See Martin Veibull, _Sveriges Storhedstid_ (Stockholm, 1881);

Frederick Ferdinand Carlson, _Sveriges Historia under Konungarne af

Pfalziska Huset_ (Stockholm, 1883-1885); E. Haumant, _La Guerre du

nord et la paix d'Oliva_ (Paris, 1893); Robert Nisbet Bain,

_Scandinavia_ (Cambridge, 1905); G. Jones, _The Diplomatic Relations

between Cromwell and Charles X._ (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1897).

(R. N. B.)

CHARLES XI. (1655-1697), king of Sweden, the only son of Charles X., and

Hedwig Leonora of Holstein-Gottorp, was born in the palace at Stockholm,

on the 24th of November 1655. His father, who died when the child was in

his fourth year, left the care of his education to the regents whom he

had appointed. So shamefully did they neglect their duty that when, at

the age of seventeen, Charles XI. attained his majority, he was ignorant

of the very rudiments of state-craft and almost illiterate. Yet those

nearest to him had great hopes of him. He was known to be truthful,

upright and God-fearing; if he had neglected his studies it was to

devote himself to manly sports and exercises; and in the pursuit of his

favourite pastime, bear-hunting, he had already given proofs of the most

splendid courage. It was the general disaster produced by the

speculative policy of his former guardians which first called forth his

sterling qualities and hardened him into a premature manhood. With

indefatigable energy he at once attempted to grapple with the

difficulties of the situation, waging an almost desperate struggle with

sloth, corruption and incompetence. Amidst universal anarchy, the young

king, barely twenty years of age, inexperienced, ill-served, snatching

at every expedient, worked day and night in his newly-formed camp in

Scania (Skane) to arm the nation for its mortal struggle. The victory of

Fyllebro (Aug. 17, 1676), when Charles and his commander-in-chief S.G.

Helmfeld routed a Danish division, was the first gleam of good luck, and

on the 4th of December, on the tableland of Helgonaback, near Lund, the

young Swedish monarch defeated Christian V. of Denmark, who also

commanded his army in person. After a ferocious contest, the Danes were

practically annihilated. The battle of Lund was, relatively to the

number engaged, one of the bloodiest engagements of modern times. More

than half the combatants (8357, of whom 3000 were Swedes) actually

perished on the battle-field. All the Swedish commanders showed

remarkable ability, but the chief glory of the day indisputably belongs

to Charles XI. This great victory restored to the Swedes their

self-confidence and prestige. In the following year, Charles with 9000

men routed 12,000 Danes near Malmo (July 15, 1678). This proved to be

the last pitched battle of the war, the Danes never again venturing to

attack their once more invincible enemy in the open field. In 1679 Louis

XIV. dictated the terms of a general pacification, and Charles XI, who

bitterly resented "the insufferable tutelage" of the French king, was

forced at last to acquiesce in a peace which at least left his empire

practically intact. Charles devoted the rest of his life to the gigantic

task of rehabilitating Sweden by means of a _reduktion_, or recovery of

alienated crown lands, a process which involved the examination of every

title deed in the kingdom, and resulted in the complete readjustment of

the finances. But vast as it was, the _reduktion_ represents only a

tithe of Charles XI.'s immense activity. The constructive part of his

administration was equally thorough-going, and entirely beneficial.

Here, too, everything was due to his personal initiative. Finance,

commerce, the national armaments by sea and land, judicial procedure,

church government, education, even art and science--everything, in

short--emerged recast from his shaping hand. Charles XI. died on the 5th

of April 1697, in his forty-first year. By his beloved consort Ulrica

Leonora of Denmark, from the shock of whose death in July 1693 he never

recovered, he had seven children, of whom only three survived him, a son

Charles, and two daughters, Hedwig Sophia, duchess of Holstein, and

Ulrica Leonora, who ultimately succeeded her brother on the Swedish

throne. After Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus Charles XI. was,

perhaps, the greatest of all the kings of Sweden. His modest, homespun

figure has indeed been unduly eclipsed by the brilliant and colossal

shapes of his heroic father and his meteoric son; yet in reality Charles

XI. is far worthier of admiration than either Charles X. or Charles XII.

He was in an eminent degree a great master-builder. He found Sweden in

ruins, and devoted his whole life to laying the solid foundations of a

new order of things which, in its essential features, has endured to the

present day.

See Martin Veibull, _Sveriges Storhedstid_ (Stockholm, 1881);

Frederick Ferdinand Carlson, _Sveriges Historia under Konungarne af

Pfalziska Huset_ (Stockholm, 1883-1885); Robert Nisbet Bain,

_Scandinavia_ (Cambridge, 1905); O. Sjogren, _Karl den Elfte och

Svenska Folket_ (Stockholm, 1897); S. Jacobsen, _Den nordiske Kriegs

Kronicke, 1675-1679_ (Copenhagen, 1897); J.A. de Mesmes d'Avaux,

_Negociations du comte d'Avaux, 1693, 1697, 1698_ (Utrecht, 1882,

&c.). (R. N. B.)

CHARLES XII. (1682-1718), king of Sweden, the only surviving son of

Charles XI. and Ulrica Leonora, daughter of Frederick III. of Denmark,

was born on the 17th of June 1682. He was carefully educated by

excellent tutors under the watchful eyes of his parents. His natural

parts were excellent; and a strong bias in the direction of abstract

thought, and mathematics in particular, was noticeable at an early date.

His memory was astonishing. He could translate Latin into Swedish or

German, or Swedish or German into Latin at sight. Charles XI. personally

supervised his son's physical training. He was taught to ride before he

was four, at eight was quite at home in his saddle, and when only

eleven, brought down his first bear at a single shot. As he grew older

his father took him on all his rounds, reviewing troops, inspecting

studs, foundries, dockyards and granaries. Thus the lad was gradually

initiated into all the _minutiae_ of administration. The influence of

Charles XI. over his son was, indeed, far greater than is commonly

supposed, and it accounts for much in Charles XII.'s character which is

otherwise inexplicable, for instance his precocious reserve and

taciturnity, his dislike of everything French, and his inordinate

contempt for purely diplomatic methods. On the whole, his early training

was admirable; but the young prince was not allowed the opportunity of

gradually gaining experience under his guardians. At the _Riksdag_

assembled at Stockholm in 1697, the estates, jealous of the influence of

the regents, offered full sovereignty to the young monarch, the senate

acquiesced, and, after some hesitation, Charles at last declared that he

could not resist the urgent appeal of his subjects and would take over

the government of the realm "in God's name." The subsequent coronation

was marked by portentous novelties, the most significant of which was

the king's omission to take the usual coronation oath, which omission

was interpreted to mean that he considered himself under no obligation

to his subjects. The general opinion of the young king was, however,

still favourable. His conduct was evidently regulated by strict

principle and not by mere caprice. His refusal to countenance torture as

an instrument of judicial investigation, on the ground that "confessions

so extorted give no sure criteria for forming a judgment," showed him to

be more humane as well as more enlightened than the majority of his

council, which had defended the contrary opinion. His intense

application to affairs is noted by the English minister, John Robinson

(1650-1723), who informed his court that there was every prospect of a

happy reign in Sweden, provided his majesty were well served and did not

injure his health by too much work.

The coalition formed against Sweden by Johann Reinhold Patkul, which

resulted in the outbreak of the Great Northern War (1699), abruptly put

an end to Charles XII.'s political apprenticeship, and forced into his

hand the sword he was never again to relinquish. The young king resolved

to attack the nearest of his three enemies--Denmark--first. The timidity

of the Danish admiral Ulrik C. Gyldenlove, and the daring of Charles,

who forced his nervous and protesting admiral to attempt the passage of

the eastern channel of the Sound, the dangerous _flinterend_, hitherto

reputed to be unnavigable, enabled the Swedish king to effect a landing

at Humleback in Sjaelland (Zealand), a few miles north of Copenhagen

(Aug. 4, 1700). He now hoped to accomplish what his grandfather, fifty

years before, had vainly attempted--the destruction of the

Danish-Norwegian monarchy by capturing its capital. But for once

prudential considerations prevailed, and the short and bloodless war was

terminated by the peace of Travendal (Aug. 18), whereby Frederick IV.

conceded full sovereignty to Charles's ally and kinsman the duke of

Gottorp, besides paying him an indemnity of 200,000 rix-dollars and

solemnly engaging to commit no hostilities against Sweden in future.

From Sjaelland Charles now hastened to Livonia with 8000 men. On the 6th

of October he had reached Pernau, with the intention of first relieving

Riga, but, hearing that Narva was in great straits, he decided to turn

northwards against the tsar. He set out for Narva on the 13th of

November, against the advice of all his generals, who feared the effect

on untried troops of a week's march through a wasted land, along boggy

roads guarded by no fewer than three formidable passes which a little

engineering skill could easily have made impregnable. Fortunately, the

two first passes were unoccupied; and the third, Pyhajoggi, was captured

by Charles, who with 400 horsemen put 6000 Russian cavalry to flight. On

the 19th of November the little army reached Lagena, a village about 9

m. from Narva, whence it signalled its approach to the beleaguered

fortress, and early on the following morning it advanced in battle

array. The attack on the Russian fortified camp began at two o'clock in

the afternoon, in the midst of a violent snowstorm; and by nightfall the

whole position was in the hands of the Swedes: the Russian army was

annihilated. The triumph was as cheap as it was crushing; it cost

Charles less than 2000 men.

After Narva, Charles XII. stood at the parting of ways. His best

advisers urged him to turn all his forces against the panic-stricken

Muscovites; to go into winter-quarters amongst them and live at their

expense; to fan into a flame the smouldering discontent caused by the

reforms of Peter the Great, and so disable Russia for some time to come.

But Charles's determination promptly to punish the treachery of Augustus

prevailed over every other consideration. It is easy from the

vantage-point of two centuries to criticize Charles XII. for neglecting

the Russians to pursue the Saxons; but at the beginning of the 18th

century his decision was natural enough. The real question was, which of

the two foes was the more dangerous, and Charles had many reasons to

think the civilized and martial Saxons far more formidable than the

imbecile Muscovites. Charles also rightly felt that he could never trust

the treacherous Augustus to remain quiet, even if he made peace with

him. To leave such a foe in his rear, while he plunged into the heart of

Russia would have been hazardous indeed. From this point of view

Charles's whole Polish policy, which has been blamed so long and so

loudly--the policy of placing a nominee of his own on the Polish

throne--takes quite another complexion: it was a policy not of

overvaulting ambition, but of prudential self-defence.

First, however, Charles cleared Livonia of the invader (July 1701),

subsequently occupying the duchy of Courland and converting it into a

Swedish governor-generalship. In January 1702 Charles established

himself at Bielowice in Lithuania, and, after issuing a proclamation

declaring that "the elector of Saxony" had forfeited the Polish crown,

set out for Warsaw, which he reached on the 14th of May. The

cardinal-primate was then sent for and commanded to summon a diet, for

the purpose of deposing Augustus. A fortnight later Charles quitted

Warsaw, to seek the elector; on the 2nd of July routed the combined

Poles and Saxons at Klissow; and three weeks later, captured the

fortress of Cracow by an act of almost fabulous audacity. Thus, within

four months of the opening of the campaign, the Polish capital and the

coronation city were both in the possession of the Swedes. After

Klissow, Augustus made every effort to put an end to the war, but

Charles would not even consider his offers. By this time, too, he had

conceived a passion for the perils and adventures of warfare. His

character was hardening, and he deliberately adopted the most barbarous

expedients for converting the Augustan Poles to his views. Such commands

as "ravage, singe, and burn all about, and reduce the whole district to

a wilderness!" "sweat contributions well out of them!" "rather let the

innocent suffer than the guilty escape!" became painfully frequent in

the mouth of the young commander, not yet 21, who was far from being

naturally cruel.

