CHARTERHOUSE. This name is an English corruption of the French _maison

chartreuse_, a religious house of the Carthusian order. As such it

occurs not uncommonly in England, in various places (e.g.

Charterhouse-on-Mendip, Charterhouse Hinton) where the Carthusians were

established. It is most familiar, however, in its application to the

Charterhouse, London. On a site near the old city wall, west of the

modern thoroughfare of Aldersgate, a Carthusian monastery was founded in

1371 by Sir Walter de Manny, a knight of French birth. After its

dissolution in 1535 the property passed through various hands. In 1558,

while in the possession of Lord North, it was occupied by Queen

Elizabeth during the preparations for her coronation, and James I. held

court here on his first entrance into London. The Charterhouse was then

in the hands of Thomas Howard, earl of Suffolk, but in May 1611 it came

into those of Thomas Sutton (1532-1611) of Snaith, Lincolnshire. He

acquired a fortune by the discovery of coal on two estates which he had

leased near Newcastle-on-Tyne, and afterwards, removing to London, he

carried on a commercial career. In the year of his death, which took

place on the 12th of December 1611, he endowed a hospital on the site

of the Charterhouse, calling it the hospital of King James; and in his

will he bequeathed moneys to maintain a chapel, hospital (almshouse) and

school. The will was hotly contested but upheld in court, and the

foundation was finally constituted to afford a home for eighty male

pensioners ("gentlemen by descent and in poverty, soldiers that have

borne arms by sea or land, merchants decayed by piracy or shipwreck, or

servants in household to the King or Queen's Majesty"), and to educate

forty boys. The school developed beyond the original intentions of its

founder, and now ranks among the most eminent public schools in England.

In 1872 it was removed, during the headmastership (1863-1897) of the

Rev. William Haig-Brown (d. 1907), to new buildings near Godalming in

Surrey, which were opened on the 18th of June in that year. The number

of foundation scholarships is increased to sixty. The scholars are not

now distinguished by wearing a special dress or by forming a separate

house, though one house is known as Gownboys, preserving the former

title of the scholars. The land on which the old school buildings stood

in London was sold for new buildings to accommodate the Merchant

Taylors' school, but the pensioners still occupy their picturesque home,

themselves picturesque figures in the black gowns designed for them

under the foundation. The buildings, of mellowed red brick, include a

panelled chapel, in which is the founder's tomb, a fine dining-hall,

governors' room with ornate ceiling and tapestried walls, the old

library, and the beautiful great staircase.

CHARTER-PARTY (Lat. _charta partita_, a legal paper or instrument,

"divided," i.e. written in duplicate so that each party retains half), a

written, or partly written and partly printed, contract between merchant

and shipowner, by which a ship is let or hired for the conveyance of

goods on a specified voyage, or for a definite period. (See

AFFREIGHTMENT.)

CHARTERS TOWERS, a mining town of Devonport county, Queensland,

Australia, 82 m. by rail S.W. of Townsville and 820 m. direct N.N.W. of

Brisbane. It is the centre of an important gold-field, the reefs of

which improve at the lower depths, the deepest shaft on the field being

2558 ft. below the surface-level. The gold is of a very fine quality. An

abundant water-supply is obtained from the Burdekin river, some 8 m.

distant. The population of the town in 1901 was 5523; but within a 5 m.

radius it was 20,976. Charters Towers became a municipality in 1877.

CHARTIER, ALAIN (c. 1392-c. 1430), French poet and political writer, was

born at Bayeux about 1392. Chartier belonged to a family marked by

considerable ability. His eldest brother Guillaume became bishop of

Paris; and Thomas became notary to the king. Jean Chartier, a monk of St

Denis, whose history of Charles VII. is printed in vol. iii. of _Les

Grands Chroniques de Saint-Denis_ (1477), was not, as is sometimes

stated, also a brother of the poet Alain studied, as his elder brother

had done, at the university of Paris. His earliest poem is the _Livre des

quatre dames_, written after the battle of Agincourt. This was followed

by the _Debat du reveille-matin_, _La Belle Dame sans merci_, and others.

None of these poems show any very patriotic feeling, though Chartier's

prose is evidence that he was not indifferent to the misfortunes of his

country. He followed the fortunes of the dauphin, afterwards Charles

VII., acting in the triple capacity of clerk, notary and financial

secretary. In 1422 he wrote the famous _Quadrilogue-invectif_. The

interlocutors in this dialogue are France herself and the three orders of

the state. Chartier lays bare the abuses of the feudal army and the

sufferings of the peasants. He rendered an immense service to his country

by maintaining that the cause of France, though desperate to all

appearance, was not yet lost if the contending factions could lay aside

their differences in the face of the common enemy. In 1424 Chartier was

sent on an embassy to Germany, and three years later he accompanied to

Scotland the mission sent to negotiate the marriage of Margaret of

Scotland, then not four years old, with the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI.

In 1429 he wrote the _Livre d'esperance_, which contains a fierce attack

on the nobility and clergy. He was the author of a diatribe on the

courtiers of Charles VII. entitled _Le Curial_, translated into English

(_Here foloweth the copy of a lettre whyche maistre A. Charetier wrote to

his brother_) by Caxton about 1484. The date of his death is to be placed

about 1430. A Latin epitaph, discovered in the 18th century, says,

however, that he was archdeacon of Paris, and declares that he died in

the city of Avignon in 1449. This is obviously not authentic, for Alain

described himself as a _simple clerc_ and certainly died long before

1449. The story of the famous kiss bestowed by Margaret of Scotland on

_la precieuse bouche de laquelle sont issus et sortis tant de bons mots

et vertueuses paroles_ is mythical, for Margaret did not come to France

till 1436, after the poet's death; but the story, first told by Guillaume

Bouchet in his _Annales d'Aquitaine_ (1524), is interesting, if only as a

proof of the high degree of estimation in which the ugliest man of his

day was held. Jean de Masles, who annotated a portion of his verse, has

recorded how the pages and young gentlemen of that epoch were required

daily to learn by heart passages of his _Breviaire des nobles_. John

Lydgate studied him affectionately. His _Belle Dame sans merci_ was

translated into English by Sir Richard Ros about 1640, with an

introduction of his own; and Clement Marot and Octavien de Saint-Gelais,

writing fifty years after his death, find many fair words for the old

poet, their master and predecessor.

See Mancel, _Alain Chartier, etude bibliographique et litteraire_, 8vo

(Paris, 1849); D. Delaunay's _Etude sur Alain Chartier_ (1876), with

considerable extracts from his writings. His works were edited by A.

Duchesne (Paris, 1617). On Jean Chartier see Vallet de Viriville,

"Essais critiques sur les historiens originaux du regne de Charles

VIII," in the _Bibl. de l'Ecole des Chartes_ (July-August 1857).

CHARTISM, the name given to a movement for political reform in England,

from the so-called "People's Charter" or "National Charter," the

document in which in 1838 the scheme of reforms was embodied. The

movement itself may be traced to the latter years of the 18th century.

Checked for a while by the reaction due to the excesses of the French

Revolution, it received a fresh impetus from the awful misery that

followed the Napoleonic wars and the economic changes due to the

introduction of machinery. The Six Acts of 1819 were directed, not only

against agrarian and industrial rioting, but against the political

movement of which Sir Francis Burdett was the spokesman in the House of

Commons, which demanded manhood suffrage, the ballot, annual

parliaments, the abolition of the property qualification for members of

parliament and their payment. The movement was checked for a while by

the Reform Bill of 1832; but it was soon discovered that, though the

middle classes had been enfranchised, the economic and political

grievances of the labouring population remained unredressed. Two

separate movements now developed: one socialistic, associated with the

name of Robert Owen; the other radical, aiming at the enfranchisement of

the "masses" as the first step to the amelioration of their condition.

The latter was represented in the Working Men's Association, by which in

1838 the "People's Charter" was drawn up. It embodied exactly the same

programme as that of the radical reformers mentioned above, with the

addition of a demand for equal electoral districts.

In support of this programme a vigorous agitation began, the principal

leader of which was Feargus O'Connor, whose irresponsible and erratic

oratory produced a vast effect. Monster meetings were held, at which

seditious language was occasionally used, and slight collisions with the

military took place. Petitions of enormous size, signed in great part

with fictitious names, were presented to parliament; and a great many

newspapers were started, of which the _Northern Star_, conducted by

Feargus O'Connor, had a circulation of 50,000. In November 1839 a

Chartist mob consisting of miners and others made an attack on Newport,

Mon. The rising was a total failure; the leaders, John Frost and two

others, were seized, were found guilty of high treason, and were

condemned to death. The sentence, however, was changed to one of

transportation, and Frost spent over fourteen years in Van Diemen's

Land. In 1854 he was pardoned, and from 1856 until his death on the 29th

of July 1877 he lived in England. In 1840 the Chartist movement was

still further organized by the inauguration at Manchester of the

National Charter Association, which rapidly became powerful, being the

head of about 400 sister societies, which are said to have numbered

40,000 members. Some time after, efforts were made towards a coalition

with the more moderate radicals, but these failed; and a land scheme was

started by O'Connor, which prospered for a few years. In 1844 the

uncompromising spirit of some of the leaders was well illustrated by

their hostile attitude towards the Anti-Corn-Law League. O'Connor,

especially, entered into a public controversy with Cobden and Bright, in

which he was worsted. But it was not till 1848, during a season of great

suffering among the working classes, and under the influence of the

revolution at Paris, that the real strength of the Chartist movement was

discovered and the prevalent discontent became known. Early in March

disturbances occurred in Glasgow which required the intervention of the

military, while in the manufacturing districts all over the west of

Scotland the operatives were ready to rise in the event of the main

movement succeeding. Some agitation, too, took place in Edinburgh and in

Manchester, but of a milder nature; in fact, while there was a real and

widespread discontent, men were indisposed to resort to decided

measures.

The principal scene of intended Chartist demonstration was London. An

enormous gathering of half a million was announced for the 10th of April

on Kennington Common, from which they were to march to the Houses of

Parliament to present a petition signed by nearly six million names, in

order by this imposing display of numbers to secure the enactment of the

six points. Probably some of the more violent members of the party

thought to imitate the Parisian mob by taking power entirely into their

own hands. The announcement of the procession excited great alarm, and

the most decided measures were taken by the authorities to prevent a

rising. The procession was forbidden. The military were called out under

the command of the duke of Wellington, and by him concealed near the

bridges and other points where the procession might attempt to force its

way. Even the Bank of England and other public buildings were put in a

state of defence, and special constables, to the number, it is said, of

170,000, were enrolled, one of whom was destined shortly after to be the

emperor of the French. After all these gigantic preparations on both

sides the Chartist demonstration proved to be a very insignificant

affair. Instead of half a million, only about 50,000 assembled on

Kennington Common, and their leaders, Feargus O'Connor and Ernest

Charles Jones, shrank from the responsibility of braving the authorities

by conducting the procession to the Houses of Parliament. The monster

petition was duly presented, and scrutinized, with the result that the

number of signatures was found to have been grossly exaggerated, and

that the most unheard-of falsification of names had been resorted to.

Thereafter the movement specially called Chartism soon died out. It

became merged, so far as its political programme is concerned, with the

advancing radicalism of the general democratic movement.

