, Sir Ernest Wallis Budge,
Litt.D.
Keeper of British and Mediaeval Antiquities (including Prehistoric
Antiquities, Ethnology, and Oriental Antiquities) Sir Hercules Read,
F.B.A., P.S.A.
Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities, A. H. Smith M.A.
Keeper of Coins, G. F. Hill, F.B.A.
Keeper of MSS., J. P. Gilson, M.A.
Keeper of Oriental MSS. and Printed Books. L. D. Barnett, Litt.D.
VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, S. Kensington, S.W.7.
Director, Sir Cecil Harcourt Smith, C.V.O.
Assistant Keeper of Architecture and Sculpture, E. R. D. Maclagan.
Assistant Keeper of Ceramics, C. H. Wylde.
Keeper of Metalwork, W. W. Watts.
Keeper of Textiles, A. F. Kendrick.
Keeper of Woodwork, E. F. Strange, C.B.E.
BRITISH ACADEMY, Burlington House, Piccadilly, W.1.
Secretary, Sir I. Gollancz, Litt.D.
BRITISH SCHOOL AT ATHENS, 19 Bloomsbury Square, W.C.1,
Secretary, John Penoyre, C.B.E.
BRITISH SCHOOL IN JERUSALEM, c/o. Palestine Exploration Fund,
2 Hinde St., Manchester Square, W. 1. Secretary, Miss R. Woodley.
BRITISH SCHOOL AT ROME, 19 Bloomsbury Square, W.C.1.
Secretary of the Faculty of Archaeology, History and Letters,
E. J. Forsdyke.
PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND, 2 Hinde St., Manchester Square, W.1
Secretary, E. W. G. Masterman, M.D.
EGYPT EXPLORATION SOCIETY, 13 Tavistock Square, W.C.1.
Secretary, Miss Jonas.
EGYPTIAN RESEARCH ACCOUNT AND BRITISH SCHOOL OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN EGYPT.
Hon. Director, Prof. W. M. F. Petrie, F.R.S., F.B.A., University
College, Gower St., W.C.1.
SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF LONDON, Burlington House, W.1.
Secretary, C. R. Peers, F.S.A.
ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, 74 Grosvenor St., W. 1.
Secretary, Miss Eleanor Hull.
SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF HELLENIC STUDIES, 19 Bloomsbury Square,
W.C.1. Secretary and Librarian, John Penoyre, C.B.E.
ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS, 9 Conduit St., W.1.
Secretary, Ian MacAlister.
SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF ROMAN STUDIES, 19 Bloomsbury Square,
W.C.1. Secretary, Miss Margaret Ramsay.
ROYAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, 50 Gt. Russell St., W.C.1.
Secretaries, H. S. Harrison, T. A. Joyce, O.B.E.
ROYAL NUMISMATIC SOCIETY, 22 Russell Square, W.C.1.
Secretaries, J. Allan, Lt. Col. W. Morrieson.
ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, Lowther Lodge, Kensington Gore, S. W. 7.
Secretary, A. R. Hinks, F.R.S.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOINT COMMITTEE. Hon. Secretary, G. F. Hill, British
Museum, W.C.1.
CAMBRIDGE.
MUSEUM OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. Curator, Baron A. von Hugel.
FITZWILLIAM MUSEUM. Director, S. C. Cockerell, M.A.
OXFORD.
ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM. Keeper, D. G. Hogarth, C.M.G., F.B.A.
ATHENS.
BRITISH SCHOOL. Director, A. J. B. Wace.
JERUSALEM.
BRITISH SCHOOL. Director, Prof. J. Garstang.
ROME.
BRITISH SCHOOL, Valle Giulia. Director, Thomas Ashby, D.Litt.
THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOINT COMMITTEE
Society or other Body. Representatives.
British Academy Sir F. G. Kenyon, K.C.B.
(Chairman of Committee).
Prof. Percy Gardner.
Sir W. M. Ramsay.
Royal Anthropological Institute Sir Everard Im Thurn.