The campaign of 1703 was remarkable for Charles's victory at Pultusk

(April 21) and the long siege of Thorn, which occupied him eight months

but cost him only 50 men. On the 2nd of July 1704, with the assistance

of a bribing fund, Charles's ambassador at Warsaw, Count Arvid Bernard

Horn, succeeded in forcing through the election of Charles's candidate

to the Polish throne, Stanislaus Leszczynski, who could not be crowned

however till the 24th of September 1705, by which time the Saxons had

again been defeated at Punitz. From the autumn of 1705 to the spring of

1706, Charles was occupied in pursuing the Russian auxiliary army under

Ogilvie through the forests of Lithuania. On the 5th of August, he

recrossed the Vistula and established himself in Saxony, where his

presence in the heart of Europe, at the very crisis of the war of the

Spanish Succession, fluttered all the western diplomats. The allies, in

particular, at once suspected that Louis XIV. had bought the Swedes.

Marlborough was forthwith sent from the Hague to the castle of

Altranstadt near Leipzig, where Charles had fixed his headquarters, "to

endeavour to penetrate the designs" of the king of Sweden. He soon

convinced himself that western Europe had nothing to fear from Charles,

and that no bribes were necessary to turn the Swedish arms from Germany

to Russia. Five months later (Sept. 1707) Augustus was forced to sign

the peace of Altranstadt, whereby he resigned the Polish throne and

renounced every anti-Swedish alliance. Charles's departure from Saxony

was delayed for twelve months by a quarrel with the emperor. The court

of Vienna had treated the Silesian Protestants with tyrannical severity,

in direct contravention of the treaty of Osnabruck, of which Sweden was

one of the guarantors; and Charles demanded summary and complete

restitution so dictatorially that the emperor prepared for war. But the

allies interfered in Charles's favour, lest he might be tempted to aid

France, and induced the emperor to satisfy all the Swedish king's

demands, the maritime Powers at the same time agreeing to guarantee the

provisions of the peace of Altranstadt.

Nothing now prevented Charles from turning his victorious arms against

the tsar; and on the 13th of August 1707, he evacuated Saxony at the

head of the largest host he ever commanded, consisting of 24,000 horse

and 20,000 foot. Delayed during the autumn months in Poland by the tardy

arrival of reinforcements from Pomerania, it was not till November 1707

that Charles was able to take the field. On New Year's Day 1708 he

crossed the Vistula, though the ice was in a dangerous condition. On the

4th of July 1708 he cut in two the line of the Russian army, 6 m. long,

which barred his progress on the Wabis, near Holowczyn, and compelled it

to retreat. The victory of Holowczyn, memorable besides as the last

pitched battle won by Charles XII., opened up the way to the Dnieper.

The Swedish army now began to suffer severely, bread and fodder running

short, and the soldiers subsisting entirely on captured bullocks. The

Russians slowly retired before the invader, burning and destroying

everything in his path. On the 20th of December it was plain to Charles

himself that Moscow was inaccessible. But the idea of a retreat was

intolerable to him, so he determined to march southwards instead of

northwards as suggested by his generals, and join his forces with those

of the hetman of the Dnieperian Cossacks, Ivan Mazepa, who had 100,000

horsemen and a fresh and fruitful land at his disposal. Short of falling

back upon Livonia, it was the best plan adoptable in the circumstances,

but it was rendered abortive by Peter's destruction of Mazepa's capital

Baturin, so that when Mazepa joined Charles at Horki, on the 8th of

November 1708, it was as a ruined man with little more than 1300

personal attendants (see MAZEPA-KOLEDINSKY). A still more serious blow

was the destruction of the relief army which Levenhaupt was bringing to

Charles from Livonia, and which, hampered by hundreds of loaded wagons,

was overtaken and almost destroyed by Peter at Lyesna after a two days'

battle against fourfold odds (October). The very elements now began to

fight against the perishing but still unconquered host. The winter of

1708 was the severest that Europe had known for a century. By the 1st of

November firewood would not ignite in the open air, and the soldiers

warmed themselves over big bonfires of straw. By the time the army

reached the little Ukrainian fortress of Hadjacz in January 1709, wine

and spirits froze into solid masses of ice; birds on the wing fell dead;

saliva congealed on its passage from the mouth to the ground.

"Nevertheless," says an eye-witness, "though earth, sea and sky were

against us, the king's orders had to be obeyed and the daily march

made."

Never had Charles XII. seemed so superhuman as during these awful days.

It is not too much to say that his imperturbable equanimity, his serene

_bonhomie_ kept the host together. The frost broke at the end of

February 1709, and then the spring floods put an end to all active

operations till May, when Charles began the siege of the fortress of

Poltava, which he wished to make a base for subsequent operations while

awaiting reinforcements from Sweden and Poland. On the 7th of June a

bullet wound put Charles _hors de combat_, whereupon Peter threw the

greater part of his forces over the river Vorskla, which separated the

two armies (June 19-25). On the 26th of June Charles held a council of

war, at which it was resolved to attack the Russians in their

entrenchments on the following day. The Swedes joyfully accepted the

chances of battle and, advancing with irresistible _elan_, were, at

first, successful on both wings. Then one or two tactical blunders were

committed; and the tsar, taking courage, enveloped the little band in a

vast semicircle bristling with the most modern guns, which fired five

times to the Swedes' once, and swept away the guards before they could

draw their swords. The Swedish infantry was well nigh annihilated, while

the 14,000 cavalry, exhausted and demoralized, surrendered two days

later at Perevolochna on Dnieper. Charles himself with 1500 horsemen

took refuge in Turkish territory.

For the first time in his life Charles was now obliged to have recourse

to diplomacy; and his pen proved almost as formidable as his sword. He

procured the dismissal of four Russo-phil grand-viziers in succession,

and between 1710 and 1712 induced the Porte to declare war against the

tsar three times. But after November 1712 the Porte had no more money to

spare; and, the tsar making a show of submission, the sultan began to

regard Charles as a troublesome guest. On the 1st of February 1713 he

was attacked by the Turks in his camp at Bender, and made prisoner after

a contest which reads more like an extravagant episode from some heroic

folk-tale than an incident of sober 18th-century history. Charles

lingered on in Turkey fifteen months longer, in the hope of obtaining a

cavalry escort sufficiently strong to enable him to restore his credit

in Poland. Disappointed of this last hope, and moved by the despairing

appeals of his sister Ulrica and the senate to return to Sweden while

there was still a Sweden to return to, he quitted Demotika on the 20th

of September 1714, and attended by a single squire arrived unexpectedly

at midnight, on the 11th of November, at Stralsund, which, excepting

Wismar, was now all that remained to him on German soil.

For the diplomatic events of these critical years see SWEDEN: _History_.

Here it need only be said that Sweden, during the course of the Great

Northern War, had innumerable opportunities of obtaining an honourable

and even advantageous peace, but they all foundered oh the dogged

refusal of Charles to consent to the smallest concession to his

despoilers. Even now he would listen to no offers of compromise, and

after defending Stralsund with desperate courage till it was a mere

rubbish heap, returned to Sweden after an absence of 14 years. Here he

collected another army of 20,000 men, with which he so strongly

entrenched himself on the Scanian coast in 1716 that his combined

enemies shrank from attacking him, whereupon he assumed the offensive by

attacking Norway in 1717, and again in 1718, in order to conquer

sufficient territory to enable him to extort better terms from his

enemies. It was during this second adventure that he met his death. On

the 11th of December, when the Swedish approaches had come within 280

paces of the fortress of Fredriksten, which the Swedes were closely

besieging, Charles looked over the parapet of the foremost trench, and

was shot through the head by a bullet from the fortress.

See Charles XII., _Die eigenhandigen Briefe Konig Karls XII._ (Berlin,

1894); Friedrich Ferdinand Carlson, _Sveriges Historia under

Konungarne af Pfalziska Huset_ (Stockholm, 1883-1885); Robert Nisbet

Bain, _Charles XII. and the Collapse of the Swedish Empire_ (London

and Oxford, 1895); _Bidrag til den Store Nordishe Krigs Historie_

(Copenhagen, 1899-1900); G. Syveton, _Louis XIV et Charles XII_

(Paris, 1900); Daniel Krmann, _Historia ablegationis D. Krmann ad

regem Sueciae Carolum XII._ (Budapest, 1894); Oscar II., _Nagra bidrag

till Sveriges Krigshistoria aren 1711-1713_ (Stockholm, 1892); Martin

Weibull, _Sveriges Storhedstid_ (Stockholm, 1881). (R. N. B.)

CHARLES XIII. (1748-1818), king of Sweden and Norway, the second son of

Adolphus Frederick, king of Sweden, and Louisa Ulrica, sister of

Frederick the Great, was born at Stockholm on the 7th of October 1748.

In 1772 he co-operated in the revolutionary plans of his brother

Gustavus III. (q.v.). On the outbreak of the Russo-Swedish War of 1788

he served with distinction as admiral of the fleet, especially at the

battles of Hogland (June 17, 1788) and Oland (July 26, 1789). On the

latter occasion he would have won a signal victory but for the

unaccountable remissness of his second-in-command, Admiral Liljehorn. On

the death of Gustavus III., Charles, now duke of Sudermania, acted as

regent of Sweden till 1796; but the real ruler of the country was the

narrow-minded and vindictive Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm (q.v.), whose

mischievous influence over him was supreme. These four years were

perhaps the most miserable and degrading in Swedish history (an age of

lead succeeding an age of gold, as it has well been called) and may be

briefly described as alternations of fantastic jacobinism and ruthless

despotism. On the accession of Gustavus IV. (November 1796), the duke

became a mere cipher in politics till the 13th of March 1809, when those

who had dethroned Gustavus IV. appointed him regent, and finally elected

him king. But by this time he was prematurely decrepit, and Bernadotte

(see CHARLES XIV.) took over the government as soon as he landed in

Sweden (1810). By the union of 1814 Charles became the first king of

Sweden and Norway. He married his cousin Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte of

Holstein-Gottorp (1759-1818), but their only child, Carl Adolf, duke of

Vermland, died in infancy (1798). Charles XIII., who for eight years had

been king only in title, died on the 5th of February 1818.

See _Sveriges Historia_ vol. v. (Stockholm, 1884); _Drottning Hedwig

Charlottes Dagbokshandteckningar_ (Stockholm, 1898); Robert Nisbet

Bain, _Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries_ (London, 1895)_; ib.

Scandinavia_ (Cambridge, 1905). (R. N. B.)

CHARLES XIV. (1763-1844), king of Sweden and Norway, born at Pau on the

26th of January 1763, was the son of Henri Bernadotte (1711-1780),

procurator at Pau, and Jeanne St Jean (1725-1809). The family name was

originally Deu Pouey, but was changed into Bernadotte in the beginning

of the 17th century. Bernadotte's christian names were Jean Baptiste; he

added the name Jules subsequently. He entered the French army on the 3rd

of September 1780, and first saw service in Corsica. On the outbreak of

the Revolution his eminent military qualities brought him speedy

promotion. In 1794 we find him as brigadier attached to the army of the

Sambre et Meuse, and after Jourdan's victory at Fleurus he was appointed

a general of division. At the battle of Theiningen, 1796, he

contributed, more than any one else, to the successful retreat of the

French army over the Rhine after its defeat by the archduke Charles. In

1797 he brought reinforcements from the Rhine to Bonaparte's army in

Italy, distinguishing himself greatly at the passage of the Tagliamento,

and in 1798 was sent as ambassador to Vienna, but was compelled to quit

his post owing to the disturbances caused by his hoisting the tricolor

over the embassy. On the 16th of August 1798 he married Desiree Clary

(1777-1860), the daughter of a Marseilles banker, and sister of Joseph

Bonaparte's wife. From the 2nd of July to the 14th of September he was

war minister, in which capacity he displayed great ability. About this

time he held aloof from Bonaparte, but though he declined to help

Napoleon in the preparations for the _coup d'etat_ of November 1799, he

accepted employment from the Consulate, and from April 1800 till the

18th of August 1801 commanded the army in La Vendee. On the introduction

of the empire he was made one of the eighteen marshals of France, and,

from June 1804 to September 1805, acted as governor of the

recently-occupied Hanover. During the campaign of 1805, Bernadotte with

an army corps from Hanover co-operated in the great movement which

resulted in the shutting up of Mack in Ulm. He was rewarded for his

services at Austerlitz (December 2, 1805) by the principality of Ponte

Corvo (June 5, 1806), but during the campaign against Prussia, the same

year, was severely reproached by Napoleon for not participating with his

army corps in the battles of Jena and Auerstadt, though close at hand.