CHARTRES, a city of north-western France, capital of the department of

Eure-et-Loir, 55 m. S.W. of Paris on the railway to Le Mans. Pop. (1906)

19,433. Chartres is built on the left bank of the Eure, on a hill

crowned by its famous cathedral, the spires of which are a landmark in

the surrounding country. To the south-east stretches the fruitful plain

of Beauce, "the granary of France," of which the town is the commercial

centre. The Eure, which at this point divides into three branches, is

crossed by several bridges, some of them ancient, and is fringed in

places by remains of the old fortifications, of which the Porte

Guillaume (14th century), a gateway flanked by towers, is the most

complete specimen. The steep, narrow streets of the old town contrast

with the wide, shady boulevards which encircle it and divide it from the

suburbs. The Clos St Jean, a pleasant park, lies to the north-west, and

squares and open spaces are numerous. The cathedral of Notre-Dame (see

ARCHITECTURE: _Romanesque and Gothic Architecture in France_; and

CATHEDRAL), one of the finest Gothic churches in France, was founded in

the 11th century by Bishop Fulbert on the site of an earlier church

destroyed by fire. In 1194 another conflagration laid waste the new

building then hardly completed; but clergy and people set zealously to

work, and the main part of the present structure was finished by 1240.

Though there have been numerous minor additions and alterations since

that time, the general character of the cathedral is unimpaired. The

upper woodwork was consumed by fire in 1836, but the rest of the

building was saved. The statuary of the lateral portals, the stained

glass of the 13th century, and the choir-screen of the Renaissance are

all unique from the artistic standpoint. The cathedral is also renowned

for the beauty and perfect proportions of its western towers. That to

the south, the Clocher Vieux (351 ft. high), dates from the 13th

century; its upper portion is lower and less rich in design than that of

the Clocher Neuf (377 ft.), which was not completed till the 16th

century. In length the cathedral measures 440 ft., its choir measures

150 ft. across, and the height of the vaulting is 121 ft. The abbey

church of St Pierre, dating chiefly from the 13th century, contains,

besides some fine stained glass, twelve representations of the apostles

in enamel, executed about 1547 by Leonard Limosin. Of the other churches

of Chartres the chief are St Aignan (13th, 16th and 17th centuries) and

St Martin-au-Val (12th century). The hotel de ville, a building of the

17th century, containing a museum and library, an older hotel de ville

of the 13th century, and several medieval and Renaissance houses, are of

interest. There is a statue of General F.S. Marceau-Desgraviers (b.

1769), a native of the town.

The town is the seat of a bishop, a prefecture, a court of assizes, and

has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce,

training colleges, a lycee for boys, a communal college for girls, and a

branch of the Bank of France. Its trade is carried on chiefly on

market-days, when the peasants of the Beauce bring their crops and

live-stock to be sold and make their purchases. The game-pies and other

delicacies of Chartres are well known, and the industries also include

flour-milling, brewing, distilling, iron-founding, leather manufacture,

dyeing, and the manufacture of stained glass, billiard requisites,

hosiery, &c.

Chartres was one of the principal towns of the Carnutes, and by the

Romans was called _Autricum_, from the river _Autura_ (Eure), and

afterwards _civitas Carnutum_. It was burnt by the Normans in 858, and

unsuccessfully besieged by them in 911. In 1417 it fell into the hands

of the English, from whom it was recovered in 1432. It was attacked

unsuccessfully by the Protestants in 1568, and was taken in 1591 by

Henry IV., who was crowned there three years afterwards. In the

Franco-German War it was seized by the Germans on the 21st of October

1870, and continued during the rest of the campaign an important centre

of operations. During the middle ages it was the chief town of the

district of Beauce, and gave its name to a countship which was held by

the counts of Blois and Champagne and afterwards by the house of

Chatillon, a member of which in 1286 sold it to the crown. It was raised

to the rank of a duchy in 1528 by Francis I. After the time of Louis

XIV. the title of duke of Chartres was hereditary in the family of

Orleans.

See M.T. Bulteau, _Monographie de la cathedrale de Chartres_ (1887);

A. Pierval, _Chartres, sa cathedrale, ses monuments_ (1896); H.J.L.J.

Masse, _Chartres: its Cathedral and Churches_ (1900).

CHARTREUSE, a liqueur, so called from having been made at the famous

Carthusian monastery, La Grande Chartreuse, at Grenoble (see below). In

consequence of the Associations Law, the Chartreux monks left France in

1904, and now continue the manufacture of this liqueur in Spain. There

are two main varieties of Chartreuse, the green and the yellow. The

green contains about 57, the yellow about 43% of alcohol. There are

other differences due to the varying nature and quantity of the

flavouring matters employed, but the secrets of manufacture are

jealously guarded. The genuine liqueur is undoubtedly produced by means

of a distillation process.

CHARTREUSE, LA GRANDE, the mother house of the very severe order of

Carthusian monks (see CARTHUSIANS). It is situated in the French

department of the Isere, about 12-1/2 m. N. of Grenoble, at a height of

3205 ft. above the sea, in the heart of a group of limestone mountains,

and not far from the source of the Guiers Mort. The original settlement

here was founded by St Bruno about 1084, and derived its name from the

small village to the S.E., formerly known as Cartusia, and now as St

Pierre de Chartreuse. The first convent on the present site was built

between 1132 and 1137, but the actual buildings date only from about

1676, the older ones having been often burnt. The convent stands in a

very picturesque position in a large meadow, sloping to the S.W., and

watered by a tiny tributary of the Guiers Mort. On the north, fine

forests extend to the Col de la Ruchere, and on the west rise

well-wooded heights, while on the east tower white limestone ridges,

culminating in the Grand Som (6670 ft.). One of the most famous of the

early Carthusian monks was St Hugh of Lincoln, who lived here from 1160

to 1181, when he went to England to found the first Carthusian house at

Witham in Somerset; in 1186 he became bishop of Lincoln, and before his

death in 1200 had built the angel choir and other portions of the

wonderful cathedral there.

The principal approach to the convent is from St Laurent du Pont, a

village situated on the Guiers Mort, and largely built by the monks--it

is connected by steam tramways with Voiron (for Grenoble) and St Beron

(for Chambery). Among the other routes may be mentioned those from

Grenoble by Le Sappey, or by the Col de la Charmette, or from Chambery

by the Col de Couz and the village of Les Echelles. St Laurent is about

5-1/2 m. from the convent. The road mounts along the Guiers Mort and

soon reaches the hamlet of Fourvoirie, so called from _forata via_, as

about 1510 the road was first pierced hence towards the convent. Here

are iron forges, and here was formerly the chief centre of the

manufacture of the famed Chartreuse liqueur. Beyond, the road enters the

"Desert" and passes through most delightful scenery. Some way farther

the Guiers Mort is crossed by the modern bridge of St Bruno, the older

bridge of Parant being still visible higher up the stream. Here begins

the splendid carriage road, constructed by M.E. Viaud between 1854 and

1856. It soon passes beneath the bold pinnacle of the Oeillette or

Aiguillette, beyond which formerly women were not allowed to penetrate.

After passing through four tunnels the road bends north (leaving the

Guiers Mort which flows past St Pierre de Chartreuse), and the valley

soon opens to form the upland hollow in which are the buildings of the

convent. These are not very striking, the high roofs of dark slate, the

cross-surmounted turrets and the lofty clock-tower being the chief

features. But the situation is one of ideal peace and repose. Women were

formerly lodged in the old infirmary, close to the main gate, which is

now a hotel. Within the conventual buildings are four halls formerly

used for the reception of the priors of the various branch houses in

France, Italy, Burgundy and Germany. The very plain and unadorned chapel

dates from the 15th century, but the cloisters, around which cluster the

thirty-six small houses for the fully professed monks, are of later

date. The library contained before the Revolution a very fine collection

of books and MSS., now mostly in the town library at Grenoble.

The monks were expelled in 1793, but allowed to return in 1816, but then

they had to pay rent for the use of the buildings and the forests

around, though both one and the other were due to the industry of their

predecessors. They were again expelled in 1904, and are dispersed in

various houses in England, at Pinerolo (Italy) and at Tarragona (Spain).

It is at the last-named spot that the various pharmaceutical

preparations are now manufactured for which they are famous (though sold

only since about 1840)--the _Elixir_, the _Boule d'acier_ (a mineral

paste or salve), and the celebrated _liqueur_. The magnificent revenues

derived from the profits of this manufacture were devoted by the monks

to various purposes of benevolence, especially in the neighbouring

villages, which owe to this source their churches, schools, hospitals,

&c., &c., built and maintained at the expense of the monks.

See _La Grande Chartreuse par un Chartreux_ (Grenoble, 1898); H.

Ferrand, _Guide a la Grande Chartreuse_ (1889); and _Les Montagnes de

la Chartreuse_ (1899) (W. A. B. C.)

CHARWOMAN, one who is hired to do occasional household work. "Char" or

"chare," which forms the first part of the word, is common, in many

forms, to Teutonic languages, meaning a "turn," and, in this original

sense, is seen in "ajar," properly "on char," of a door "on the turn" in

the act of closing. It is thus applied to a "turn of work," an odd job,

and is so used, in the form "chore," in America, and in dialects of the

south-west of England.

CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND (1808-1873), American statesman and jurist, was

born in Cornish township, New Hampshire, on the 13th of January 1808.

His father died in 1817, and the son passed several years (1820-1824) in

Ohio with his uncle, Bishop Philander Chase (1775-1852), the foremost

pioneer of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the West, the first bishop

of Ohio (1819-1831), and after 1835 bishop of Illinois. He graduated at

Dartmouth College in 1826, and after studying law under William Wirt,

attorney-general of the United States, in Washington, D.C., was admitted

to the bar in 1829, and removed to Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1830. Here he

soon gained a position of prominence at the bar, and published an

annotated edition, which long remained standard, of the laws of Ohio. At

a time when public opinion in Cincinnati was largely dominated by

Southern business connexions, Chase, influenced probably by James G.

Birney, associated himself after about 1836 with the anti-slavery

movement, and became recognized as the leader of the political reformers

as opposed to the Garrisonian abolitionists. To the cause he freely gave

his services as a lawyer, and was particularly conspicuous as counsel

for fugitive slaves seized in Ohio for rendition to slavery under the

Fugitive Slave Law of 1793--indeed, he came to be known as the

"attorney-general of fugitive slaves." His argument (1847) in the famous

Van Zandt case before the United States Supreme Court attracted

particular attention, though in this as in other cases of the kind the

judgment was against him. In brief he contended that slavery was "local,

not national," that it could exist only by virtue of positive State Law,

that the Federal government was not empowered by the Constitution to

create slavery anywhere, and that "when a slave leaves the jurisdiction

of a state he ceases to be a slave, because he continues to be a man and

leaves behind him the law which made him a slave." In 1841 he abandoned

the Whig party, with which he had previously been affiliated, and for

seven years was the undisputed leader of the Liberty party in Ohio; he

was remarkably skilful in drafting platforms and addresses, and it was

he who prepared the national Liberty platform of 1843 and the Liberty

address of 1845. Realizing in time that a third party movement could not

succeed, he took the lead during the campaign of 1848 in combining the

Liberty party with the Barnburners or Van Buren Democrats of New York to

form the Free-Soilers. He drafted the famous Free-Soil platform, and it

was largely through his influence that Van Buren was nominated for the

presidency. His object, however, was not to establish a permanent new

party organization, but to bring pressure to bear upon Northern

Democrats to force them to adopt a policy opposed to the further

extension of slavery.