Prof. Arthur Keith.
Society of Antiquaries Sir Arthur Evans.
Sir Hercules Read.
Royal Institute of British Architects Prof. W. R. Lethaby.
Prof. A. G. Dickie.
Royal Asiatic Society F. Legge.
R. Sewell.
British School at Athens J. P. Droop.
Byzantine Research Fund Sir Hercules Read.
Egypt Exploration Society Sir F. G. Kenyon, K.C.B.
Dr. Alan Gardiner.
Egyptian Research Account Prof. Flinders Petrie.
Prof. Ernest Gardner.
Society for the Promotion A. H. Smith.
of Hellenic Studies G. F. Hill (Hon. Sec. of
Committee).
British School at Jerusalem Prof. Flinders Petrie.
D. G. Hogarth, C.M.G.
Royal Numismatic Society Prof. C. Oman, M.P.
G. F. Hill.
Palestine Exploration Fund Dr. G. Buchanan Gray.
Prof. A. G. Dickie
Society for the Promotion of Miss Gertrude Bell.
Roman Studies O. M. Dalton.
--------------------------------------------
British Museum Sir F. G. Kenyon, K.C.B.
Victoria and Albert Museum Sir Cecil Harcourt Smith,
C.V.O.
PART II
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
The aim of the special sections contained in Chapters III-VIII is to
describe, not the objects usually to be seen in Museums, but only
such things as will be found lying out on mounds and sites, and as
are more or less distinctive of a period. Thus certain comparatively
trivial objects are named, because they are peculiar to a period, and
likely to be found in a casual passage over a site, whereas other
objects, common to several periods, are ignored. Only the
distinctive, key objects are mentioned. The great features of Greek
Art, for instance, are not dealt with in Chapter II; nor are coins,
the probabilities of finding them being too slender, and the
possibilities too wide. Nevertheless, coins when found should be
carefully quoted. Pottery naturally takes the largest place, as it
was abundant, and its fragments are a good guide to period, and being
practically indestructible and of no intrinsic value are most likely
to be met with. The difference between pottery made with the use of
the wheel and that made without is important to be noted. The use of
the wheel can usually be detected through the slight inequalities of
the clay that make a series of parallel lines on the inner surface.
The diagrammatic representations of the pot-forms characteristic of
various periods or of other objects ranging through a civilization
the main features of which can be shown in outline will, it is hoped,
be found useful. Simplified tables of alphabets, intended to make it
possible roughly to identify the script, if not the date, of an
inscription, are also given.
CHAPTER I
FLINT IMPLEMENTS
See Diagrams, [Illustrations II: Flint Implements]
As the development of Flint Implements follows more or less the same
course in all the districts with which this volume deals, a general
description is given here, to avoid repetition in the special
sections.
The earlier periods of man are so remote that geological changes,
wet, and decay, have removed nearly all his works except the flint
tools. It is to these chiefly that we must look for our knowledge of
his abilities. Flints are nearly all that we have for the early
stages, to supply what arts, history, and literature give in later
stages. To preserve and educe all we possibly can obtain from their
situation, and purpose, is a main duty to history. To destroy or
confuse the evidence, by removing specimens without a record, or by
shifting them to a different place, is a crime in science. As there
is no temptation to ignorant peasants to move flints until they are
induced by collectors, so the whole fault of the wreckage that has
taken place in many sites lies on the plundering collector. No money
or reward should be given for any flints; a few fine specimens may be
lost, but vastly more harm would be done by encouraging mere raiding.
The periods and styles that are now recognized are shown on the
diagram--and their conditions were:
Style Climate Sea level
Eolithic (Pliocene) ?
Rostrocarinate (Crag) ?
Strepyan warmer lower
Chellean warm low
Acheulian cooler rising
Mousterian cold high
Aurignacian less cold lower
Solutrean warmer low
Magdalenian colder rising
Neolithic as present
Differences of heat may be 20 degrees or 30 degrees + or -
Differences of level may be 600-800 ft. + or -
The information required of all observers is the level and conditions
of all flint tools that they may see or collect.