In 1808, as governor of the Hanse towns, he was to have directed the

expedition against Sweden, via the Danish islands, but the plan came to

nought because of the want of transports and the defection of the

Spanish contingent. In the war against Austria, Bernadotte led the Saxon

contingent at the battle of Wagram, on which occasion, on his own

initiative he issued an order of the day, attributing the victory

principally to the valour of his Saxons, which Napoleon at once

disavowed.

Bernadotte, considerably piqued, thereupon returned to Paris, where the

council of ministers entrusted him with the defence of the Netherlands

against the English. In 1810 he was about to enter upon his new post of

governor of Rome when he was, unexpectedly, elected successor to the

Swedish throne, partly because a large part of the Swedish army, in view

of future complications with Russia, were in favour of electing a

soldier, and partly because Bernadotte was very popular in Sweden, owing

to the kindness he had shown to the Swedish prisoners during the late

war with Denmark. The matter was decided by one of the Swedish couriers,

Baron Karl Otto Morner, who, entirely on his own initiative, offered the

succession to the Swedish crown to Bernadotte. Bernadotte communicated

Morner's offer to Napoleon, who treated the whole affair as an

absurdity. Bernadotte thereupon informed Morner that he would not refuse

the honour if he were duly elected. Although the Swedish government,

amazed at Morner's effrontery, at once placed him under arrest on his

return to Sweden, the candidature of Bernadotte gradually gained favour

there, and, on the 21st of August 1810, he was elected crown-prince.

On the 2nd of November Bernadotte made his solemn entry into Stockholm,

and on the 5th he received the homage of the estates and was adopted by

Charles XIII. under the name of Charles John. The new crown-prince was

very soon the most popular and the most powerful man in Sweden. The

infirmity of the old king and the dissensions in the council of state

placed the government, and especially the control of foreign affairs,

entirely in his hands. The keynote of his whole policy was the

acquisition of Norway, a policy which led him into many tortuous ways

(see SWEDEN: _History_), and made him a very tricky ally during the

struggle with Napoleon in 1813. Great Britain and Prussia very properly

insisted that Charles John's first duty was to them, the former power

rigorously protesting against the expenditure of her subsidies on the

nefarious Norwegian adventure before the common enemy had been crushed.

After the defeats of Lutzen and Bautzen, it was the Swedish crown-prince

who put fresh heart into the allies; and at the conference of

Trachenberg he drew up the general plan for the campaign which began

after the expiration of the truce of Plaswitz. Though undoubtedly

sparing his Swedes unduly, to the just displeasure of the allies,

Charles John, as commander-in-chief of the northern army, successfully

defended the approaches to Berlin against Oudinot in August and against

Ney in September; but after Leipzig he went his own way, determined at

all hazards to cripple Denmark and secure Norway. For the events which

led to the union of Norway and Sweden, see SWEDEN: _History_ and NORWAY:

_History_. As unional king, Charles XIV. (who succeeded to that title in

1818 on the death of Charles XIII.) was popular in both countries.

Though his ultra-conservative views were detested, and as far as

possible opposed (especially after 1823), his dynasty was never in

serious danger, and Swedes and Norsemen alike were proud of a monarch

with a European reputation. It is true that the _Riksdag_ of 1840

meditated compelling him to abdicate, but the storm blew over and his

jubilee was celebrated with great enthusiasm in 1843. He died at

Stockholm on the 8th of March 1844. His reign was one of uninterrupted

peace, and the great material development of the two kingdoms during the

first half of the 19th century was largely due to his energy and

foresight.

See J.E. Sars, _Norges politiske historia_ (Christiania, 1899); Yngvar

Nielsen, _Carl Johan som han virkelig var_ (Christiania, 1897); Johan

Almen, _Atten Bernadotte_ (Stockholm, 1893); C. Schefer, _Bernadotte

roi_ (Paris, 1899); G.R. Lagerhjelm, _Napoleon och Carl Johan under

Kriget i Tyskland, 1813_ (Stockholm, 1891). (R. N. B.)

CHARLES XV. (1826-1872), king of Sweden and Norway, eldest son of Oscar

I., king of Sweden and Norway, and Josephine Beauharnais of

Leuchtenberg, was born on the 3rd of May 1826. On the 19th of June 1850

he married Louisa, daughter of Prince Frederick of the Netherlands. He

became regent on the 25th of September 1857, and king on the death of

his father (8th of July 1859). As crown-prince, Charles's brusque and

downright manners had led many to regard his future accession with some

apprehension, yet he proved to be one of the most popular of

Scandinavian kings and a constitutional ruler in the best sense of the

word. His reign was remarkable for its manifold and far-reaching

reforms. Sweden's existing communal law (1862), ecclesiastical law

(1863) and criminal law (1864) were enacted appropriately enough under

the direction of a king whose motto was: "Build up the land upon the

laws!" Charles XV. also materially assisted De Geer (q.v.) to carry

through his memorable reform of the constitution in 1863. Charles was a

warm advocate of "Scandinavianism" and the political solidarity of the

three northern kingdoms, and his warm friendship for Frederick VII., it

is said, led him to give half promises of help to Denmark on the eve of

the war of 1864, which, in the circumstances, were perhaps misleading

and unjustifiable. In view, however, of the unpreparedness of the

Swedish army and the difficulties of the situation, Charles was forced

to observe a strict neutrality. He died at Malmo on the 18th of

September 1872. Charles XV. was highly gifted in many directions. He

attained to some eminence as a painter, and his _Digte_ show him to have

been a true poet. He left but one child, a daughter, Louisa Josephina

Eugenia, who in 1869 married the crown-prince Frederick of Denmark.

See Cecilia Baath-Holmberg, _Carl XV., som enskild man, konung och

konstnar_ (Stockholm, 1891); Yngvar Nielsen, _Det norske og svenske

Kongehus fra 1818_ (Christiania, 1883). (R. N. B.)

CHARLES (c. 1319-1364), duke of Brittany, known as CHARLES OF BLOIS and

CHARLES OF CHATILLON, was the son of Guy of Chatillon, count of Blois (d.

1342), and of Marguerite of Valois, sister of Philip VI. of France. In

1337 he married Jeanne of Penthievre (d. 1384), daughter of Guy of

Brittany, count of Penthievre (d. 1331), and thus acquired a right to the

succession of the duchy of Brittany. On the death of John III., duke of

Brittany, in April 1341, his brother John, count of Montfort-l'Amaury,

and his niece Jeanne, wife of Charles of Blois, disputed the succession.

Charles of Blois, sustained by Philip VI., captured John of Montfort, who

was supported by King Edward III. at Nantes, besieged his wife Jeanne of

Flanders at Hennebont, and took Quimper and Guerande (1344). But next

year his partisans were defeated at Cadoret, and in June 1347 he was

himself wounded and taken prisoner at Roche-Derrien. He was not liberated

until 1356, when he continued the war against the young John of Montfort,

and perished in the battle of Auray, on the 29th of September 1364.

Charles bore a high reputation for piety, and was believed to have

performed miracles. The Roman Church has canonized him.

See Simeon Luce, _Histoire de Bertrand du Gueselin el de son epoque_

(Paris, 1876).

CHARLES, called THE BOLD (1433-1477), duke of Burgundy, son of Philip

the Good of Burgundy and Isabella of Portugal, was born at Dijon on the

10th of November 1433. In his father's lifetime he bore the title of

count of Charolais. He was brought up under the direction of the

seigneur d'Auxy, and early showed great application to study and also to

warlike exercises. Although he was on familiar terms with the dauphin

(afterwards Louis XI.), when the latter was a refugee at the court of

Burgundy, he could not but view with chagrin the repurchase by the king

of France of the towns on the Somme, which had been temporarily ceded to

Philip the Good by the treaty of Arras; and when his father's failing

health enabled him to take into his hands the reins of government (which

Philip abandoned to him completely by an act of the 12th of April 1465),

he entered upon his lifelong struggle against Louis XI., and became one

of the principal leaders of the League of the Public Weal. His brilliant

bravery at the battle of Montlhery (16th of July 1465), where he was

wounded and was left master of the field, neither prevented the king

from re-entering Paris nor assured Charles a decisive victory. He

succeeded, however, in forcing upon Louis the treaty of Conflans (1466),

by which the king restored to him the towns on the Somme, and promised

him the hand of his infant daughter Catherine, with Champagne as dowry.

In the meanwhile the count of Charolais obtained the surrender of

Ponthieu. The revolt of Liege and Dinant intervened to divert his

attention from the affairs of France. On the 25th of August 1466 Charles

took possession of Dinant, which he pillaged and sacked, and succeeded

in treating at the same time with the Liegeois. After the death of

Philip the Good (15th June 1467), the Liegeois renewed hostilities, but

Charles defeated them at St Trond, and made a victorious entry into

Liege, which he dismantled and deprived of some of its privileges.

Alarmed by these early successes of the duke of Burgundy, and anxious to

settle various questions relating to the execution of the treaty of

Conflans, Louis requested a meeting with Charles and placed himself in

his hands at Peronne. In the course of the negotiations the duke was

informed of a fresh revolt of the Liegeois secretly fomented by Louis.

After deliberating for four days how to deal with his adversary, who had

thus maladroitly placed himself at his mercy, Charles decided to respect

the parole he had given and to treat with Louis (October 1468), at the

same time forcing him to assist in quelling the revolt. The town was

carried by assault and the inhabitants were massacred, Louis not having

the courage to intervene on behalf of his ancient allies. At the expiry

of the one year's truce which followed the treaty of Peronne, the king

accused Charles of treason, cited him to appear before the parlement,

and seized some of the towns on the Somme (1471). The duke retaliated by

invading France with a large army, taking possession of Nesle and

massacring its inhabitants. He failed, however, in an attack on

Beauvais, and had to content himself with ravaging the country as far as

Rouen, eventually retiring without having attained any useful result.

Other matters, moreover, engaged his attention. Relinquishing, if not

the stately magnificence, at least the gay and wasteful profusion which

had characterized the court of Burgundy under the preceding duke, he had

bent all his efforts towards the development of his military and

political power. Since the beginning of his reign he had employed

himself in reorganizing his army and the administration of his

territories. While retaining the principles of feudal recruiting, he had

endeavoured to establish a system of rigid discipline among his troops,

which he had strengthened by taking into his pay foreign mercenaries,

particularly Englishmen and Italians, and by developing his artillery.