In 1849 he was elected to the United States Senate as the result of a

coalition between the Democrats and a small group of Free-Soilers in the

state legislature; and for some years thereafter, except in 1852, when

he rejoined the Free-Soilers, he classed himself as an Independent

Democrat, though he was out of harmony with the leaders of the

Democratic party. During his service in the Senate (1849-1855) he was

pre-eminently the champion of anti-slavery in that body, and no one

spoke more ably than he did against the Compromise Measures of 1850 and

the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. The Kansas-Nebraska legislation, and

the subsequent troubles in Kansas, having convinced him of the futility

of trying to influence the Democrats, he assumed the leadership in the

North-west of the movement to form a new party to oppose the extension

of slavery. The "Appeal of the Independent Democrats in Congress to the

People of the United States," written by Chase and Giddings, and

published in the New York _Times_ of the 24th of January 1854, may be

regarded as the earliest draft of the Republican party creed. He was the

first Republican governor of Ohio, serving from 1855 to 1859. Although,

with the exception of Seward, he was the most prominent Republican in

the country, and had done more against slavery than any other

Republican, he failed to secure the nomination for the presidency in

1860, partly because his views on the question of protection were not

orthodox from a Republican point of view, and partly because the old

line Whig element could not forgive his coalition with the Democrats in

the senatorial campaign of 1849; his uncompromising and conspicuous

anti-slavery record, too, was against him from the point of view of

"availability." As secretary of the treasury in President Lincoln's

cabinet in 1861-1864, during the first three years of the Civil War, he

rendered services of the greatest value. That period of crisis witnessed

two great changes in American financial policy, the establishment of a

national banking system and the issue of a legal tender paper currency.

The former was Chase's own particular measure. He suggested the idea,

worked out all of the important principles and many of the details, and

induced Congress to accept them. The success of that system alone

warrants his being placed in the first rank of American financiers. It

not only secured an immediate market for government bonds, but it also

provided a permanent uniform national currency, which, though inelastic,

is absolutely stable. The issue of legal tenders, the greatest financial

blunder of the war, was made contrary to his wishes, although he did

not, as he perhaps ought to have done, push his opposition to the point

of resigning.

Perhaps Chase's chief defect as a statesman was an insatiable desire for

supreme office. It was partly this ambition, and also temperamental

differences from the president, which led him to retire from the cabinet

in June 1864. A few months later (December 6, 1864) he was appointed

chief justice of the United States Supreme Court to succeed Judge Taney,

a position which he held until his death in 1873. Among his most

important decisions were _Texas v. White_ (7 Wallace, 700), 1869, in

which he asserted that the Constitution provided for an "indestructible

union composed of indestructible states," _Veazie Bank_ v. _Fenno_ (8

Wallace, 533), 1869, in defence of that part of the banking legislation

of the Civil War which imposed a tax of 10% on state bank-notes, and

_Hepburn_ v. _Griswold_ (8 Wallace, 603), 1869, which declared certain

parts of the legal tender acts to be unconstitutional. When the legal

tender decision was reversed after the appointment of new judges,

1871-1872 (Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wallace, 457), Chase prepared a very

able dissenting opinion. Toward the end of his life he gradually drifted

back toward his old Democratic position, and made an unsuccessful effort

to secure the nomination of the Democratic party for the presidency in

1872. He died in New York city on the 7th of May 1873. Chase was one of

the ablest political leaders of the Civil War period, and deserves to be

placed in the front rank of American statesmen.

The standard biography is A.B. Hart's _Salmon Portland Chase_ in the

"American Statesmen Series" (1899). Less philosophical, but containing

a greater wealth of detail, is J.W. Shuckers' _Life and Public

Services of Salmon Portland Chase_ (New York, 1874). R.B. Warden's

_Account of the Private Life and Public Services of Salmon Portland

Chase_ (Cincinnati, 1874) deals more fully with Chase's private life.

CHASE, SAMUEL (1741-1811), American jurist, was born in Somerset county,

Maryland, on the 17th of April 1741. He was admitted to the bar at

Annapolis in 1761, and for more than twenty years was a member of the

Maryland legislature. He took an active part in the resistance to the

Stamp Act, and from 1774 to 1778 and 1784 to 1785 was a member of the

Continental Congress. With Benjamin Franklin and Charles Carroll he was

sent by Congress in 1776 to win over the Canadians to the side of the

revolting colonies, and after his return did much to persuade Maryland

to advocate a formal separation of the thirteen colonies from Great

Britain, he himself being one of those who signed the Declaration of

Independence on the 2nd of August 1776. In this year he was also a

member of the convention which framed the first constitution for the

state of Maryland. After serving in the Maryland convention which

ratified for that state the Federal Constitution, and there vigorously

opposing ratification, though afterwards he was an ardent Federalist, he

became in 1791 chief judge of the Maryland general court, which position

he resigned in 1796 for that of an associate justice of the Supreme

Court of the United States. His radical Federalism, however, led him to

continue active in politics, and he took advantage of every opportunity,

on the bench and off, to promote the cause of his party. His overbearing

conduct while presiding at the trials of John Fries for treason, and of

James Thompson Callender (d. 1813) for seditious libel in 1800, drove

the lawyers for the defence from the court, and evoked the wrath of the

Republicans, who were stirred to action by a political harangue on the

evil tendencies of democracy which he delivered as a charge to a grand

jury at Baltimore in 1803. The House of Representatives adopted a

resolution of impeachment in March 1804, and on the 7th of December 1804

the House managers, chief among whom were John Randolph, Joseph H.

Nicholson (1770-1817), and Caesar A. Rodney (1772-1824), laid their

articles of impeachment before the Senate. The trial, with frequent

interruptions and delays, lasted from the 2nd of January to the 1st of

March 1805. Judge Chase was defended by the ablest lawyers in the

country, including Luther Martin, Robert Goodloe Harper (1765-1825),

Philip Barton Key (1757-1815), Charles Lee (1758-1815), and Joseph

Hopkinson (1770-1842). The indictment, in eight articles, dealt with his

conduct in the Fries and Callender trials, with his treatment of a

Delaware grand jury, and (in article viii.) with his making "highly

indecent, extra-judicial" reflections upon the national administration,

probably the greatest offence in Republican eyes. On only three articles

was there a majority against Judge Chase, the largest, on article viii.,

being four short of the necessary two-thirds to convict. "The case,"

says Henry Adams, "proved impeachment to be an impracticable thing for

partisan purposes, and it decided the permanence of those lines of

constitutional development which were a reflection of the common law."

Judge Chase resumed his seat on the bench, and occupied it until his

death on the 19th of June 1811.

See _The Trial of Samuel Chase_ (2 vols., Washington, 1805), reported

by Samuel H. Smith and Thomas Lloyd; an article in _The American Law

Review_, vol. xxxiii. (St Louis, Mo., 1899); and Henry Adams's

_History of the United States_, vol. ii. (New York, 1889).

CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (1849- ), American painter, was born at

Franklin, Indiana, on the 1st of November 1849. He was a pupil of B.F.

Hays at Indianapolis, of J.O. Eaton in New York, and subsequently of A.

Wagner and Piloty in Munich. In New York he established a school of his

own, after teaching with success for some years at the Art Students'

League. A worker in all mediums--oils, water-colour, pastel and

etching--painting with distinction the figure, landscape and still-life,

he is perhaps best known by his portraits, his sitters numbering some of

the most important men and women of his time. Mr Chase won many honours

at home and abroad, became a member of the National Academy of Design,

New York, and for ten years was president of the Society of American

Artists. Among his important canvases are "Ready for the Ride" (Union

League Club, N.Y.), "The Apprentice," "Court Jester," and portraits of

the painters Whistler and Duveneck; of General Webb and of Peter Cooper.

CHASE. (1) (Fr. _chasse_, from Lat. _captare_, frequentative of

_capere_, to take), the pursuit of wild animals for food or sport (see

HUNTING). The word is used of the pursuit of anything, and also of the

thing pursued, as, in naval warfare, of a ship. A transferred meaning is

that of park land reserved for the breeding and hunting of wild animals,

in which sense it appears in various place-names in England, as Cannock

Chase. It is also a term for a stroke in tennis (q.v.). (2) (Fr.

_chasse_, Lat. _capsa_, a box, cf. _caisse_, and "chest"), an enclosure,

such as the muzzle-end of a gun in front of the trunnions, a groove cut

to hold a pipe, and, in typography, the frame enclosing the "forme."

CHASING, or ENCHASING, the art of producing figures and ornamental

patterns, either raised or indented, on metallic surfaces by means of

steel tools or punches. It is practised extensively for the

ornamentation of goldsmith and silversmith work, electro-plate and

similar objects, being employed to produce bold flutings and bosses, and

in another manner utilized for imitating engraved surfaces. Minute work

can be produced by this method, perfect examples of which may be seen in

the watch-cases chased by G.M. Moser, R.A. (1704-1783). The chaser first

outlines the pattern on the surface he is to ornament, after which, if

the work involves bold or high embossments, these are blocked out by a

process termed "snarling." The snarling iron is a long iron tool turned

up at the end, and made so that when securely fastened in a vise the

upturned end can reach and press against any portion of the interior of

the vase or other object to be chased. The part to be raised being held

firmly against the upturned point of the snarling iron, the workman

gives the shoulder or opposite end of the iron a sharp blow, which

causes the point applied to the work to give it a percussive stroke, and

thus throw up the surface of the metal held against the tool. When the

blocking out from the interior is finished, or when no such embossing is

required, the object to be chased is filled with molten pitch, which is

allowed to harden. It is then fastened to a sandbag, and with hammer and

a multitude of small punches of different outline the whole details of

the pattern, lined, smooth or "matt," are worked out. Embossing and

stamping from steel dies and rolled ornaments have long since taken the

place of chased ornamentations in the cheaper kinds of plated works.

(See EMBOSSING.)

CHASLES, VICTOR EUPHEMIEN PHILARETE (1798-1873), French critic and man

of letters, was born at Mainvilliers (Eure et Loir) on the 8th of

October 1798. His father, Pierre Jacques Michel Chasles (1754-1826), was

a member of the Convention, and was one of those who voted the death of

Louis XVI. He brought up his son according to the principles of

Rousseau's _Emile_, and the boy, after a regime of outdoor life,

followed by some years' classical study, was apprenticed to a printer,

so that he might make acquaintance with manual labour. His master was

involved in one of the plots of 1815, and Philarete suffered two months'

imprisonment. On his release he was sent to London, where he worked for

the printer Valpy on editions of classical authors. He wrote articles

for the English reviews, and on his return to France did much to

popularize the study of English authors. He was also one of the earliest

to draw attention in France to Scandinavian and Russian literature. He

contributed to the _Revue des deux mondes_, until he had a violent

quarrel, terminating in a lawsuit, with Francois Buloz, who won his

case. He became librarian of the Bibliotheque Mazarine, and from 1841

was professor of comparative literature at the College de France. During

his active life he produced some fifty volumes of literary history and

criticism, and of social history, much of which is extremely valuable.

He died at Venice on the 18th of July 1873. His son, Emile Chasles (b.

1827), was a philologist of some reputation.

Among his best critical works is _Dix-huitieme Siecle en Angleterre_

... (1846), one of a series of 20 vols. of _Etudes de litterature

comparee_ (1846-1875), which he called later _Trente ans de critique_.

An account of his strenuous boyhood is given in his _Maison de mon

pere_. His _Memoires_ (1876-1877) did not fulfil the expectations

based on his brilliant talk.

CHASSE (from the Fr., in full _chasse-cafe_, or "coffee-chaser"), a

draught of spirit or liqueur, taken with or after coffee, &c.

CHASSE (Fr. for "chased"), a gliding step in dancing, so called since

one foot is brought up behind or chases the other. The _chasse croise_

is a double variety of the step.