Gravels
containing tools may be surface gravels on a plateau; note then the
level, and the relation of them to any cliffs; do they end abruptly
at a cliff edge, showing that the valley was filled up; or do they
fade away to the edge, showing that they are older than the valley
erosion? Gravels may be the filling up of a valley which was
previously eroded; note the highest level at which they can be
traced; often little pockets of deposit, or traces of sandy strata,
can be found clinging high up on cliffs; also note the depths in the
gravel at which any tools are found. Any shells or bones in the
gravels are of the greatest value; the depth at which they are found
should be written on them at once, with the locality.
Surface flints
should have levels noted on them. If sharp they show that probably
submergence has not reached that level since; if worn, then water has
been up to a higher level, from which they have been washed down.
Levelling
may be read from a contour map, if there is such available. In most
countries it must be done by reading feet on an aneroid barometer,
set with zero of level scale to 30 ins. or 760 mm. Then visit as soon
as possible some point where a level is marked on the map, as a hill
top, and read the barometer. This will give the correction to be made
to all the previous notes. If there is no level recorded, get down to
a stream bed (the larger the better) and read it there, recording the
exact place on the map. The level may then be worked out
approximately by points above and below on the stream, for accurate
reading, hold the aneroid face up, gently tap it, and read; then face
down similarly, and take the mean. Guard that the wind does not blow
against any keyhole in the case.
Pencil all levels and localities on flints as soon as found. Ink in
the notes on the least prominent parts of the flint, in small capital
letters, when in camp, with waterproof China ink.
Styles of flint work.
The Eoliths are worn pebbles, chipped as if for scraping. The Rostro-
carinate flints found at the base of the Crag are long bars with a
beak-end, suited for breaking up earth. The human origin of both of
these classes is contested. Flints of Strepy type are nodular and
partly trimmed into cutting edges, the smooth surface being left as a
handle. The Chelles types are remarkable for regularity and fine bold
flaking; the worn butt (though best for handling) was eventually
flaked away to obtain an artistic uniform finish. The St. Acheul
series has finer flaking, the crust being completely removed: there
is a tendency to ovate or almond shapes, and the edges are often
curved, the reverse S-curve being preferred, They diminish in size
towards the end of the period. The Chelles and St. Acheul series are
core implements, made by detaching flakes; and the succeeding (Le
Moustier) method is to use the flakes, generally for scraping. The
LA, EM the diagram is transitional from St. Acheul to Le Moustier.
The form marked M is the predecessor of the Solutrean form next below
it. The Aurignacian is a smaller flake industry, with many lumps more
or less conical, and often with careful parallel flaking or fluting.
The Solutre culture brought in a new style, particularly thin blades
with delicate surface flaking which seems to have reappeared in the
late Neolithic. The pointed borers, certain arrow-heads and minutely
chipped rods of flint are characteristic of the period, and flints of
this age are found on the Egyptian and Syrian deserts. Longer blades,
sometimes very coarse, with ends worn by scraping, mark the period of
La Madeleine. They are found in prehistoric Egyptian graves, along
with Neolithic knives and lances. As a technical advance on flaking
by blows or pressure, grinding and incidental polishing of flint
implements are regarded as characteristic of the Neolithic period;
and the practice may have started in areas devoid of flint, where it
was necessary to utilize local material that could not be flaked like
flint. In Europe generally, polished celts belong to the Megalithic
or latest division of the Neolithic, but this implement appeared much
earlier, and in a sense succeeded the Palaeolithic hand-axe. The
latter is not known to have been hafted, and its working edges were
at the pointed end; whereas in Neolithic times the implement had
become an axe in the modern sense, with the pointed end inserted in a
haft, and the cutting edge removed to the broader end. There are many
other Neolithic types, used with or without a haft, and only a small
proportion were finished by grinding on sandstone.