Furthermore, he had lost no opportunity of extending his power. In 1469

the archduke of Austria, Sigismund, had sold him the county of Ferrette,

and the landgraviate of Alsace and some other towns, reserving to

himself the right to repurchase. In 1472-1473 Charles bought the

reversion of the duchy of Gelderland from its old duke, Arnold, whom he

had supported against the rebellion of his son. Not content with being

"the grand duke of the West," he conceived the project of forming a

kingdom of Burgundy or Arles with himself as independent sovereign, and

even persuaded the emperor Frederick to assent to crown him king at

Trier. The ceremony, however, did not take place owing to the emperor's

precipitate flight by night (September 1473), occasioned by his

displeasure at the duke's attitude. In the following year Charles

involved himself in a series of difficulties and struggles which

ultimately brought about his downfall. He embroiled himself successively

with Sigismund of Austria, to whom he refused to restore his

possessions in Alsace for the stipulated sum; with the Swiss, who

supported the free towns of Alsace in their revolt against the tyranny

of the ducal governor, Peter von Hagenbach (who was condemned and

executed by the rebels in May 1474); and finally, with Rene of Lorraine,

with whom he disputed the succession of Lorraine, the possession of

which had united the two principal portions of Charles's

territories--Flanders and the duchy and county of Burgundy. All these

enemies, incited and supported as they were by Louis, were not long in

joining forces against their common adversary. Charles suffered a first

rebuff in endeavouring to protect his kinsman, the archbishop of

Cologne, against his rebel subjects. He spent ten months (July 1474-June

1475) in besieging the little town of Neuss on the Rhine, but was

compelled by the approach of a powerful imperial army to raise the

siege. Moreover, the expedition he had persuaded his brother-in-law,

Edward IV. of England, to undertake against Louis was stopped by the

treaty of Picquigny (29th of August 1475). He was more successful in

Lorraine, where he seized Nancy (30th of November 1475). From Nancy he

marched against the Swiss, hanging and drowning the garrison of Granson

in spite of the capitulation. Some days later, however, he was attacked

before Granson by the confederate army and suffered a shamful defeat,

being compelled to fly with a handful of attendants, and leaving his

artillery and an immense booty in the hands of the allies (February

1476). He succeeded in raising a fresh army of 30,000 men, with which he

attacked Morat, but he was again defeated by the Swiss army, assisted by

the cavalry of Rene of Lorraine (22nd of June 1476). On the 6th of

October Charles lost Nancy, which was re-entered by Rene. Making a last

effort, Charles formed a new army and arrived in the depth of winter

before the walls of Nancy. Having lost many of his troops through the

severe cold, it was with only a few thousand men that he met the joint

forces of the Lorrainers and the Swiss, who had come to the relief of

the town (6th of January 1477). He himself perished in the fight, his

mutilated body being discovered some days afterwards.

Charles the Bold has often been regarded as the last representative of

the feudal spirit--a man who possessed no other quality than a blind

bravery--and accordingly has often been contrasted with his rival Louis

XI. as representing modern politics. In reality, he was a prince of wide

knowledge and culture, knowing several languages and austere in morals;

and although he cannot be acquitted of occasional harshness, he had the

secret of winning the hearts of his subjects, who never refused him

their support in times of difficulty. He was thrice married--to

Catherine (d, 1446), daughter of Charles VII. of France, by whom he had

one daughter, Mary, afterwards the wife of the Emperor Maximilian I.; to

Isabella (d. 1465), daughter of Charles I., duke of Bourbon; and to

Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV. of England, whom he married in

1468.

The original authorities for the life and times of Charles the Bold

are the numerous French, Burgundian and Flemish chroniclers of the

latter part of the 15th century. Special mention may be made of the

_Memoires_ of Philippe de Comines, and of the _Memoires_ and other

writings of Olivier de la Marche. See also A. Molinier, _Les Sources

de l'histoire de France_, tome iv. (1904), and the compendious

bibliography in U. Chevalier's _Repertoire des sources historiques_,

part iii. (1904). _Charles the Bold_, by J.F. Kirk (1863-1868), is a

good English biography for its date; a more recent life is R. Putnam's

_Charles the Bold_ (1908). For a general sketch of the relations

between France and Burgundy at this time see E. Lavisse, _Histoire de

France_, tome iv. (1902). (R. Po.)

CHARLES, called THE GOOD (le Bon), or THE DANE (c. 1084-1127), count of

Flanders, only son of St Canute or Knut IV., king of Denmark, by Adela,

daughter of Robert the Frisian, count of Flanders, was born about 1084.

After the assassination of Canute in 1086, his widow took refuge in

Flanders, taking with her her son. Charles was brought up by his mother

and grandfather, Robert the Frisian, on whose death he did great

services to his uncle, Robert II., and his cousin, Baldwin VII., counts

of Flanders. Baldwin died of a wound received in battle in 1119, and,

having no issue, left by will the succession to his countship to Charles

the Dane. Charles did not secure his heritage without a civil war, but

he was speedily victorious and made his position secure by treating his

opponents with great clemency. He now devoted himself to promoting the

welfare of his subjects, and did his utmost to support the cause of

Christianity, both by his bounty and by his example. He well deserved

the surname of _Le Bon_, by which he is known to posterity. He refused

the offer of the crown of Jerusalem on the death of Baldwin, and

declined to be nominated as a candidate for the imperial crown in

succession to the emperor Henry V. He was murdered in the church of St

Donat at Bruges on the 2nd of March 1127.

See J. Perneel, _Histoire du regne de Charles le Bon, precede d'un

resume de l'histoire de Flandres_ (Brussels, 1830).

CHARLES I. (c. 950-c. 992), duke of Lower Lorraine, was a younger son of

the Frankish king Louis IV., and consequently a member of the

Carolingian family. Unable to obtain the duchy of Burgundy owing to the

opposition of his brother, King Lothair, he went to the court of his

maternal uncle, the emperor Otto the Great, about 965, and in 977

received from the emperor Otto II. the duchy of Lower Lorraine. His

authority in Lorraine was nominal; but he aided Otto in his struggle

with Lothair, and on the death of his nephew, Louis V., made an effort

to secure the Frankish crown. Hugh Capet, however, was the successful

candidate and war broke out. Charles had gained some successes and had

captured Reims, when in 991 he was treacherously seized by Adalberon,

bishop of Laon, and handed over to Hugh. Imprisoned with his wife and

children at Orleans, Charles did not long survive his humiliation. His

eldest son Otto, duke of Lower Lorraine, died in 1005.

CHARLES II. (d. 1431), duke of Lorraine, called THE BOLD, is sometimes

referred to as Charles I. A son of Duke John I., he succeeded his father

in 1390; but he neglected his duchy and passed his life in warfare. He

died on the 25th of January 1431, leaving two daughters, one of whom,

Isabella (d. 1453), married Rene I. of Anjou (1409-1450), king of

Naples, who succeeded his father-in-law as duke of Lorraine.

CHARLES III. or II. (1543-1608), called THE GREAT, duke of Lorraine, was

a son of Duke Francis I. (d. 1545), and a descendant of Rene of Anjou.

He was only an infant when he became duke, and was brought up at the

court of Henry II. of France, marrying Henry's daughter Claude in 1559.

He took part in the wars of religion in France, and was a member of the

League; but he was overshadowed by his kinsmen the Guises, although he

was a possible candidate for the French crown in 1589. The duke, who was

an excellent ruler of Lorraine, died at Nancy on the 14th of May 1608.

He had three sons: Henry (d. 1624) and Francis (d. 1632), who became in

turn dukes of Lorraine, and Charles (d. 1607), bishop of Metz and

Strassburg.

CHARLES IV. or III. (1604-1675), duke of Lorraine, was a son of Duke

Francis II., and was born on the 5th of April 1604. He became duke on

the abdication of his father in 1624, and obtained the duchy of Bar

through his marriage with his cousin Nicole (d. 1657), daughter of Duke

Henry. Mixing in the tortuous politics of his time, he was in continual

conflict with the crown of France, and spent much of his time in

assisting her enemies and in losing and regaining his duchies (see

LORRAINE). He lived an adventurous life, and in the intervals between

his several struggles with France fought for the emperor Ferdinand II.

at Nordlingen and elsewhere; talked of succouring Charles I. in England;

and after the conclusion of the treaty of Westphalia in 1648 entered the

service of Spain. He died on the 18th of September 1675, leaving by his

second wife, Beatrix de Cusance (d. 1663), a son, Charles Henry, count

of Vaudemont (1642-1723).

CHARLES V. or IV. (1643-1690), duke of Lorraine, nephew of Duke Charles

IV., was born on the 3rd of April 1643, and in 1664 received a colonelcy

in the emperor's army. In the same year he fought with distinction at

the battle of St Gotthard, in which he captured a standard from the

Turks. He was a candidate for the elective crown of Poland in 1668. In

1670 the emperor made him general of horse, and during the following

years he was constantly on active service, first against the Turks and

subsequently against the French. At Seneff (1674) he was wounded. In the

same year he was again a candidate for the Polish crown, but was

unsuccessful, John Sobieski, who was to be associated with him in his

greatest feat of arms, being elected. In 1675, on the death of Charles

IV., he rode with a cavalry corps into the duchy of Lorraine, then

occupied by the French, and secured the adhesion of the Lorraine troops

to himself; a little after this he succeeded Montecucculi as general of

the imperial army on the Rhine, and was made a field marshal. The chief

success of his campaign of 1676 was the capture of Philipsburg, after a

long and arduous siege. The war continued without decisive result for

some time, and the fate of the duchy, which was still occupied by the

French, was the subject of endless diplomacy. At the general peace

Charles had to accept the hard conditions imposed by Louis XIV., and he

never entered into effective possession of his sovereignty. In 1678 he

married the widowed queen of Poland, Eleonora Maria of Austria, and for

nearly five years they lived quietly at Innsbruck. The Turkish invasion

of 1683, the last great effort of the Turks to impose their will on

Europe, called Charles into the field again. At the head of a weak

imperial army the duke offered the best resistance he could to the

advance of the Turks on Vienna. But he had to fall back, contesting

every position, and the Turks finally invested Vienna (July 13th, 1683).

At this critical moment other powers came to the assistance of Austria,

reinforcements poured into Charles's camp, and John Sobieski, king of

Poland, brought 27,000 Poles. Sobieski and Charles had now over 80,000

men, Poles, Austrians and Germans, and on the morning of the 12th of

September they moved forward to the attack. By nightfall the Turks were

in complete disorder, Vienna was relieved, and the danger was at an end.

Soon the victors took the offensive and reconquered part of the kingdom

of Hungary. The Germans and Poles went home in the winter, but Charles

continued his offensive with the imperialists alone. Ofen (Buda)

resisted his efforts in 1684, but in the campaign of 1685 Neuhausel was

taken by storm, and in 1686 Charles, now reinforced by German

auxiliaries, resumed the siege of Ofen. All attempts to relieve the

place were repulsed, and Ofen was stormed on the 2nd of September. In

the following campaign the Austrians won a decisive victory on the

famous battle-ground of Mohacs (August 18th, 1687). In 1689 Charles took

the field on the Rhine against the forces of Louis XIV., the enemy of

his house. Mainz and Bonn were taken in the first campaign, but Charles

in travelling from Vienna to the front died suddenly at Wels on the 18th

of April 1690.

His eldest son, Leopold Joseph (1679-1729), at the peace of Ryswick in

1697 obtained the duchy, of which his father had been dispossessed by

France, and was the father of Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, who

became the husband of Maria Theresa (q.v.), and of Charles (Karl

Alexander), a distinguished Austrian commander in the wars with

Frederick the Great. The duchy was ceded by Francis Stephen to

Stanislaus Leczynski, the dethroned king of Poland, in 1736, Francis

receiving instead the grand-duchy of Tuscany.