CHASSELOUP-LAUBAT, FRANCOIS, MARQUIS DE (1754-1833), French general and

military engineer, was born at St Sernin (Lower Charente) on the 18th of

August 1754, of a noble family, and entered the French engineers in

1774. He was still a subaltern at the outbreak of the Revolution,

becoming captain in 1791. His ability as a military engineer was

recognized in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793. In the following year he

won distinction in various actions and was promoted successively _chef

de bataillon_ and colonel. He was chief of engineers at the siege of

Mainz in 1796, after which he was sent to Italy. He there conducted the

first siege of Mantua, and reconnoitred the positions and lines of

advance of the army of Bonaparte. He was promoted general of brigade

before the close of the campaign, and was subsequently employed in

fortifying the new Rhine frontier of France. His work as chief of

engineers in the army of Italy (1799) was conspicuously successful, and

after the battle of Novi he was made general of division. When Napoleon

took the field in 1800 to retrieve the disasters of 1799, he again

selected Chasseloup as his engineer general. During the peace of

1801-1805 he was chiefly employed in reconstructing the defences of

northern Italy, and in particular the afterwards famous Quadrilateral.

His _chef-d'oeuvre_ was the great fortress of Alessandria on the Tanaro.

In 1805 he remained in Italy with Massena, but at the end of 1806

Napoleon, then engaged in the Polish campaign, called him to the _Grande

Armee_, with which he served in the campaign of 1806-07, directing the

sieges of Colberg, Danzig and Stralsund. During the Napoleonic

domination in Germany, Chasseloup reconstructed many fortresses, in

particular Magdeburg. In the campaign of 1809 he again served in Italy.

In 1810 Napoleon made him a councillor of state. His last campaign was

that of 1812 in Russia. He retired from active service soon afterwards,

though in 1814 he was occasionally engaged in the inspection and

construction of fortifications. Louis XVIII. made him a peer of France

and a knight of St Louis. He refused to join Napoleon in the Hundred

Days, but after the second Restoration he voted in the chamber of peers

against the condemnation of Marshal Ney. In politics he belonged to the

constitutional party. The king created him a marquis. Chasseloup's later

years were employed chiefly in putting in order his manuscripts, a task

which he had to abandon owing to the failure of his sight. His only

published work was _Correspondence d'un general francais, &c. sur divers

sujets_ (Paris, 1801, republished Milan, 1805 and 1811, under the title

_Correspondance de deux generals, &c., essais sur quelques parties

d'artillerie et de fortification_). The most important of his papers are

in manuscript in the Depot of Fortifications, Paris.

As an engineer Chasseloup was an adherent, though of advanced views, of

the old bastioned system. He followed in many respects the engineer

Bousmard, whose work was published in 1797 and who fell, as a Prussian

officer, in the defence of Danzig in 1807 against Chasseloup's own

attack. His front was applied to Alessandria, as has been stated, and

contains many elaborations of the bastion trace, with, in particular,

masked flanks in the tenaille, which served as extra flanks of the

bastions. The bastion itself was carefully and minutely retrenched. The

ordinary ravelin he replaced by a heavy casemated caponier after the

example of Montalembert, and, like Bousmard's, his own ravelin was a

large and powerful work pushed out beyond the glacis.

CHASSEPOT, officially "fusil modele 1866," a military breech-loading

rifle, famous as the arm of the French forces in the Franco-German War

of 1870-71. It was so called after its inventor, Antoine Alphonse

Chassepot (1833-1905), who, from 1857 onwards, had constructed various

experimental forms of breech-loader, and it became the French service

weapon in 1866. In the following year it made its first appearance on

the battle-field at Mentana (November 3rd, 1867), where it inflicted

severe losses upon Garibaldi's troops. In the war of 1870 it proved very

greatly superior to the German needle-gun. The breech was closed by a

bolt very similar to those of more modern rifles, and amongst the

technical features of interest were the method of obturation, which was

similar in principle to the de Bange obturator for heavy guns (see

ORDNANCE), and the retention of the paper cartridge. The principal

details of the chassepot are:--weight of rifle, 9 lb. 5 oz.; length with

bayonet, 6 ft. 2 in.; calibre, .433 in.; weight of bullet (lead), 386

grains; weight of charge (black powder), 86.4 grains; muzzle velocity,

1328 f.s.; sighted to 1312 yds. (1200 m.). The chassepot was replaced in

1874 by the Gras rifle, which had a metal cartridge, and all rifles of

the older model remaining in store were converted to take the same

ammunition (fusil modele 1866/74).

CHASSESRIAU, THEODORE (1819-1856), French painter, was born in the

Antilles, and studied under Ingres at Paris and at Rome, subsequently

falling under the influence of Paul Delaroche. He was a well-known

painter of portraits and historical pieces, his "Tepidarium at Pompeii"

(1853) being now in the Louvre.

CHASSIS (Fr. _chassis_, a frame, from the Late. Lat. _capsum_, an

enclosed space), properly a window-frame, from which is derived the word

"sash"; also the movable traversing frame of a gun, and more

particularly that part of a motor vehicle consisting of the wheels,

frame and machinery, on which the body or carriage part rests.

CHASTELARD, PIERRE DE BOCSOZEL DE (1540-1563), French poet, was born in

Dauphine, a scion of the house of Bayard. His name is inseparably

connected with Mary, queen of Scots. From the service of the Constable

Montmorency, Chastelard, then a page, passed to the household of Marshal

Damville, whom he accompanied in his journey to Scotland in escort of

Mary (1561). He returned to Paris in the marshal's train, but left for

Scotland again shortly afterward, bearing letters of recommendation to

Mary from his old protector, Montmorency, and the _Regrets_ addressed to

the ex-queen of France by Pierre Ronsard, his master in the art of song.

He undertook to transmit to the poet the service of plate with which

Mary rewarded him. But he had fallen in love with the queen, who is said

to have encouraged his passion. Copies of verse passed between them; she

lost no occasion of showing herself partial to his person and

conversation. The young man hid himself under her bed, where he was

discovered by her maids of honour. Mary pardoned the offence, and the

old familiar terms between them were resumed. Chastelard was so rash as

again to violate her privacy. He was discovered a second time, seized,

sentenced and hanged the next morning. He met his fate valiantly and

consistently, reading, on his way to the scaffold, his master's noble

_Hymne de la mort_, and turning at the instant of doom towards the

palace of Holyrood, to address to his unseen mistress the famous

farewell--"Adieu, toi si belle et si cruelle, qui me tues et que je ne

puis cesser d'aimer." This at least is the version of the _Memoires_ of

Brantome, who is, however, notoriously untrustworthy. But for his

madness of love, it is possible that Chastelard would have left no

shadow or shred of himself behind. As it is, his life and death are of

interest as illustrating the wild days in which his lot was cast.

CHASTELLAIN, GEORGES (d. 1475), Burgundian chronicler, was a native of

Alost in Flanders. He derived his surname from the fact that his

ancestors were burgraves or chatelains of the town; his parents, who

belonged to illustrious Flemish families, were probably the Jean

Chastellain and his wife Marie de Masmines mentioned in the town records

in 1425 and 1432. A copy of an epitaph originally at Valenciennes states

that he died on the 20th of March 1474-5 aged seventy. But since he

states that he was so young a child in 1430 that he could not recollect

the details of events in that year, and since he was "_ecolier_" at

Louvain in 1430, his birth may probably be placed nearer 1415 than 1405.

He saw active service in the Anglo-French wars and probably elsewhere,

winning the surname of _L'adventureux_. In 1434 he received a gift from

Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, for his military services, but on the

conclusion of the peace of Arras in the next year he abandoned

soldiering for diplomacy. The next ten years were spent in France, where

he was connected with Georges de la Tremoille, and afterwards entered

the household of Pierre de Breze, at that time seneschal of Poitou, by

whom he was employed on missions to the duke of Burgundy, in an attempt

to establish better relations between Charles VII. and the duke. During

these years Chastellain had ample opportunity of obtaining an intimate

knowledge of French affairs, but on the further breach between the two

princes, Chastellain left the French service to enter Philip's

household. He was at first pantler, then carver, titles which are

misleading as to the nature of his services, which were those of a

diplomatist; and in 1457 he became a member of the ducal council. He was

continually employed on diplomatic errands until 1455, when, owing

apparently to ill-health, he received apartments in the palace of the

counts of Hainaut at Salle-le-Comte, Valenciennes, with a considerable

pension, on condition that the recipient should put in writing "_choses

nouvelles et morales_," and a chronicle of notable events. That is to

say, he was appointed Burgundian historiographer with a recommendation

to write also on other subjects not strictly within the scope of a

chronicler. From this time he worked hard at his _Chronique_, with

occasional interruptions in his retreat to fulfil missions in France, or

to visit the Burgundian court. He was assisted, from about 1463 onwards,

by his disciple and continuator, Jean Molinet, whose rhetorical and

redundant style may be fairly traced in some passages of the

_Chronique_. Charles the Bold maintained the traditions of his house as

a patron of literature, and showed special favour to Chastellain, who,

after being constituted _indiciaire_ or chronicler of the order of the

Golden Fleece, was himself made a knight of the order on the 2nd of May

1473. He died at Valenciennes on the 13th of February (according to the

treasury accounts), or on the 20th of March (according to his epitaph)

1475. He left an illegitimate son, to whom was paid in 1524 one hundred

and twenty livres for a copy of the _Chronique_ intended for Charles

V.'s sister Mary, queen of Hungary. Only about one-third of the whole

work, which extended from 1410 to 1474, is known to be in existence, but

MSS. carried by the Habsburgs to Vienna or Madrid may possibly yet be

discovered.

Among his contemporaries Chastellain acquired a great reputation by his

poems and occasional pieces now little considered. The unfinished state

of his _Chronique_ at the time of his death, coupled with political

considerations, may possibly account for the fact that it remained

unprinted during the century that followed his death, and his historical

work was only disinterred from the libraries of Arras, Paris and

Brussels by the painstaking researches of M. Buchon in 1825. Chastellain

was constantly engaged during the earlier part of his career in

negotiations between the French and Burgundian courts, and thus had

personal knowledge of the persons and events dealt with in his history.

A partisan element in writing of French affairs was inevitable in a

Burgundian chronicle. This defect appears most strongly in his treatment

of Joan of Arc; and the attack on Agnes Sorel seems to have been

dictated by the dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.), then a refugee in

Burgundy, of whom he was afterwards to become a severe critic. He was

not, however, misled, as his more picturesque predecessor Froissart had

been, by feudal and chivalric tradition into misconception of the

radical injustice of the English cause in France; and except in isolated

instances where Burgundian interests were at stake, he did full justice

to the patriotism of Frenchmen. Among his most sympathetic portraits are

those of his friend Pierre de Breze and of Jacques Coeur. His French

style, based partly on his Latin reading, has, together with its

undeniable vigour and picturesqueness, the characteristic redundance and

rhetorical quality of the Burgundian school. Chastellain was no mere

annalist, but proposed to fuse and shape his vast material to his own

conclusions, in accordance with his political experience. The most

interesting feature of his work is the skill with which he pictures the

leading figures of his time. His "characters" are the fruit of acute and

experienced observation, and abound in satirical traits, although the

42nd chapter of his second book, devoted expressly to portraiture, is

headed "_Comment Georges escrit et mentionne les louanges vertueuses des

princes de son temps._"

The known extant fragments of Chastellain's _Chroniques_ with his

other works were edited by Kervyn de Lettenhove for the Brussels

Academy in 1863-1866 (8 vols., Brussels) as _OEuvres de Georges

Chastellain_. This edition includes all that had been already

published by Buchon in his _Collection de chroniques_ and _Choix de

chroniques_ (material subsequently incorporated in the _Pantheon

litteraire_), and portions printed by Renard in his _Tresor national_,

vol. i. and by Quicherat in the _Proces de la Pucelle_ vol. iv. Kervyn

de Lettenhove's text includes the portions of the chronicle covering

the periods September 1419, October 1422, January 1430 to December

1431, 1451-1452, July 1454 to October 1458, July 1461 to July 1463,

and, with omissions, June 1467 to September 1470; and three volumes of

minor pieces of considerable interest, especially _Le Temple de

Boccace_, dedicated to Margaret of Anjou, and the _Deprecation_ for

Pierre Breze, imprisoned by Louis XI. In the case of these minor works

the attribution to Chastellain is in some cases erroneous, notably in

the case of the _Livre des faits de Jacques de Lalain_, which is the

work of Lefebvre de Saint-Remi, herald of the Golden Fleece. In the

allegorical _Oultre d'amour_ it has been thought a real romance

between Breze and a lady of the royal house is concealed.