CHARLES II. [CHARLES LOUIS DE BOURBON] (1799-1883), duke of Parma,

succeeded his mother, Maria Louisa, duchess of Lucca, as duke of Lucca

in 1824. He introduced economy into the administration, increased the

schools, and in 1832 as a reaction against the bigotry of the priests

and monks with which his mother had surrounded him, he became a

Protestant. He at first evinced Liberal tendencies, gave asylum to the

Modenese political refugees of 1831, and was indeed suspected of being a

Carbonaro. But his profligacy and eccentricities soon made him the

laughing-stock of Italy. In 1842 he returned to the Catholic Church and

made Thomas Ward, an English groom, his prime minister, a man not

without ability and tact. Charles gradually abandoned all his Liberal

ideas, and in 1847 declared himself hostile to the reforms introduced by

Pius IX. The Lucchesi demanded the constitution of 1805, promised them

by the treaty of Vienna, and a national guard, but the duke, in spite of

the warnings of Ward, refused all concessions. A few weeks later he

retired to Modena, selling his life-interest in the duchy to Tuscany.

On the 17th of October Maria Louisa of Austria, duchess of Parma, died,

and Charles Louis succeeded to her throne by the terms of the Florence

treaty, assuming the style of Charles II. His administration of Parma

was characterized by ruinous finance, debts, disorder and increased

taxation, and he concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with

Austria. But on the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 there were riots

in his capital (19th of March), and he declared his readiness to throw

in his lot with Charles Albert, the pope, and Leopold of Tuscany,

repudiated the Austrian treaty and promised a constitution. Then he

again changed his mind, abdicated in April, and left Parma in the hands

of a provisional government, whereupon the people voted for union with

Piedmont. After the armistice between Charles Albert and Austria (August

1848) the Austrian general Thurn occupied the duchy, and Charles II.

issued an edict from Weistropp annulling the acts of the provisional

government. When Piedmont attacked Austria again in 1849, Parma was

evacuated, but reoccupied by General d'Aspre in April.

In May 1849 Charles confirmed his abdication, and was succeeded by his

son CHARLES III. (1823-1854), who, protected by Austrian troops, placed

Parma under martial law, inflicted heavy penalties on the members of the

late provisional government, closed the university, and instituted a

regular policy of persecution. A violent ruler, a drunkard and a

libertine, he was assassinated on the 26th of March 1854. At his death

his widow Maria Louisa, sister of the comte de Chambord, became regent,

during the minority of his son Robert. The duchess introduced some sort

of order into the administration, seemed inclined to rule more mildly

and dismissed some of her husband's more obnoxious ministers, but the

riots of the Mazzinians in July 1854 were repressed with ruthless

severity, and the rest of her reign was characterized by political

trials, executions and imprisonments, to which the revolutionists

replied with assassinations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Massei, _Storia civile di Lucca_, vol. ii. (Lucca,

1878); Anon., _Y Borboni di Parma ... del 1847 al 1859_ (Parma, 1860);

N. Bianchi, _Storia della diplomazia europea in Italia_ (Turin, 1865,

&c.); C. Tivaroni, _L'Italia sotto il dominio austriaco_, ii. 96-101,

i. 590-605 (Turin, 1892), and _L'Italia degli Italiani_, i. 126-143

(Turin, 1895) by the same; S. Lottici and G. Sitti, _Bibliografia

generale per la storia parmense_ (Parma, 1904).

CHARLES [KARL LUDWIG] (1771-1847), archduke of Austria and duke of

Teschen, third son of the emperor Leopold II., was born at Florence (his

father being then grand-duke of Tuscany) on the 5th of September 1771.

His youth was spent in Tuscany, at Vienna and in the Austrian

Netherlands, where he began his career of military service in the war of

the French Revolution. He commanded a brigade at Jemappes, and in the

campaign of 1793 distinguished himself at the action of Aldenhoven and

the battle of Neerwinden. In this year he became _Statthalter_ in

Belgium and received the army rank of lieutenant field marshal, which

promotion was soon followed by that to Feldzeugmeister. In the remainder

of the war in the Low Countries he held high commands, and he was

present at Fleurus. In 1795 he served on the Rhine, and in the following

year was entrusted with the chief control of all the Austrian forces on

that river. His conduct of the operations against Jourdan and Moreau in

1796 marked him out at once as one of the greatest generals in Europe.

At first falling back carefully and avoiding a decision, he finally

marched away, leaving a mere screen in front of Moreau; falling upon

Jourdan he beat him in the battles of Amberg and Wurzburg, and drove him

over the Rhine with great loss. He then turned upon Moreau's army, which

he defeated and forced out of Germany. For this campaign, one of the

most brilliant in modern history, see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS. In 1797

he was sent to arrest the victorious march of General Bonaparte in

Italy, and he conducted the retreat of the over-matched Austrians with

the highest skill. In the campaign of 1799 he was once more opposed to

Jourdan, whom he defeated in the battles of Osterach and Stokach,

following up his success by invading Switzerland and defeating Massena

in the (first) battle of Zurich, after which he re-entered Germany and

drove the French once more over the Rhine. Ill-health, however, forced

him to retire to Bohemia, whence he was soon recalled to undertake the

task of checking Moreau's advance on Vienna. The result of the battle of

Hohenlinden had, however, foredoomed the attempt, and the archduke had

to make the armistice of Steyer. His popularity was now such that the

diet of Regensburg, which met in 1802, resolved to erect a statue in his

honour and to give him the title of saviour of his country; but Charles

refused both distinctions.

In the short and disastrous war of 1805 the archduke Charles commanded

what was intended to be the main army, in Italy, but events made Germany

the decisive theatre of operations, and the defeats sustained on the

Danube neutralized the success obtained by the archduke over Massena in

the desperately fought battle of Caldiero. With the conclusion of peace

began his active work of army reorganization, which was first tested on

the field in 1809. As generalissimo of the army he had been made field

marshal some years before. As president of the Council of War, and

supported by the prestige of being the only general who had proved

capable of defeating the French, he promptly initiated a far-reaching

scheme of reform, which replaced the obsolete methods of the 18th

century, the chief characteristics of the new order being the adoption

of the "nation in arms" principle and of the French war organization and

tactics. The new army was surprised in the process of transition by the

war of 1809, in which Charles commanded in chief; yet even so it proved

a far more formidable opponent than the old, and, against the now

heterogeneous army of which Napoleon disposed (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS)

it succumbed only after a desperate struggle. Its initial successes were

neutralized by the reverses of Abensberg, Landshut and Eckmuhl; but,

after the evacuation of Vienna, the archduke won the great battle of

Aspern-Essling (q.v.) and soon afterwards fought the still more

desperate battle of Wagram (q.v.), at the close of which the Austrians

were defeated but not routed; they had inflicted upon Napoleon a loss of

over 50,000 men in the two battles. At the end of the campaign the

archduke gave up all his military offices, and spent the rest of his

life in retirement, except a short time in 1815, when he was governor of

Mainz. In 1822 he succeeded to the duchy of Saxe-Teschen. The archduke

Charles married, in 1815, Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg (d.

1829). He had four sons, the eldest of whom, the archduke Albert (q.v.)

became one of the most celebrated generals in Europe, and two daughters,

the elder of whom became queen of Naples. He died at Vienna on the 30th

of April 1847. An equestrian statue was erected to his memory in Vienna,

1860.

The caution which the archduke preached so earnestly in his strategical

works, he displayed in practice only when the situation seemed to demand

it, though his education certainly prejudiced him in favour of the

defensive at all costs. He was at the same time capable of forming and

executing the most daring offensive strategy, and his tactical skill in

the handling of troops, whether in wide turning movements, as at

Wurzburg and Zurich, or in masses, as at Aspern and Wagram, was

certainly equal to that of any leader of his time, Napoleon only

excepted. The campaign of 1796 is considered almost faultless. That he

sustained defeat in 1809 was due in part to the great numerical

superiority of the French and their allies, and in part to the condition

of his newly reorganized troops. His six weeks' inaction after the

victory of Aspern is, however, open to unfavourable criticism. As a

military writer, his position in the evolution of the art of war is very

important, and his doctrines had naturally the greatest weight.

Nevertheless they cannot but be considered as antiquated even in 1806.

Caution and the importance of "strategic points" are the chief features

of his system. The rigidity of his geographical strategy may be gathered

from the prescription that "this principle is _never_ to be departed

from." Again and again he repeats the advice that nothing should be

hazarded unless one's army is _completely_ secure, a rule which he

himself neglected with such brilliant results in 1796. "Strategic

points," he says (not the defeat of the enemy's army), "decide the fate

of one's own country, and must constantly remain the general's main

solicitude"--a maxim which was never more remarkably disproved than in

the war of 1809. The editor of the archduke's work is able to make but a

feeble defence against Clausewitz's reproach that Charles attached more

value to ground than to the annihilation of the foe. In his tactical

writings the same spirit is conspicuous. His reserve in battle is

designed to "cover a retreat." The baneful influence of these antiquated

principles was clearly shown in the maintenance of Koniggratz-Josefstadt

in 1866 as a "strategic point," which was preferred to the defeat of the

separated Prussian armies; in the strange plans produced in Vienna for

the campaign of 1859, and in the "almost unintelligible" battle of

Montebello in the same year. The theory and the practice of the archduke

Charles form one of the most curious contrasts in military history. In

the one he is unreal, in the other he displayed, along with the greatest

skill, a vivid activity which made him for long the most formidable

opponent of Napoleon.

His writings were edited by the archduke Albert and his brother the

archduke William in the _Ausgewahlte Schriften weiland Sr. K. Hoheit

Erzh. Carl v. Osterreich_ (1862; reprinted 1893, Vienna and Leipzig),

which includes the _Grundsatze der Kriegskunst fur die Generale_

(1806), _Grundsatze der Strategie erlautert durch die Darstellung des

Feldzugs 1796_ (1814), _Gesch. des Feldzugs von 1799_ (1819)--the two

latter invaluable contributions to the history of the war, and papers

"on the higher art of war," "on practical training in the field," &c.

See, besides the histories of the period, C. von

B(inder)-K(rieglstein), _Geist und Stoff im Kriege_ (Vienna, 1895);

Caemmerer, _Development of Strategical Science_ (English transl.), ch.

iv.; M. Edler v. Angeli, _Erzherzog Carl v. Osterr._ (Vienna and

Leipzig, 1896); Duller, _Erzh. Karl v. Osterr._ (Vienna, 1845);

Schneidawind, _Karl, Erzherzog v. Osterr. und die osterr. Armee_

(Vienna, 1840); _Das Buch vom Erzh. Carl_ (1848); Thielen, _Erzh. Karl

v. Osterr._ (1858); Wolf, _Erzh. Carl_ (1860); H. von Zeissberg,

_Erzh. Karl v. Osterr._ (Vienna, 1895); M. von Angeli, _Erzh. Karl als

Feldherr und Organisator_ (Vienna, 1896).

CHARLES (1525-1574), cardinal of Lorraine, French statesman, was the

second son of Claude of Lorraine, duke of Guise, and brother of Francis,

duke of Guise. He was archbishop of Reims in 1538, and cardinal in 1547.

At first he was called the cardinal of Guise, but in 1550, on the death

of his uncle John, cardinal of Lorraine, he in his turn took the style

of cardinal of Lorraine. Brilliant, cunning and a master of intrigue, he

was, like all the Guises, devoured with ambition and devoid of scruples.

He had, said Brantome, "a soul exceeding smirched," and, he adds, "by

nature he was exceeding craven." Together with his brother, Duke

Francis, the cardinal of Lorraine was all-powerful during the reigns of

Henry II. and Francis II.; in 1558 and 1559 he was one of the

negotiators of the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis; he fought and pitilessly

persecuted the reformers, and by his intolerant policy helped to provoke

the crisis of the wars of religion. The death of Francis II. deprived

him of power, but he remained one of the principal leaders of the

Catholic party. In 1561, at the Colloquy of Poissy, he was commissioned

to reply to Theodore Beza. In 1562 he went to the council of Trent,

where he at first defended the rights of the Gallican Church against the

pretensions of the pope; but after the assassination of his brother, he

approached the court of Rome, and on his return to France he

endeavoured, but without success, to obtain the promulgation of the

decrees of the council (1564). In 1567, when the Protestants took up

arms, he held for some time the first place in the king's council, but

Catherine de' Medici soon grew weary of his arrogance, and in 1570 he

had to leave the court. He endeavoured to regain favour by negotiating

at Rome the dispensation for the marriage of Henry of Navarre with

Margaret of Valois (1572). He died on the 26th of December 1574, at the

beginning of the reign of Henry III. An orator of talent, he left

several harangues or sermons, among them being _Oraison prononcee au

Colloque de Poissy_ (Paris, 1562) and _Oratio habita in Concil. Trident._

(_Concil. Trident. Orationes_, Louvain, 1567).

A large amount of correspondence is preserved in the Bibliotheque

Nationale, Paris. See also Rene de Bouille, _Histoire des ducs de

Guise_ (Paris, 1849); H. Forneron, _Les Guises et leur epoque_ (Paris,

1877); Guillemin, _Le Cardinal de Lorraine_ (1847).

CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780), prince of Lorraine, was the

youngest son of Leopold, duke of Lorraine, and grandson of Charles V.,

duke of Lorraine (see above), the famous general. He was born at

Luneville on the 12th of December 1712, and educated for a military

career. After his elder brother Francis, the duke, had exchanged

Lorraine for Tuscany and married Maria Theresa, Charles became an

Austrian officer, and he served in the campaigns of 1737 and 1738

against the Turks. At the outbreak of the Silesian wars in 1740 (see

AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE), the queen made her brother-in-law a

field marshal, though he was not yet thirty years old, and in 1742

Charles encountered Frederick the Great for the first time at the battle

of Chotusitz (May 17th). The victory of the Prussians on that field was

far from decisive, and Charles drew off his forces in good order. His

conduct of the successful campaign of 1743 against the French and

Bavarians heightened his reputation. He married, in January 1744,

Marianne of Austria, sister of Maria Theresa, who made them jointly

governors-general of the Austrian Netherlands. Very soon the war broke

out afresh, and Charles, at the head of the Austrian army on the Rhine,

won great renown by his brilliant crossing of the Rhine. Once more a

Lorraine prince at the head of Austrian troops invaded the duchy and

drove the French before him, but at this moment Frederick resumed the

Silesian war, all available troops were called back to oppose him, and

the French maintained their hold on Lorraine. Charles hurried to

Bohemia, whence, aided by the advice of the veteran field marshal Traun,

he quickly expelled the Prussians. At the close of his victorious

campaign he received the news that his wife, to whom he was deeply

attached, had died in childbirth on the 16th of December 1744 at

Brussels. He took the field again in 1745 in Silesia, but this time

without the advice of Traun, and he was twice severely defeated by

Frederick, at Hohenfriedberg and at Soor. Subsequently, as

commander-in-chief in the Low Countries he received, at Roucoux, a heavy

defeat at the hands of Marshal Saxe. His government of the Austrian

Netherlands during the peace of 1749-1756 was marked by many reforms,

and the prince won the regard of the people by his ceaseless activity on

their behalf. After the first reverses of the Seven Years' War (q.v.),

Maria Theresa called Charles again to the supreme command in the field.

The campaign of 1757 opened with Frederick's great victory of Prague,

and Prince Charles was shut up with his army in that fortress. In the

victory of the relieving army under Daun at Kolin Charles had no part.

Nevertheless the battle of Breslau, in which the Prussians suffered a

defeat even more serious than that of Kolin, was won by him, and great

enthusiasm was displayed in Austria over the victory, which seemed to be

the final blow to Frederick. But soon afterwards the king of Prussia

routed the French at Rossbach, and, swiftly returning to Silesia, he

inflicted on Charles the complete and crushing defeat of Leuthen

(December 5, 1757). A mere remnant of the Austrian army reassembled

after the pursuit, and Charles was relieved of his command. He received,

however, from the hands of the empress the grand cross, of the newly

founded order of Maria Theresa. For a year thereafter Prince Charles

acted as a military adviser at Vienna, he then returned to Brussels,

where, during the remainder of his life, he continued to govern in the

same liberal spirit as before. The affection of the people for the

prince was displayed during his dangerous illness in 1765, and in 1775

the estates of Brabant erected a statue in his honour at Brussels. He

died on the 4th of July 1780 at the castle of Tervoeren, and was buried

with his Lorraine ancestors at Nancy.

CHARLES (1270-1325), count of Valois, of Maine, and of Anjou, third son

of Philip III., king of France, surnamed the Bold, and of Isabella of

Aragon, was born on the 12th of March 1270. By his father's will he

inherited the four lordships of Crepy, La Ferte-Milon, Pierrefonds and

Bethisy, which together formed the countship of Valois. In 1284 Martin

IV., having excommunicated Pedro III., king of Aragon, offered that

kingdom to Charles. King Philip failed in an attempt to place his son on

this throne, and died on the return of the expedition. In 1290 Charles

married Margaret, daughter of Charles II., king of Naples, and renounced

his pretensions to Aragon. In 1294, at the beginning of the hostilities

against England, he invaded Guienne and took La Reole and Saint-Sever.

During the war Flanders (1300), he took Douai, Bethune and Dam, received

the submission of Guy of Dampierre, and aided King Philip IV., the Fair,

to gain the battle of Mons-en-Pevele, on the 18th of August 1304. Asked

by Boniface VIII. for his aid against the Ghibellines, he crossed the

Alps in June 1301, entered Florence, and helped Charles II., the Lame,

king of Sicily, to reconquer Calabria and Apulia from the house of

Aragon, but was defeated in Sicily. As after the death of his first wife

Charles had married Catherine de Courtenay, a granddaughter of Baldwin

II., the last Latin emperor of Constantinople, he tried to assert his

rights to that throne. Philip the Fair also wished to get him elected

emperor; but Clement V. quashed his candidature in favour of Henry of

Luxemburg, afterwards the emperor Henry VII. Under Louis X. Charles

headed the party of feudal reaction, and was among those who compassed

the ruin of Enguerrand de Marigny. In the reign of Charles IV., the

Fair, he fought yet again in Guienne (1324), and died at Perray

(Seine-et-Oise) on the 16th of December 1325. His second wife had died

in 1307, and in July 1308 he had married a third wife, Mahaut de

Chatillon, countess of Saint-Pol. Philip, his eldest son, ascended the

French throne in 1328, and from him sprang the royal house of Valois.

See Joseph Petit, _Charles de Valois_ (Paris, 1900).

CHARLES (1421-1461), prince of Viana, sometimes called Charles IV. king

of Navarre, was the son of John, afterwards John II., king of Aragon, by

his marriage with Blanche, daughter and heiress of Charles III., king of

Navarre. Both his grandfather Charles and his mother, who ruled over

Navarre from 1425 to 1441, had bequeathed this kingdom to Charles, whose

right had also been recognized by the Cortes; but when Blanche died in

1441 her husband John seized the government to the exclusion of his son.

The ill-feeling between father and son was increased when in 1447 John

took for his second wife Joanna Henriquez, a Castilian princess, who

soon bore him a son, afterwards Ferdinand I. king of Spain, and who

regarded her stepson as an interloper. When Joanna began to interfere in

the internal affairs of Navarre civil war broke out; and in 1452

Charles, although aided by John II., king of Castile, was defeated and

taken prisoner. Released upon promising not to take the kingly title

until after his father's death, the prince, again unsuccessful in an

appeal to arms, took refuge in Italy with Alphonso V., king of Aragon,

Naples and Sicily. In 1458 Alphonso died and John became king of Aragon,

while Charles was offered the crowns of Naples and Sicily. He declined

these proposals, and having been reconciled with his father returned to

Navarre in 1459. Aspiring to marry a Castilian princess, he was then

thrown into prison by his father, and the Catalans rose in his favour.

This insurrection soon became general and John was obliged to yield. He

released his son, and recognized him as perpetual governor of Catalonia,

and heir to the kingdom. Soon afterwards, however, on the 23rd of

September 1461, the prince died at Barcelona, not without a suspicion

that he had been poisoned by his stepmother. Charles was a cultured and

amiable prince, fond of music and literature. He translated the _Ethics_

of Aristotle into Spanish, a work first published at Saragossa in 1509,

and wrote a chronicle of the kings of Navarre, _Cronica de los reyes de

Navarra_, an edition which, edited by J. Yangues y Miranda, was

published at Pampeluna in 1843.

See J. de Moret and F. de Aleson, _Anales del reyno de Navarra_, tome

iv. (Pampeluna, 1866); M.J. Quintana, _Vidas de espanoles celebres_

(Paris, 1827); and G. Desdevises du Dezert, _Carlos d'Aragon_ (Paris,

1889).

CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896), English author, was born at Tavistock on

the 2nd of January 1828, the daughter of John Rundle, M.P. Some of her

youthful poems won the praise of Tennyson, who read them in manuscript.

In 1851 she married Andrew Paton Charles. Her best known book, written

to order for an editor who wished for a story about Martin Luther, _The

Chronicles of the Schonberg-Cotta Family_, was published in 1862, and

was translated into most of the European languages, into Arabic, and

into many Indian dialects. Mrs Charles wrote in all some fifty books,

the majority of a semi-religious character. She took an active part in

the work of various charitable institutions, and among her friends and

correspondents were Dean Stanley, Archbishop Tait, Charles Kingsley,

Jowett and Pusey. She died at Hampstead on the 28th of March 1896.

CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823), French mathematician and

physicist, was born at Beaugency, Loiret, on the 12th of November 1746.

After spending some years as a clerk in the ministry of finance, he

turned to scientific pursuits, and attracted considerable attention by

his skilful and elaborate demonstrations of physical experiments. He was

the first, in 1783, to employ hydrogen for the inflation of balloons

(see AERONAUTICS), and about 1787 he anticipated Gay Lussac's law of the

dilatation of gases with heat, which on that account is sometimes known

by his name. In 1785 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, and

subsequently he became professor of physics at the Conservatoire des

Arts et Metiers. He died in Paris on the 7th of April 1823. His

published papers are chiefly concerned with mathematical topics.

CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814), Welsh Nonconformist divine, was born of

humble parentage at Longmoor, in the parish of Llanfihangel Abercywyn,

near St Clears, Carmarthenshire, on the 14th of October 1755. He was

educated for the Anglican ministry at Llanddowror and Carmarthen, and at

Jesus College, Oxford (1775-1778). In 1777 he studied theology under the

evangelical John Newton at Olney. He was ordained deacon in 1778 on the

title of the curacies of Shepton Beauchamp and Sparkford, Somerset; and

took priest's orders in 1780. He afterwards added to his charge at

Sparkford, Lovington, South Barrow and North Barrow, and in September

1782 was presented to the perpetual curacy of South Barrow by the Rev.

John Hughes, Coln St Denys. But he never left Sparkford, though the

contrary has been maintained, until he resigned all his curacies in June

1783, and returned to Wales, marrying (on August 20th) Sarah Jones of

Bala, the orphan of a flourishing shopkeeper. He had early fallen under

the influence of the great revival movement in Wales, and at the age of

seventeen had been "converted" by a sermon of Daniel Rowland's. This was

enough to make him unpopular with many of the Welsh clergy, and being

denied the privilege of preaching for nothing at two churches, he helped

his old Oxford friend John Mayor, now vicar of Shawbury, Shropshire,

from October until January 11th, 1784. On the 25th of January he took

charge of Llan yn Mowddwy (14 m. from Bala), but was not allowed to

continue there more than three months. Three influential people, among

them the rector of Bala, agitated some of the parishioners against him,

and persuaded his rector to dismiss him. His preaching, his catechizing

of the children after evensong, and his connexion with the Bala

Methodists--his wife's step-father being a Methodist preacher--gave

great offence. After a fortnight more at Shawbury, he wrote to John

Newton and another clergyman friend in London for advice. The Church of

England denied him employment, and the Methodists desired his services.