See A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de France_; as well as

notices by Kervyn de Lettenhove prefixed to the _OEuvres_ and in the

_Biographie nationale de Belgique_; and an article (three parts) by

Vallet de Viriville in the _Journal des savants_ (1867).

CHASUBLE (Fr. _chasuble_, Ger. _Kasel_, Span. _casulla_; Late Lat.

_casula_, a little house, hut, from _casa_), a liturgical vestment of

the Catholic Church. It is the outermost garment worn by bishops and

priests at the celebration of the Mass, forming with the alb (q.v.) the

most essential part of the eucharistic vestments. Since it is only used

at the Mass, or rarely for functions intimately connected with the

sacrament of the altar, it may be regarded as the Mass vestment _par

excellence_. The chasuble is thus in a special sense the sacerdotal

vestment, and at the ordination of priests, according to the Roman rite,

the bishop places on the candidate a chasuble rolled up at the back

(_planeta plicata_), with the words, "Take the sacerdotal robe, the

symbol of love," &c.; at the end of the ordination Mass the vestment is

unrolled. The chasuble or _planeta_ (as it is called in the Roman

missal), according to the prevailing model in the Roman Catholic Church,

is a scapular-like cloak, with a hole in the middle for the head,

falling down over breast and back, and leaving the arms uncovered at the

sides. Its shape and size, however, differ considerably in various

countries (see fig. 1), while some churches--e.g. those of certain

monastic orders--have retained or reverted to the earlier "Gothic" forms

to be described later. According to the decisions of the Congregation of

Rites chasubles must not be of linen, cotton or woollen stuffs, but of

silk; though a mixture of wool (or linen and cotton) and silk is allowed

if the silk completely cover the other material on the outer side; spun

glass thread, as a substitute for gold or silver thread, is also

forbidden, owing to the possible danger to the priest's health through

broken fragments falling into the chalice.

[Illustration: From Braun's _Liturgische Gewandung_, by permission of

the publisher, B. Herder.

FIG. 1.--Comparative shape and size of Chasubles as now in use in

various countries.

a, b, German. c, Roman. d, Spanish.]

The chasuble, like the kindred vestments (the [Greek: phelonion], &c.)

in the Eastern Churches, is derived from the Roman _paenula_ or

_planeta_, a cloak worn by all classes and both sexes in the

Graeco-Roman world (see VESTMENTS). Though early used in the celebration

of the liturgy it had for several centuries no specifically liturgical

character, the first clear instances of its ritual use being in a letter

of St Germanus of Paris (d. 576), and the next in the twenty-eighth

canon of the Council of Toledo (633). Much later than this, however, it

was still an article of everyday clerical dress, and as such was

prescribed by the German council convened by Carloman and presided over

by St Boniface in 742. Amalarius of Metz, in his _De ecclesiasticis

officiis_ (ii. 19), tells us in 816 that the _casula_ is the _generale

indumentum sacrorum ducum_ and "is proper generally to all the clergy."

It was not until the 11th century, when the cope (q.v.) had become

established as a liturgical vestment, that the chasuble began to be

reserved as special to the sacrifice of the Mass. As illustrating this

process Father Braun (p. 170) cites an interesting correspondence

between Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury and John of Avranches,

archbishop of Rouen, as to the propriety of a bishop wearing a chasuble

at the consecration of a church, Lanfranc maintaining as an established

principle that the vestment should be reserved for the Mass. By the 13th

century, with the final development of the ritual of the Mass, the

chasuble became definitely fixed as the vestment of the celebrating

priest; though to this day in the Roman Church relics of the earlier

general use of the chasuble survive in the _planeta plicata_ worn by

deacons and subdeacons in Lent and Advent, and other penitential

seasons.

At the Reformation the chasuble was rejected with the other vestments by

the more extreme Protestants. Its use, however, survived in the Lutheran

churches; and though in those of Germany it is no longer worn, it still

forms part of the liturgical costume of the Scandinavian Evangelical

churches. In the Church of England, though it was prescribed

alternatively with the cope in the First Prayer-Book of Edward VI., it

was ultimately discarded, with the other "Mass vestments," the cope

being substituted for it at the celebration of the Holy Communion in

cathedral and collegiate churches; its use has, however, during the last

fifty years been widely revived in connexion with the reactionary

movement in the direction of the pre-Reformation doctrine of the

eucharist. The difficult question of its legality is discussed in the

article VESTMENTS.

_Form._--The chasuble was originally a tent-like robe which fell in

loose folds below the knee (see Plate I. fig. 4). Its obvious

inconvenience for celebrating the holy mysteries, however, caused its

gradual modification. The object of the change was primarily to leave

the hands of the celebrant freer for the careful performance of the

manual acts, and to this end a process of cutting away at the sides of

the vestment began, which continued until the tent-shaped chasuble of

the 12th century had developed in the 16th into the scapular-like

vestment at present in use. This process was, moreover, hastened by the

substitution of costly and elaborately embroidered materials for the

simple stuffs of which the vestment had originally been composed; for,

as it became heavier and stiffer, it necessarily had to be made smaller.

For the extremely exiguous proportions of some chasubles actually in

use, which have been robbed of all the beauty of form they ever

possessed, less respectable motives have sometimes been responsible,

viz. the desire of their makers to save on the materials. The most

beautiful form of the chasuble is undoubtedly the "Gothic" (see the

figure of Bishop Johannes of Lubeck in the article VESTMENTS), which is

the form most affected by the Anglican clergy, as being that worn in the

English Church before the Reformation.

_Decoration._--Though _planetae_ decorated with narrow orphreys are

occasionally met with in the monuments of the early centuries, these

vestments were until the 10th century generally quite plain, and even at

the close of this century, when the custom of decorating the chasuble

with orphreys had become common, there was no definite rule as to their

disposition; sometimes they were merely embroidered borders to the

neck-opening or hem, sometimes a vertical strip down the back, less

often a forked cross, the arms of which turned upwards over the

shoulders. From this time onward, however, the embroidery became ever

more and more elaborate, and with this tendency the orphreys were

broadened to allow of their being decorated with figures. About the

middle of the 13th century, the cross with horizontal arms begins to

appear on the back of the vestment, and by the 15th this had become the

most usual form, though the forked cross also survived--e.g. in England,

where it is now considered distinctive of the chasuble as worn in the

Anglican Church. Where the forked cross is used it is placed both on the

back and front of the vestment; the horizontal-armed cross, on the other

hand, is placed only on the back, the front being decorated with a

vertical strip extending to the lower hem (fig. 1, b, d). Sometimes

the back of the chasuble has no cross, but only a vertical orphrey, and

in this case the front, besides the vertical stripe, has a horizontal

orphrey just below the neck opening (see Plate I. fig. 2). This latter

is the type used in the local Roman Church, which has been adopted in

certain dioceses in South Germany and Switzerland, and of late years in

the Roman Catholic churches in England, e.g. Westminster cathedral (see

Plate I. figs. 3 and 5).

[Illustration PLATE I.

FIG. 2.--Chasuble of Pope Calixtus III. (15th century) preserved at

Valencia.

From a photograph by Father J.L. Braun in _Die liturg Gewandung_, by

permission of the publisher, B. Herder.

FIG. 3.--Chasuble of Pope Pius V. (late 15th century) at S. Maria

Maggiore at Rome.

From a photograph by Father J.L. Braun in _Die liturg Gewandung_.

FIG. 4.--Chasuble dedicated by Stephen of Hungary (997-1038) and his

wife Gisela, used as the Hungarian Coronation Robe.

(From Braun, _Die liturg. Gewandung_.)

FIG. 5.--Modern Roman Chasuble of Archbishop Bourne of Westminster.

FIG. 6.--Modern English Chasuble, used at St Paul's Church,

Knightsbridge, London.]

[Illustration PLATE II.

FIG. 7.--Back of a Chasuble of Italian Brocaded Damask (Red) with

Embroidered Orphreys. The Vestment is of the early 16th century, the

Orphreys of the late 14th century. (English. In the Victoria and

Albert Museum.)]

It has been widely held that the forked cross was a conscious imitation

of the archiepiscopal pallium (F. Bock, _Gesch. der liturg. Gewander_,

ii. 107), and that the chasuble so decorated is proper to archbishops.

Father Braun, however, makes it quite clear that this was not the case,

and gives proof that this decoration was not even originally conceived

as a cross at all, citing early instances of its having been worn by

laymen and even by non-Christians (p. 210). It was not until the 13th

century that the symbolical meaning of the cross began to be elaborated,

and this was still further accentuated from the 14th century onward by

the increasingly widespread custom of adding to it the figure of the

crucified Christ and other symbols of the Passion. This, however, did

not represent any definite rule; and the orphreys of chasubles were

decorated with a great variety of pictorial subjects, scriptural or

drawn from the stories of the saints, while the rest of the vestment was

either left plain or, if embroidered, most usually decorated with

arabesque patterns of foliage or animals. The local Roman Church, true

to its ancient traditions, adhered to the simpler forms. The modern

Roman chasuble pictured in Plate I. fig. 5, besides the conventional

arabesque pattern, is decorated, according to rule, with the arms of the

archbishop and his see.

_The Eastern Church._--The original equivalent of the chasuble is the

phelonion ([Greek: phelonion, phelones, phainolion], from _paenula_). It

is a full vestment of the type of the Western bell chasuble; but,

instead of being cut away at the sides, it is for convenience' sake

either gathered up or cut short in front. In the Armenian, Syrian,

Chaldaean and Coptic rites it is cope-shaped. There is some difference

of opinion as to the derivation of the vestment in the latter case; the

Five Bishops (Report to Convocation, 1908) deriving it, like the cope,

from the _birrus_, while Father Braun considers it, as well as the cope,

to be a modification of the _paenula_.[1] The phelonion (Arm.

_shurtshar_, Syr. _phaina_, Chald. _maaphra_ or _phaina_, Copt, _burnos,

felonion, kuklion_) is confined to the priests in the Armenian, Syrian,

Chaldaean and Coptic rites; in the Greek rite it is worn also by the

lectors. It is not in the East so specifically a eucharistic vestment as

in the West, but is worn at other solemn functions besides the liturgy,

e.g. marriages, processions, &c.

Until the 11th century the phelonion is always pictured as a perfectly

plain dark robe, but at this period the custom arose of decorating the

patriarchal phelonion with a number of crosses, whence its name of

[Greek: polystaurion]. By the 14th century the use of these polystauria

had been extended to metropolitans and later still to all bishops. The

purple or black phelonion, however, remained plain in all cases. The

Greeks and Greek Melchite metropolitans now wear the _sakkos_ instead of

the phelonion; and in the Russian, Ruthenian, Bulgarian and Italo-Greek

churches this vestment has superseded the phelonion in the case of all

bishops (see DALMATIC and VESTMENTS).

See J. Braun, S.J., _Die liturgische Gewandung_ (Freiburg im Breisgau,

1907), pp. 149-247, and the bibliography to the article VESTMENTS.

(W. A. P.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The writer is indebted to the courtesy of Father Braun for the

following note:--"That the Syrian _phaina_ was formerly a closed

mantle of the type of the bell chasuble is clearly proved by the

evidence of the miniatures of a Syrian pontifical (dated 1239) in the

Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris (cf. Bild 16, 112, 284, in _Die

liturgische Gewandung_). The liturgical vestments of the Armenians

are derived, like their rite, from the Greek rite; so that in this

case also there can be no doubt that the _shurtshar_ was originally

closed. The Coptic rite is in the same relation to the Syrian.

Moreover, it would be further necessary to prove that the _birrus_,

in contradistinction to the _paenula_, was always open in front;

whereas, _per contra_, the _paenula_, both as worn by soldiers and in

ordinary life, was, like the modern Arab _burnus_, often slit up the

front to the neck. For the rest, it is obvious that if the Syrian

_phaina_ was still quite closed in the 13th century, and was only

provided with a slit since that time, the same is very probable in

the case of the Armenian chasuble. The absence of the hood might also

be taken as additional proof of the derivation of the _phaina_ from

the _paenula_, but I should not lay particular stress upon it. The

question is settled by the above-mentioned miniatures."

CHATEAU (from Lat. _castellum_, fortress, through O. Fr. _chastel,

chasteau_), the French word for castle (q.v.). The development of the

medieval castle, in the 15th and 16th centuries, into houses arranged

rather for residence than defence led to a corresponding widening of the

meaning of the term _chateau_, which came to be applied to any

seigniorial residence and so generally to all houses, especially country

houses, of any pretensions (cf. the Ger. _Schloss_). The French

distinguish the fortified castle from the residential mansion by

describing the former as the _chateau fort_, the latter as the _chateau

de plaisance_. The development of the one into the other is admirably

illustrated by surviving buildings in France, especially in the

_chateaux_ scattered along the Loire. Of these Langeais, still in

perfect preservation, is a fine type of the _chateau fort_, with its

10th-century keep and 13th-century walls. Amboise (1490), Blois

(1500-1540), Chambord (begun 1526), Chenonceaux (1515-1560),

Azay-le-Rideau (1521), may be taken as typical examples of the _chateau

de plaisance_ of the transition period, all retaining in greater or less

degree some of the architectural characteristics of the medieval castle.

Some description of these is given under their several headings. In

English the word _chateau_ is often used to translate foreign words

(e.g. _Schloss_) meaning country house or mansion.

For the Loire chateaux see Theodore Andrea Cook, _Old Touraine_

(1892).

CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANCOIS RENE, VICOMTE DE (1768-1848), French author,

youngest son of Rene Auguste de Chateaubriand, comte de Combourg,[1] was

born at St Malo on the 4th of September 1768. He was a brilliant

representative of the reaction against the ideas of the French

Revolution, and the most conspicuous figure in French literature during

the First Empire. His naturally poetical temperament was fostered in

childhood by picturesque influences, the mysterious reserve of his

morose father, the ardent piety of his mother, the traditions of his

ancient family, the legends and antiquated customs of the sequestered

Breton district, above all, the vagueness and solemnity of the

neighbouring ocean. His closest friend was his sister Lucile,[2] a

passionate-hearted girl, divided between her devotion to him and to

religion. Francois received his education at Dol and Rennes, where Jean

Victor Moreau was among his fellow-students. From Rennes he proceeded to

the College of Dinan, and passed some years in desultory study in

preparation for the priesthood. He finally decided, after a year's

holiday at the family chateau of Combourg, that he had no vocation for

the Church, and was on the point of proceeding to try his fortune in

India when he received (1786) a commission in the army. After a short

visit to Paris he joined his regiment at Cambrai, and early in the

following year was presented at court. In 1788 he received the tonsure

in order to enter the order of the Knights of Malta. In Paris

(1787-1789) he made acquaintance with the Parisian men of letters. He

met la Harpe, Evariste Parny, "Pindare" Lebrun, Nicolas Chamfort, Pierre

Louis Ginguene, and others, of whom he has left portraits in his

memoirs.

Chateaubriand was not unfavourable to the Revolution in its first

stages, but he was disturbed by its early excesses; moreover, his

regiment was disbanded, and his family belonged to the party of

reaction. His political impartiality, he says, pleased no one. These

causes and the restlessness of his spirit induced him to take part in a

romantic scheme for the discovery of the North-West Passage, in

pursuance of which he departed for America in the spring of 1791. The

passage was not found or even attempted, but the adventurer returned

enriched with the--to him--more important discovery of his own powers

and vocation, conscious of his marvellous faculty for the delineation of

nature, and stored with the new ideas and new imagery, derived from

the virgin forests and magnificent scenery of the western continent.

That he actually lived among the Indians, however, is shown by Bedier to

be doubtful, and the same critic has exposed the untrustworthiness of

the autobiographical details of his American trip. His knowledge of

America was mainly derived from the books of Charlevoix and others.

The news of the arrest of Louis XVI. at Varennes in June 1791 recalled

him to France. In 1792 he married Mlle Celeste Buisson de Lavigne, a

girl of seventeen, who brought him a small fortune. This enabled him to

join the ranks of the emigrants, a course practically imposed on him by

his birth and his profession as a soldier. After the failure of the duke

of Brunswick's invasion he contrived to reach Brussels, where he was

left wounded and apparently dying in the street. His brother succeeded

in obtaining some shelter for him, and sent him to Jersey. The captain

of the boat in which he travelled left him on the beach in Guernsey. He

was once more rescued from death, this time by some fishermen. After

spending some time in the Channel Islands under the care of an emigrant

uncle, the comte de Bedee, he made his way to London. In England he

lived obscurely for several years, gaining an intimate acquaintance with

English literature and a practical acquaintance with poverty. His own

account of this period has been exposed by A. le Braz, _Au pays d'exil

de Chateaubriand_ (1909), and by E. Dick, _Revue d'histoire litteraire

de la France_ (1908), i. From his English exile dates the _Natchez_

(first printed in his _OEuvres completes_, 1826-1831), a prose epic

designed to portray the life of the Red Indians. Two brilliant episodes

originally designed for this work, _Atala_ and _Rene_, are among his

most famous productions. Chateaubriand's first publication, however, was

the _Essai historique, politique et moral sur les revolutions_ ...

(London, 1797), which the author subsequently retracted, but took care

not to suppress. In this volume he appears as a mediator between

royalist and revolutionary ideas, a free-thinker in religion, and a

philosopher imbued with the spirit of Rousseau. A great change in his

views was, however, at hand, induced, according to his own statement, by

a letter from his sister Julie (Mme de Farcy), telling him of the grief

his views had caused his mother, who had died soon after her release

from the Conciergerie in the same year. His brother had perished on the

scaffold in April 1794, and both his sisters, Lucile and Julie, and his

wife had been imprisoned at Rennes. Mme de Farcy did not long survive

her imprisonment.

Chateaubriand's thoughts turned to religion, and on his return to France

in 1800 the _Genie du christianisme_ was already in an advanced state.

Louis de Fontanes had been a fellow-exile with Chateaubriand in London,

and he now introduced him to the society of Mme de Stael, Mme Recamier,

Benjamin Constant, Lucien Bonaparte and others. But Chateaubriand's

favourite resort was the salon of Pauline de Beaumont, who was destined

to fill a great place in his life, and gave him some help in the

preparation of his work on Christianity, part of the book being written

at her house at Savigny. _Atala, ou les amours de deux sauvages dans le

desert_, used as an episode in the _Genie du christianisme_, appeared

separately in 1801 and immediately made his reputation. Exquisite style,

impassioned eloquence and glowing descriptions of nature gained

indulgence for the incongruity between the rudeness of the personages

and the refinement of the sentiments, and for the distasteful blending

of prudery with sensuousness. Alike in its merits and defects the piece

is a more emphatic and highly coloured _Paul et Virginie_; it has been

justly said that Bernardin Saint-Pierre models in marble and

Chateaubriand in bronze. Encouraged by his success the author resumed

his _Genie du christianisme, ou beautes de la religion chretienne_,

which appeared in 1802, just upon the eve of Napoleon's re-establishment

of the Catholic religion in France, for which it thus seemed almost to

have prepared the way. No coincidence could have been more opportune,

and Chateaubriand came to esteem himself the counterpart of Napoleon in

the intellectual order. In composing his work he had borne in mind the

admonition of his friend Joseph Joubert, that the public would care very

little for his erudition and very much for his eloquence. It is

consequently an inefficient production from the point of view of serious

argument. The considerations derived from natural theology are but

commonplaces rendered dazzling by the magic of style; and the parallels

between Christianity and antiquity, especially in arts and letters, are

at best ingenious sophistries. The less polemical passages, however,

where the author depicts the glories of the Catholic liturgy and its

accessories, or expounds its symbolical significance, are splendid

instances of the effect produced by the accumulation and judicious

distribution of particulars gorgeous in the mass, and treated with the

utmost refinement of detail. The work is a masterpiece of literary art,

and its influence in French literature was immense. The _Eloa_ of Alfred

de Vigny, the _Harmonies_ of Lamartine and even the _Legende des

siecles_ of Victor Hugo may be said to have been inspired by the _Genie

du christianisme_. Its immediate effect was very considerable. It

admirably subserved the statecraft of Napoleon, and Talleyrand in 1803

appointed the writer _attache_ to the French legation at Rome, whither

he was followed by Mme de Beaumont, who died there.

When his insubordinate and intriguing spirit compelled his recall he was

transferred as envoy to the canton of the Valais. The murder of the duke

of Enghien (21st of March 1804) took place before he took up this

appointment. Chateaubriand, who was in Paris at the time, showed his

courage and independence by immediately resigning his post. In 1807 he

gave great offence to Napoleon by an article in the _Mercure de France_

(4th of July), containing allusions to Nero which were rightly taken to

refer to the emperor. The _Mercure_, of which he had become proprietor,

was temporarily suppressed, and was in the next year amalgamated with

the _Decade_. Chateaubriand states in his _Memoires_ that his life was

threatened, but it is more than possible that he exaggerated the danger.

Before this, in 1806, he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, undertaken, as

he subsequently acknowledged, less in a devotional spirit than in quest

of new imagery. He returned by way of Tunis, Carthage, Cadiz and

Granada. At Granada he met Mme de Mouchy, and the place and the meeting

apparently suggested the romantic tale of _Le Dernier Abencerage_,

which, for political reasons, remained unprinted until the publication

of the _OEuvres completes_ (1826-1831). The journey also produced

_L'Itineraire de Paris a Jerusalem_ ... (3 vols., 1811), a record of

travel distinguished by the writer's habitual picturesqueness; and

inspired his prose epic, _Les Martyrs, ou le triomphe de la religion

chretienne_ (2 vols., 1809). This work may be regarded as the argument

of the _Genie du christianisme_ thrown into an objective form. As in the

_Epicurean_ of Thomas Moore, the professed design is the contrast

between Paganism and Christianity, which fails of its purpose partly

from the absence of real insight into the genius of antiquity, and

partly because the heathen are the most interesting characters after

all. _Rene_ had appeared in 1802 as an episode of the _Genie du

christianisme_, and was published separately at Leipzig without its

author's consent in the same year. It was perhaps Chateaubriand's most

characteristic production. The connecting link in European literature

between _Werther_ and _Childe Harold_, it paints the misery of a morbid

and dissatisfied soul. The representation is mainly from the life.