His friends advised him to return to England, but it was too late. By

September he had crossed the Rubicon, Henry Newman (his rector at

Shepton Beauchamp and Sparkford) accompanying him on a tour in

Carnarvonshire. In December, he was preaching at the Bont Uchel

Association; so that he joined the Methodists (see CALVINISTIC

METHODISTS) in 1784.

Before taking this step, he had been wont in his enforced leisure to

gather the poor children of Bala into his house for instruction, and so

thickly did they come that he had to adjourn with them to the chapel.

This was the origin of the Welsh Circulating Schools, which he developed

on the lines adopted by Griffith Jones (d. 1761), formerly vicar of

Llanddowror. First one man was trained for the work by himself, then he

was sent to a district for six months, where, (for L8 a year) he taught

gratis the children and young people (in fact, all comers) reading and

Christian principles. Writing was added later. The expenses were met by

collections made in the Calvinistic Methodist Societies, and as the

funds increased masters were multiplied, until in 1786 Charles had

seven masters to whom he paid L10 per annum; in 1787, twelve; in 1789,

fifteen; in 1794, twenty. By this time the salary had been increased to

L12; in 1801 it was L14. He had learnt of Raikes's Sunday Schools before

he left the Establishment, but he rightly considered the system set on

foot by himself far superior; the work and object being the same, he

gave six days' tuition for every one given by them, and many people not

only objected to working as teachers on Sunday, but thought the children

forgot in the six days what they learnt on the one. But Sunday Schools

were first adopted by Charles to meet the case of young people in

service who could not attend during the week, and even in that form much

opposition was shown to them because teaching was thought to be a form

of Sabbath breaking. His first Sunday School was in 1787. Wilberforce,

Charles Grant, John Thornton and his son Henry, were among the

philanthropists who contributed to his funds; in 1798 the Sunday School

Society (established 1785) extended its operations to Wales, making him

its agent, and Sunday Schools grew rapidly in number and favour. A

powerful revival broke out at Bala in the autumn of 1791, and his

account of it in letters to correspondents, sent without his knowledge

to magazines, kindled a similar fire at Huntly. The scarcity of Welsh

bibles was Charles's greatest difficulty in his work. John Thornton and

Thomas Scott helped him to secure supplies from the Society for the

Promotion of Christian Knowledge from 1787 to 1789, when the stock

became all but exhausted. In 1799 a new edition was brought out by the

Society, and he managed to secure 700 copies of the 10,000 issued; the

Sunday School Society got 3000 testaments printed, and most of them

passed into his hands in 1801.

In 1800, when a frost-bitten thumb gave him great pain and much fear for

his life, his friend, Rev. Philip Oliver of Chester, died, leaving him

director and one of three trustees over his chapel at Boughton; and this

added much to his anxiety. The Welsh causes at Manchester and London,

too, gave him much uneasiness, and burdened him with great

responsibilities at this juncture. In November 1802 he went to London,

and on the 7th of December he sat at a committee meeting of the

Religious Tract Society, as a country member, when his friend, Joseph

Tarn--a member of the Spa Fields and Religious Tract Society

committees--introduced the subject of a regular supply of bibles for

Wales. Charles was asked to state his case to the committee, and so

forcibly did he impress them, that it was there and then decided to move

in the matter of a general dispersion of the bible. When he visited

London a year later, his friends were ready to discuss the name of a new

Society, and the sole object of which should be to supply bibles.

Charles returned to Wales on the 30th of January 1804, and the British

and Foreign Bible Society was formally and publicly inaugurated on March

the 7th. The first Welsh testament issued by that Society appeared on

the 6th of May 1806, the bible on the 7th of May 1807--both being edited

by Charles.

Between 1805 and 1811 he issued his Biblical Dictionary in four volumes,

which still remains the standard work of its kind in Welsh. Three

editions of his Welsh catechism were published for the use of his

schools (1789, 1791 and 1794); an English catechism for the use of

schools in Lady Huntingdon's Connexion was drawn up by him in 1797; his

shorter catechism in Welsh appeared in 1799, and passed through several

editions, in Welsh and English, before 1807, when his _Instructor_

(still the Connexional catechism) appeared. From April 1799 to December

1801 six numbers of a Welsh magazine called _Trysorfa Ysprydol_

(Spiritual Treasury) were edited by Thomas Jones of Mold and himself; in

March 1809 the first number of the second volume appeared, and the

twelfth and last in November 1813.

The London Hibernian Society asked him to accompany Dr David Bogue, the

Rev. Joseph Hughes, and Samuel Mills to Ireland in August 1807, to

report on the state of Protestant religion in the country. Their report

is still extant, and among the movements initiated as a result of their

visit was the Circulating School system. In 1810, owing to the growth of

Methodism and the lack of ordained ministers, he led the Connexion in

the movement for connexionally ordained ministers, and his influence

was the chief factor in the success of that important step. From 1811

to 1814 his energy was mainly devoted to establishing auxiliary Bible

Societies. By correspondence he stimulated some friends in Edinburgh to

establish charity schools in the Highlands, and the Gaelic School

Society (1811) was his idea. His last work was a corrected edition of

the Welsh Bible issued in small pica by the Bible Society. As a preacher

he was in great request, though possessing but few of the qualities of

the popular preacher. All his work received very small remuneration; the

family was maintained by the profits of a business managed by Mrs

Charles--a keen, active and good woman. He died on the 5th of October

1814. His influence is still felt, and he is rightly claimed as one of

the makers of modern Wales. (D. E. J.)

CHARLES ALBERT [CARLO ALBERTO] (1798-1849), king of Sardinia (Piedmont),

son of Prince Charles of Savoy-Carignano and Princess Albertine of

Saxe-Courland, was born on the 2nd of October 1798, a few days before

the French occupied Piedmont and forced his cousin King Charles Emmanuel

to take refuge in Sardinia. Although Prince and Princess Carignano

adhered to the French Republican regime, they soon fell under suspicion

and were summoned to Paris. Prince Charles died in 1800, and his widow

married a Count de Montleart and for some years led a wandering

existence, chiefly in Switzerland, neglecting her son and giving him

mere scraps of education, now under a devotee of J.J. Rousseau, now

under a Genevan Calvinist. In 1802 King Charles Emmanuel abdicated in

favour of his brother Victor Emmanuel I.; the latter's only son being

dead, his brother Charles Felix was heir to the throne, and after him

Charles Albert. On the fall of Napoleon in 1814 the Piedmontese court

returned to Turin and the king was anxious to secure the succession for

Charles Albert, knowing that Austria meditated excluding him from it in

favour of an Austrian archduke, but at the same time he regarded him as

an objectionable person on account of his revolutionary upbringing.

Charles Albert was summoned to Turin, given tutors to instruct him in

legitimist principles, and on the 1st of October 1817 married the

archduchess Maria Theresa of Tuscany, who, on the 14th of March 1820,

gave birth to Victor Emmanuel, afterwards king of Italy.

The Piedmontese government at this time was most reactionary, and had

made a clean sweep of all French institutions. But there were strong

Italian nationalists and anti-Austrian tendencies among the younger

nobles and army officers, and the Carbonari and other revolutionary

societies had made much progress.

Their hopes centred in the young Carignano, whose agreeable manners had

endeared him to all, and who had many friends among the Liberals and

Carbonari. Early in 1820 a revolutionary movement was set on foot, and

vague plans of combined risings all over Italy and a war with Austria

were talked of. Charles Albert no doubt was aware of this, but he never

actually became a Carbonaro, and was surprised and startled when after

the outbreak of the Neapolitan revolution of 1820 some of the leading

conspirators in the Piedmontese army, including Count Santorre di

Santarosa and Count San Marzano, informed him that a military rising was

ready and that they counted on his help (2nd March 1821). He induced

them to delay the outbreak and informed the king, requesting him,

however, not to punish anyone. On the 10th the garrison of Alessandria

mutinied, and two days later Turin was in the hands of the insurgents,

the people demanding the Spanish constitution. The king at once

abdicated and appointed Charles Albert regent. The latter, pressed by

the revolutionists and abandoned by his ministers, granted the

constitution and sent to inform Charles Felix, who was now king, of the

occurrence. Charles Felix, who was then at Modena, repudiated the

regent's acts, accepted Austrian military assistance, with which the

rising was easily quelled, and exiled Charles Albert to Florence. The

young prince found himself the most unpopular man in Italy, for while

the Liberals looked on him as a traitor, to the king and the

Conservatives he was a dangerous revolutionist. At the Congress of

Verona (1822) the Austrian chancellor, Prince Metternich, tried to

induce Charles Felix to set aside Charles Albert's rights of succession.

But the king was piqued by Austria's interference, and as both the

grand-duke of Tuscany and the duke of Wellington supported him, Charles

Albert's claims were respected. France having decided to intervene in

the Spanish revolution on the side of autocracy, Charles Albert asked

permission to join the duc d'Angouleme's expedition. The king granted it

and the young prince set out for Spain, where he fought with such

gallantry at the storming of the Trocadero (1st of September 1823) that

the French soldiers proclaimed him the "first Grenadier of France." But

it was not until he had signed a secret undertaking binding himself, as

soon as he ascended the throne, to place himself under the tutelage of a

council composed of the higher clergy and the knights of the Annunziata,

and to maintain the existing forms of the monarchy (D. Berti, _Cesare

Alfieri_, xi. 77, Rome, 1871), that he was allowed to return to Turin

and forgiven.

On the death of Charles Felix (27th of April 1831) Charles Albert

succeeded; he inherited a kingdom without an army, with an empty

treasury, a chaotic administration and medieval laws. His first task was

to set his house in order; he reorganized the finances, created the

army, and started Piedmont on a path which if not liberalism was at

least progress. "He was," wrote his reactionary minister, Count della

Margherita, "hostile to Austria from the depths of his soul and full of

illusions as to the possibility of freeing Italy from dependence on

her.... As for the revolutionaries, he detested them but feared them,

and was convinced that sooner or later he would be their victim." In

1833 a conspiracy of the _Giovane Italia_ Society, organized by Mazzini,

was discovered, and a number of its members punished with ruthless

severity. On the election in 1846 of Pius IX., who appeared to be a

Liberal and an Italian patriot, the eyes of all Italy were turned on him

as the heaven-born leader who was to rescue the country from the

foreigner. This to some extent reconciled the king to the Liberal

movement, for it accorded with his religious views. "I confess," he

wrote to the marquis of Villamarina, in 1847, "that a war of national

independence which should have for its object the defence of the pope

would be the greatest happiness that could befall me." On the 30th of

October he issued a decree granting wide reforms, and when risings broke

out in other parts of Italy early in 1848 and further liberties were

demanded, he was at last induced to grant the constitution (8th

February).