Chateaubriand betrayed amazing egotism in describing his sister Lucile

in the Amelie of the story, and much is obviously descriptive of his own

early surroundings. With _Les Natchez_ his career as an imaginative

writer is closed. In 1831 he published his _Etudes ou discours

historiques_ ... (4 vols.) dealing with the fall of the Roman Empire.

As a politician Chateaubriand was equally formidable to his antagonists

when in opposition and to his friends when in office. His poetical

receptivity and impressionableness rendered him no doubt honestly

inconsistent with himself; his vanity and ambition, too morbidly acute

to be restrained by the ties of party allegiance, made him dangerous and

untrustworthy as a political associate. He was forbidden to deliver the

address he had prepared (1811) for his reception to the Academy on M.J.

Chenier on account of the bitter allusions to Napoleon contained in it.

From this date until 1814 Chateaubriand lived in seclusion at the

Vallee-aux-loups, an estate he had bought in 1807 at Aulnay. His

pamphlet _De Bonaparte, des Bourbons, et de la necessite de se rattier a

nos princes legitimes_, published on the 31st of March 1814, the day of

the entrance of the allies into Paris, was as opportune in the moment of

its appearance as the _Genie du christianisme_, and produced a hardly

less signal effect. Louis XVIII. declared that it had been worth a

hundred thousand men to him. Chateaubriand, as minister of the interior,

accompanied him to Ghent during the Hundred Days, and for a time

associated himself with the excesses of the royalist reaction. Political

bigotry, however, was not among his faults; he rapidly drifted into

liberalism and opposition, and was disgraced in September 1816 for his

pamphlet _De la monarchie selon la charte_. He had to sell his library

and his house of the Vallee-aux-loups.

After the fall of his opponent, the due Decazes, Chateaubriand obtained

the Berlin embassy (1821), from which he was transferred to London

(1822), and he also acted as French plenipotentiary at the Congress of

Verona (1822). He here made himself mainly responsible for the

iniquitous invasion of Spain--an expedition undertaken, as he himself

admits, with the idea of restoring French prestige by a military parade.

He next received the portfolio of foreign affairs, which he soon lost by

his desertion of his colleagues on the question of a reduction of the

interest on the national debt. After another interlude of effective

pamphleteering in opposition, he accepted the embassy to Rome in 1827,

under the Martignac administration, but resigned it at Prince Polignac's

accession to office. On the downfall of the elder branch of the

Bourbons, he made a brilliant but inevitably fruitless protest from the

tribune in defence of the principle of legitimacy. During the first half

of Louis Philippe's reign he was still politically active with his pen,

and published a _Memoire sur la captivite de madame la duchesse de

Berry_ (1833) and other pamphlets in which he made himself the champion

of the exiled dynasty; but as years increased upon him, and the prospect

of his again performing a conspicuous part diminished, he relapsed into

an attitude of complete discouragement. His _Congres de Verone_ (1838),

_Vie de Rance_ (1844), and his translation of Milton, _Le Paradis perdu

de Milton_ (1836), belong to the writings of these later days. He died

on the 4th of July 1848, wholly exhausted and thoroughly discontented

with himself and the world, but affectionately tended by his old friend

Madame Recamier, herself deprived of sight. For the last fifteen years

of his life he had been engaged on his _Memoires_, and his chief

distraction had been his daily visit to Madame Recamier, at whose house

he met the European celebrities. He was buried in the Grand Be, an islet

in the bay of St Malo. Shortly after his death his memory was revived,

and at the same time exposed to much adverse criticism, by the

publication, with sundry mutilations as has been suspected, of his

celebrated _Memoires d'outre-tombe_ (12 vols., 1849-1850). These memoirs

undoubtedly reveal his vanity, his egotism, the frequent hollowness of

his professed convictions, and his incapacity for sincere attachment,

except, perhaps, in the case of Madame Recamier. Though the book must be

read with the greatest caution, especially in regard to persons with

whom Chateaubriand came into collision, it is perhaps now the most read

of all his works.

Chateaubriand ranks rather as a great rhetorician than as a great poet.

Something of affectation or unreality commonly interferes with the

enjoyment of his finest works. The _Genie du christianisme_ is a

brilliant piece of special pleading; _Atala_ is marred by its

unfaithfulness to the truth of uncivilized human nature, _Rene_ by the

perversion of sentiment which solicits sympathy for a contemptible

character. Chateaubriand is chiefly significant as marking the

transition from the old classical to the modern romantic school. The

fertility of ideas, vehemence of expression and luxury of natural

description, which he shares with the romanticists, are controlled by a

discipline learnt in the school of their predecessors. His palette,

always brilliant, is never gaudy; he is not merely a painter but an

artist. He is also a master of epigrammatic and incisive sayings.

Perhaps, however, the most truly characteristic feature of his genius is

the peculiar magical touch which Matthew Arnold indicated as a note of

Celtic extraction, which reveals some occult quality in a familiar

object, or tinges it, one knows not how, with "the light that never was

on sea or land." This incommunicable gift supplies an element of

sincerity to Chateaubriand's writings which goes far to redeem the

artificial effect of his calculated sophistry and set declamation. It is

also fortunate for his fame that so large a part of his writings should

directly or indirectly refer to himself, for on this theme he always

writes well. Egotism was his master-passion, and beyond his intrepidity

and the loftiness of his intellectual carriage his character presents

little to admire. He is a signal instance of the compatibility of

genuine poetic emotion, of sympathy with the grander aspects both of man

and nature, and of munificence in pecuniary matters, with absorption in

self and general sterility of heart.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The _OEuvres completes_ of Chateaubriand were printed

in 28 vols., 1826-1831; in 20 vols., 1829-1831; and in many later

editions, notably in 1858-1861, in 20 volumes, with an introductory

study by Sainte-Beuve. The principal authority for Chateaubriand's

biography is the _Memoires d'outre-tombe_ (1849-1850), of which there

is an English translation, _The Memoirs of ... Chateaubriand_ (6

vols., 1902), by A. Teixeira de Mattos, based on the admirable edition

(4 vols., 1899-1901) of Edmond Bire. This work should be supplemented

by the _Souvenirs et correspondances tires des papiers de Mme

Recamier_ (2 vols., 1859, ed. Mme Ch. Lenormant). See also Comte de

Marcellus, _Chateaubriand et son temps_ (1859); the same editor's

_Souvenirs diplomatiques; correspondance intime de Chateaubriand_

(1858); C.A. Sainte-Beuve, _Chateaubriand et son groupe litteraire

sous l'empire_ (2 vols., 1861, new and revised ed., 3 vols., 1872);

other articles by Sainte-Beuve, who was in this case a somewhat

prejudiced critic, in the _Portraits contemporains_, vols. i. and ii.;

_Causeries du lundi_, vols. i., ii. and x.; _Nouveaux Lundis_, vol.

iii.; _Premiers Lundis_, vol. iii.; A. Vinet, _Etudes sur la litt.

francaise au XIXe siecle_ (1849); M. de Lescure, _Chateaubriand_

(1892) in the _Grands ecrivains francais_; Emile Faguet, _Etudes

litteraires sur le XIXe siecle_ (1887); and _Essai d'une

bio-bibliographie de Chateaubriand et de sa famille_ (Vannes, 1896),

by Rene Kerviler. Joseph Bedier, in _Etudes critiques_ (1903), deals

with the American writings. Some correspondence with Sainte-Beuve was

edited by Louis Thomas in 1904, and some letters to Mme de Stael

appeared in the _Revue des deux mondes_ (Oct. 1903).

FOOTNOTES:

[1] For full details of the Chateaubriand family see R. Kerviler,

_Essai d'une bio-bibliographie de Chateaubriand et de sa famille_

(Vannes, 1895).

[2] Her _OEuvres_ were edited in 1879, with a memoir, by Anatole

France.

CHATEAUBRIANT, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in

the department of Loire-Inferieure, on the left bank of the Chere, 40 m.

N.N.E. of Nantes by rail. Pop. (1906) 5969. Chateaubriant takes its name

from a castle founded in the 11th century by Brient, count of

Penthievre, remains of which, consisting of a square donjon and four

towers, still exist. Adjoining it is another castle, built in the first

half of the 16th century by Jean de Laval, and famous in history as the

residence of Francoise de Foix, mistress of Francis I. Of this the most

beautiful feature is the colonnade running at right angles to the main

building, and connecting it with a graceful pavilion. It is occupied by

a small museum and some of the public offices. There is also an

interesting Romanesque church dedicated to St Jean de Bere.

Chateaubriant is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first

instance. It is an important centre on the Ouest-Etat railway, and has

trade in agricultural products. The manufacture of leather, agricultural

implements and preserved angelica are carried on. In 1551 Henry II.

signed an edict against the reformed religion at Chateaubriant.

CHATEAUDUN, a town of north central France, capital of an arrondissement

in the department of Eure-et-Loir, 28 m. S.S.W. of Chartres by rail.

Pop. (1906) 5805. It stands on an eminence near the left bank of the

Loire. The streets, which are straight and regular, radiate from a

central square, a uniformity due to the reconstruction of the town after

fires in 1723 and 1870. The chateau, the most remarkable building in the

town, was built in great part by Jean, count of Dunois, and his

descendants. Founded in the 10th century, and rebuilt in the 12th and

15th centuries, it consists of a principal wing with a fine staircase of

the 16th century, and, at right angles, a smaller wing adjoined by a

chapel. To the left of the courtyard thus formed rises a lofty keep of

the 12th century. The fine apartments and huge kitchens of the chateau

are in keeping with its imposing exterior. The church of La Madeleine

dates from the 12th century; the buildings of the abbey to which it

belonged are occupied by the subprefecture, the law court and the

hospital. The medieval churches of St Valerien and St Jean and the

ruined chapel of Notre-Dame du Champde, of which the facade in the

Renaissance style now forms the entrance to the cemetery, are other

notable buildings. The public institutions include a tribunal of first

instance and a communal college. Flour-milling, tanning and

leather-dressing, and the manufacture of blankets, silver jewelry, nails

and machinery are the prominent industries. Trade is in cattle, grain,

wool and hemp. Chateaudun (_Castrodunum_), which dates from the

Gallo-Roman period, was in the middle ages the capital of the countship

of Dunois.

CHATEAU-GONTIER, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement

in the department of Mayenne, on the Mayenne, 18 m. S. by E. of Laval by

road. Pop. (1906) 6871. Of its churches, that of St Jean, a relic of the

castle, dates from the 11th century. Chateau-Gontier is the seat of a

subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance, a communal college for

boys and a small museum. It carries on wool- and cotton-spinning, the

manufacture of serge, flannel and oil, and is an agricultural market.

There are chalybeate springs close to the town. Chateau-Gontier owes its

origin and its name to a castle erected in the first half of the 11th

century by Gunther, the steward of Fulk Nerra of Anjou, on the site of a

farm belonging to the monks of St Aubin d'Angers. On the extinction of

the family, the lordship was assigned by Louis XI. to Philippe de

Comines. The town suffered severely during the wars of the League. In

1793 it was occupied by the Vendeans.

CHATEAUNEUF, LA BELLE, the name popularly given to RENEE DE RIEUX,

daughter of Jean de Rieux, seigneur de Chateauneuf, who was descended

from one of the greatest families of Brittany. The dates both of her

birth and death are not known. She was maid of honour to the

queen-mother Catherine de' Medici, and inspired an ardent passion in the

duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX. This intrigue deterred the duke

from the marriage which it was desired to arrange for him with Elizabeth

of England; but he soon abandoned La Belle Chateauneuf for Marie of

Cleves (1571). The court then wished to find a husband for Renee de

Rieux, whose singular beauty gave her an influence which the

queen-mother feared, and matches were in turn suggested with the voivode

of Transylvania, the earl of Leicester, with Du Prat, provost of Paris,

and with the count of Brienne, all of which came to nothing. Ultimately,

on the ground that she had been lacking in respect towards the queen,

Louise of Lorraine-Vaudemont, Renee was banished from the court. She

married a Florentine named Antinotti, whom she stabbed in a fit of

jealousy (1577); then she remarried, her husband being Philip Altoviti,

who in 1586 was killed in a duel by the Grand Prior Henry of Angouleme,

who was himself mortally wounded.

CHATEAU-RENAULT, FRANCOIS LOUIS DE ROUSSELET, MARQUIS DE (1637-1716),

French admiral, was the fourth son of the third marquis of

Chateau-Renault. The family was of Breton origin, but had been long

settled near Blois. He entered the army in 1658, but in 1661 was

transferred to the navy, which Louis XIV. was eager to raise to a high

level of strength. After a short apprenticeship he was made captain in

1666. His early services were mostly performed in cruises against the

Barbary pirates (1672). In 1673 he was named _chef d'escadre_, and he

was promoted _lieutenant general des armees navales_ in 1687. During the

wars up to this date he had few chances of distinction, but he had been

wounded in action with the pirates, and had been on a cruise to the West

Indies. When war broke out between England and France after the

revolution of 1688, he was in command at Brest, and was chosen to carry

the troops and stores sent by the French king to the aid of James II. in

Ireland. Although he was watched by Admiral Herbert (Lord Torrington,

q.v.), with whom he fought an indecisive action in Bantry Bay, he

executed his mission with success. Chateau-Renault commanded a squadron

under Tourville at the battle of Beachy Head in 1690. He was with

Tourville in the attack of the Smyrna convoy in 1693, and was named

grand cross of the order of Saint Louis in the same year. Though in

constant service, the reduced state of the French navy (owing to the

financial embarrassments of the treasury) gave him few openings for

fighting at sea during the rest of the war.

On the death of Tourville in 1701 he was named to the vacant post of

vice-admiral of France. On the outbreak of the War of the Spanish

Succession he was named for the difficult task of protecting the Spanish

ships which were to bring the treasure from America. It was a duty of

extreme delicacy, for the Spaniards were unwilling to obey a foreigner,

and the French king was anxious that the bullion should be brought to

one of his own ports, a scheme which the Spanish officials were sure to

resent if they were allowed to discover what was meant. With the utmost

difficulty Chateau-Renault was able to bring the galleons as far as

Vigo, to which port he steered when he learnt that a powerful English

and Dutch armament was on the Spanish coast, and had to recognize that

the Spanish officers would not consent to make for a French harbour or

for Passages, which they thought too near France. His fleet of fifteen

French and three Spanish war-ships, having under their care twelve

galleons, had anchored on the 22nd of September in Vigo Bay. Obstacles,

some of an official character, and others due to the poverty of the

Spanish government in resources, arose to delay the landing of the

treasure. There was no adequate garrison in the town, and the local

militia was untrustworthy. Knowing that he would probably be attacked,

Chateau-Renault strove to protect his fleet by means of a boom. The

order to land the treasure was delayed, and until it came from Madrid

nothing could be done, since according to law it should have been landed

at Cadiz, which had a monopoly of the trade with America. At last the

order came, and the bullion was landed under the care of the Gallician

militia which was ordered to escort it to Lugo. A very large part, if

not the whole, was plundered by the militiamen and the farmers whose

carts had been commandeered for the service. But the bulk of the

merchandise was on board of the galleons when the allied fleet appeared

outside of the bay on the 22nd of October 1702. Sir George Rooke and his

colleagues resolved to attack. The fleet was carrying a body of troops

which had been sent out to make a landing at Cadiz, and had been beaten

off. The fortifications of Vigo were weak on the sea side, and on the

land side there were none. There was therefore nothing to offer a

serious resistance to the allies when they landed soldiers. The fleet of

twenty-four sail was steered at the boom and broke through it, while the

troops turned the forts and had no difficulty in scattering the

Gallician militia. In the bay the action was utterly disastrous to the

French and Spaniards. Their ships were all taken or destroyed. The booty

gained was far less than the allies hoped, but the damage done to the

French and Spanish governments was great.

Chateau-Renault suffered no loss of his master's favour by his failure

to save the treasure. The king considered him free from blame, and must

indeed have known that the admiral had been trusted with too many

secrets to make it safe to inflict a public rebuke. The Spanish

government declined to give him the rank of grandee which was to have

been the reward for bringing home the bullion safe. But in 1703 he was

made a marshal of France, and shortly afterwards lieutenant-general of

Brittany. The fight in Vigo Bay was the last piece of active service

performed by Chateau-Renault. In 1708 on the death of his nephew he

inherited the marquisate, and on the 15th of November 1716 he died in

Paris. He married in 1684 Marie-Anne-Renee de la Porte, daughter and

heiress of the count of Crozon. His eldest son was killed at the battle

of Malaga 1704, and another, also a naval officer, was killed by

accident in 1708. A third son, who too was a naval officer, succeeded

him in the title.

A life of Chateau-Renault was published in 1903 by M. Calmon-Maison.

There is a French as well as an English account of the part played by

him at Bantry Bay and Beachy Head, and the controversy still

continues. For the French history of the navy under Louis XIV. see

Leon Guerin, _Histoire maritime de la France_ (1863), vols. iii., iv.;

and his _Les Marins illustres_ (1861). Also the naval history by

Charles Bouzel de la Ronciere. (D. H.)

CHATEAUROUX, MARIE ANNE DE MAILLY-NESLE, DUCHESSE DE (1717-1744),

mistress of Louis XV. of France, was the fourth daughter of Louis,

marquis de Nesle, a descendant of a niece of Mazarin. In 1740, upon the

death of her husband, the marquis de la Tournelle, she attracted the

attention of Louis XV.; and by the aid of the duc de Richelieu, who,

dominated by Madame de Tencin, hoped to rule both the king and the

state, she supplanted her sister, Madame de Mailly, as titular mistress

in 1742. Directed by Richelieu, she tried to arouse the king, dragging

him off to the armies, and negotiated the alliance with Frederick II. of

Prussia, in 1744. Her political role, however, has been exaggerated. Her

triumph after the passing disgrace provoked by the king's illness at

Metz did not last long, for she died on the 8th of December 1744.

See Ed. and J. de Goncourt, _La Duchesse de Chateauroux et ses soeurs_

(Paris, 1879).

CHATEAUROUX, a town of central France, capital of the department of

Indre, situated in a plain on the left bank of the Indre, 88 m. S. of

Orleans on the main line of the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906) 21,048. The

old town, close to the river, forms a nucleus round which a newer and

more extensive quarter, bordered by boulevards, has grown up; the

suburbs of St Christophe and Deols (q.v.) lie on the right bank of the

Indre. The principal buildings of Chateauroux are the handsome modern

church of St Andre, in the Gothic style, and the Chateau Raoul, of the

14th and 15th centuries; the latter now forms part of the prefecture.

The hotel de ville contains a library and a museum which possesses a

collection of paintings of the Flemish school and some interesting

souvenirs of Napoleon I. A statue of General Henri Bertrand (1773-1844)

stands in one of the principal squares. Chateauroux is the seat of a

prefect and of a court of assizes. It has tribunals of first instance

and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a branch of the Bank of

France, a chamber of commerce, a lycee, a college for girls and training

colleges. The manufacture of coarse woollens for military clothing and

other purposes, and a state tobacco-factory, occupy large numbers of the

inhabitants. Wool-spinning, iron-founding, brewing, tanning, and the

manufacture of agricultural implements are also carried on. Trade is in

wool, iron, grain, sheep, lithographic stone and leather. The castle

from which Chateauroux takes its name was founded about the middle of

the 10th century by Raoul, prince of Deols, and during the middle ages

was the seat of a seigniory, which was raised to the rank of countship

in 1497, and in 1616, when it was held by Henry II., prince of Conde, to

that of duchy. In 1736 it returned to the crown, and was given by Louis

XV. in 1744 to his mistress, Marie Anne de Mailly-Nesle, duchess of

Chateauroux.

CHATEAU-THIERRY, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement

in the department of Aisne, 59 m. E.N.E. of Paris on the Eastern railway

to Nancy. Pop. (1906) 6872. Chateau-Thierry is built on rising ground on

the right bank of the Marne, over which a fine stone bridge leads to the

suburb of Marne. On the quay stands a marble statue erected to the

memory of La Fontaine, who was born in the town in 1621; his house is

still preserved in the street that bears his name. On the top of a hill

are the ruins of a castle, which is said to have been built by Charles

Martel for the Frankish king, Thierry IV., and is plainly the origin of

the name of the town. The chief relic is a gateway flanked by massive

round towers, known as the Porte Saint-Pierre. A belfry of the 15th

century and the church of St Crepin of the same period are of some

interest. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of

first instance and a communal college. The distinctive industry is the

manufacture of mathematical and musical instruments. There is trade in

the white wine of the neighbourhood, and in sheep, cattle and

agricultural products. Gypsum, millstone and paving-stone are quarried

in the vicinity. Chateau-Thierry was formerly the capital of the

district of Brie Pouilleuse, and received the title of duchy from

Charles IX. in 1566. It was captured by the English in 1421, by Charles

V. in 1544, and sacked by the Spanish in 1591. During the wars of the

Fronde it was pillaged in 1652; and in the campaign of 1814 it suffered

severely. On the 12th of February of the latter year the Russo-Prussian

forces were beaten by Napoleon in the neighbourhood.

CHATELAIN (Med. Lat. _castellanus_, from _castellum_, a castle), in

France originally merely the equivalent of the English castellan, i.e.

the commander of a castle. With the growth of the feudal system,

however, the title gained in France a special significance which it

never acquired in England, as implying the jurisdiction of which the

castle became the centre. The _chatelain_ was originally, in Carolingian

times, an official of the count; with the development of feudalism the

office became a fief, and so ultimately hereditary. In this as in other

respects the chatelain was the equivalent of the viscount (q.v.)

sometimes the two titles were combined, but more usually in those

provinces where there were chatelains there were no viscounts, and vice

versa. The title chatelain continued also to be applied to the inferior

officer, or _concierge chatelain_, who was merely a castellan in the

English sense. The power and status of chatelains necessarily varied

greatly at different periods and places. Usually their rank in the

feudal hierarchy was equivalent to that of the simple _sire_

(_dominus_), between the baron and the _chevalier_; but occasionally

they were great nobles with an extensive jurisdiction, as in the Low

Countries (see BURGRAVE). This variation was most marked in the cities,

where in the struggle for power that of the chatelain depended on the

success with which he could assert himself against his feudal superior,

lay or ecclesiastical, or, from the 12th century onwards, against the

rising power of the communes. The _chatellenie_ (_castellania_), or

jurisdiction of the chatelain, as a territorial division for certain

judicial and administrative purposes, survived the disappearance of the

title and office of the chatelain in France, and continued till the

Revolution.

See Achille Luchaire, _Manuel des institutions francaises_ (Paris,

1892); Du Cange, _Glossarium, s._ "Castellanus."

CHATELAINE (Fr. _chatelaine_, the feminine form of _chatelain_, a keeper

of a castle), the mistress of a castle. From the custom of a chatelaine

to carry the keys of the castle suspended from her girdle, the word is

now applied to the collection of short chains, often worn by ladies, to

which are attached various small articles of domestic and toilet use, as

keys, penknife, needlecase, scissors, &c.