When the news of the Milanese revolt against the Austrians reached Turin

(19th of March) public opinion demanded that the Piedmontese should

succour their struggling brothers; and after some hesitation the king

declared war. But much time had been wasted and many precious

opportunities lost. With an army of 60,000 Piedmontese troops and 30,000

men from other parts of Italy the king took the field, and after

defeating the Austrians at Pastrengo on the 30th of April, and at Goito

on the 30th of May, where he was himself slightly wounded, more time was

wasted in useless operations. Radetzky, the Austrian general, having

received reinforcements, drove the centre of the extended Italian line

back across the Mincio (23rd of July), and in the two days' fighting at

Custozza (24th and 25th of July) the Piedmontese were beaten, forced to

retreat, and to ask for an armistice. On re-entering Milan Charles

Albert was badly received and reviled as a traitor by the Republicans,

and although he declared himself ready to die defending the city the

municipality treated with Radetzky for a capitulation; the mob, urged on

by the demagogues, made a savage demonstration against him at the

Palazzo Greppi, whence he escaped in the night with difficulty and

returned to Piedmont with his defeated army. [** amended from armp] The

French Republic offered to intervene in the spring of 1848, but Charles

Albert did not desire foreign aid, the more so as in this case it would

have had to be paid for by the cession of Nice and Savoy. The

revolutionary movement throughout Italy was breaking down, but Charles

Albert felt that while he possessed an army he could not abandon the

Lombards and Venetians, and determined to stake all on a last chance. On

the 12th of March 1849 he denounced the armistice and took the field

again with an army of 80,000 men, but gave the chief command to the

Polish general Chrzanowski. General Ramorino commanding the Lombard

division proved unable to prevent the Austrians from crossing the Ticino

(20th of April), and Chrzanowski was completely out-generalled and

defeated at La Bicocca near Novara on the 23rd. The Piedmontese fought

with great bravery, and the unhappy king sought death in vain. After the

battle he asked terms of Radetzky, who demanded the occupation by

Austria of a large part of Piedmont and the heir to the throne as a

hostage. Thereupon, feeling himself to be the obstacle to better

conditions, Charles Albert abdicated in favour of his son Victor

Emmanuel. That same night he departed alone and made his way to Oporto,

where he retired into a monastery and died on the 28th of July 1849.

Charles Albert was not a man of first-rate ability; he was of a

hopelessly vacillating character. Devout and mystical to an almost

morbid degree, hating revolution and distrusting Liberalism, he was a

confirmed pessimist, yet he had many noble qualities: he was brave to

the verge of foolhardiness, devoted to his country, and ready to risk

his crown to free Italy from the foreigner. To him the people of Italy

owe a great debt, for if he failed in his object he at least

materialized the idea of the Risorgimento in a practical shape, and the

charges which the Republicans and demagogues brought against him were

monstrously unjust.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Besides the general works on modern Italy, see the

Marquis Costa de Beauregard's interesting volumes _La Jeunesse du roi

Charles Albert_ (Paris, 1899) and _Novare et Oporto_ (1890), based on

the king's letters and the journal of Sylvain Costa, his faithful

equerry, though the author's views are those of an old-fashioned

Savoyard who dislikes the idea of Italian unity; Ernesto Masi's _Il

Segreto del Re Carlo Alberto_ (Bologna, 1891) is a very illuminating

essay; Domenico Perrero, _Gli Ultimi Reali di Savoia_ (Turin, 1889);

L. Cappelletti, _Storia di Carlo Alberto_ (Rome, 1891); Nicomede

Bianchi, _Storia della diplomazia europea in Italia_ (8 vols., Turin,

1865, &c.), a most important work of a general character, and the same

author's _Scritti e lettere di Carlo Alberto_ (Rome, 1879) and his

_Storia della monarchia piemontese_ (Turin, 1877); Count S. della

Margherita, _Memorandum storico-politico_ (Turin, 1851).

CHARLES AUGUSTUS [KARL AUGUST] (1757-1828), grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar,

son of Constantine, duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, and Anna Amalia of

Brunswick, was born on the 3rd of September 1757. His father died when

he was only nine months old, and the boy was brought up under the

regency and supervision of his mother, a woman of enlightened but

masterful temperament. His governor was Count Eustach von Gorz, a German

nobleman of the old strait-laced school; but a more humane element was

introduced into his training when, in 1771, Wieland was appointed his

tutor. In 1774 the poet Karl Ludwig von Knebel came to Weimar as tutor

to the young Prince Constantine; and in the same year the two princes

set out, with Count Gorz and Knebel, for Paris. At Frankfort, Knebel

introduced Karl August to the young Goethe: the beginning of a momentous

friendship. In 1775 Karl August returned to Weimar, and the same year

came of age and married Princess Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt.

One of the first acts of the young grand-duke was to summon Goethe to

Weimar, and in 1776 he was made a member of the privy council. "People

of discernment," he said, "congratulate me on possessing this man. His

intellect, his genius is known. It makes no difference if the world is

offended because I have made Dr Goethe a member of my most important

_collegium_ without his having passed through the stages of minor

official professor and councillor of state." To the undiscerning, the

beneficial effect of this appointment was not at once apparent. With

Goethe the "storm and stress" spirit descended upon Weimar, and the

stiff traditions of the little court dissolved in a riot of youthful

exuberance. The duke was a deep drinker, but also a good sportsman; and

the revels of the court were alternated with break-neck rides across

country, ending in nights spent round the camp fire under the stars.

Karl August, however, had more serious tastes. He was interested in

literature, in art, in science; critics, unsuspected of flattery,

praised his judgment in painting; biologists found in him an expert in

anatomy. Nor did he neglect the government of his little state. His

reforms were the outcome of something more than the spirit of the

"enlightened despots" of the 18th century; for from the first he had

realized that the powers of the prince to play "earthly providence" were

strictly limited. His aim, then, was to educate his people to work out

their own political and social salvation, the object of education being

in his view, as he explained later to the dismay of Metternich and his

school, to help men to "independence of judgment." To this end Herder

was summoned to Weimar to reform the educational system; and it is

little wonder that, under a patron so enlightened, the university of

Jena attained the zenith of its fame, and Weimar became the intellectual

centre of Germany.

Meanwhile, in the affairs of Germany and of Europe the character of Karl

August gave him an influence out of all proportion to his position as a

sovereign prince. He had early faced the problem presented by the decay

of the Empire, and began to work for the unity of Germany. The plans of

the emperor Joseph II., which threatened to absorb a great part of

Germany into the heterogeneous Habsburg monarchy, threw him into the

arms of Prussia, and he was the prime mover in the establishment of the

league of princes (_Furstenbund_) in 1785, by which, under the

leadership of Frederick the Great, Joseph's intrigues were frustrated.

He was, however, under no illusion as to the power of Austria, and he

wisely refused the offer of the Hungarian crown, made to him in 1787 by

Prussia at the instance of the Magyar malcontents, with the dry remark

that he had no desire to be another "Winter King." In 1788 Karl August

took service in the Prussian army as major-general in active command of

a regiment. As such he was present, with Goethe, at the cannonade of

Valmy in 1792, and in 1794 at the siege of Mainz and the battles of

Pirmasenz (September 14) and Kaiserslautern (October 28-30). After this,

dissatisfied with the attitude of the powers, he resigned; but rejoined

on the accession of his friend King Frederick William III. to the

Prussian throne. The disastrous campaign of Jena (1806) followed; on the

14th of October, the day after the battle, Weimar was sacked; and Karl

August, to prevent the confiscation of his territories, was forced to

join the Confederation of the Rhine. From this time till after the

Moscow campaign of 1812 his contingent fought under the French flag in

all Napoleon's wars. In 1813, however, he joined the Grand Alliance, and

at the beginning of 1814 took the command of a corps of 30,000 men

operating in the Netherlands.

At the congress of Vienna Karl August was present in person, and

protested vainly against the narrow policy of the powers in confining

their debates to the "rights of the princes" to the exclusion of the

"rights of the people." His services in the war of liberation were

rewarded with an extension of territory and the title of grand-duke; but

his liberal attitude had already made him suspect, and his subsequent

action brought him still further into antagonism to the reactionary

powers. He was the first of the German princes to grant a liberal

constitution to his state under Article XIII. of the Act of

Confederation (May 5, 1816); and his concession of full liberty to the

press made Weimar for a while the focus of journalistic agitation

against the existing order. Metternich dubbed him contemptuously "der

grosse Bursche" for his patronage of the "revolutionary"

_Burschenschaften_; and the celebrated "festival" held at the Wartburg

by his permission in 1818, though in effect the mildest of political

demonstrations, brought down upon him the wrath of the great powers.

Karl August, against his better judgment, was compelled to yield to the

remonstrances of Prussia, Austria and Russia; the liberty of the press

was again restricted in the grand-duchy, but, thanks to the good

understanding between the grand-duke and his people, the regime of the

Carlsbad Decrees pressed less heavily upon Weimar than upon other German

states.

Karl August died on the 14th of June 1828. Upon his contemporaries of

the most various types his personality made a great impression. Karl von

Dalberg, the prince-primate, who owed the coadjutorship of Mainz to the

duke's friendship, said that he had never met a prince "with so much

understanding, character, frankness and true-heartedness"; the Milanese,

when he visited their city, called him the "uomo principe"; and Goethe

himself said of him "he had the gift of discriminating intellects and

characters and setting each one in his place. He was inspired by the

noblest good-will, the purest humanity, and with his whole soul desired

only what was best. There was in him something of the divine. He would

gladly have wrought the happiness of all mankind. And finally, he was

greater than his surroundings,... Everywhere he himself saw and judged,

and in all circumstances his surest foundation was in himself." He left

two sons: Charles Frederick (d. 1853), by whom he was succeeded, and

Bernhard, duke of Saxe-Weimar (1792-1862), a distinguished soldier, who,

after the congress of Vienna, became colonel of a regiment in the

service of the king of the Netherlands, distinguished himself as

commander of the Dutch troops in the Belgian campaign of 1830, and from

1847 to 1850 held the command of the forces in the Dutch East Indies.

Bernhard's son, William Augustus Edward, known as Prince Edward of

Saxe-Weimar (1823-1902), entered the British army, served with much

distinction in the Crimean War, and became colonel of the 1st Life

Guards and a field marshal; in 1851 he contracted a morganatic marriage

with Lady Augusta Gordon-Lennox (d. 1904), daughter of the 5th duke of

Richmond and Gordon, who in Germany received the title of countess of

Dornburg, but was granted the rank of princess in Great Britain by royal

decree in 1866. Karl August's only daughter, Caroline, married Frederick

Louis, hereditary grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and was the mother

of Helene (1814-1858), wife of Ferdinand, duke of Orleans, eldest son of

King Louis Philippe.

Karl August's correspondence with Goethe was published in 2 vols. at

Weimar in 1863. See the biography by von Wegele in the _Allgem.

deutsche Biographie._

CHARLES EDWARD [CHARLES EDWARD LOUIS PHILIP CASIMIR STUART] (1720-1788),

English prince, called the "Young Pretender" and also the "Young

Chevalier," was born at Rome on December 31st, 1720. He was the grandson

of King James II. of England and elder son of James, the "Old

Pretender," by whom (as James III.) he was created at his birth prince

of Wales, the title he bore among the English Jacobites during his

father's lifetime. The young prince was educated at his father's

miniature court in Rome, with James Murray, Jacobite earl of Dunbar, for

his governor, and under various tutors, amongst whom were the learned

Chevalier Ramsay, Sir Thomas Sheridan and the abbe Legoux. He quickly

became conversant with the English, French and Italian languages, but

all his extant letters written in English appear singularly ill-spelt

and illiterate. In 1734 his cousin, the duke of Liria, afterwards duke

of Berwick, who was proceeding to join Don Carlos in his struggle for

the crown of Naples, passed through Rome. He offered to take Charles on

his expedition, and the boy of thirteen, having been appointed general

of artillery by Don Carlos, shared with credit the dangers of the

successful siege of Gaeta.

The handsome and accomplished youth, whose doings were eagerly reported

by the English ambassador at Florence and by the spy, John Walton, at

Rome, was now introduced by his father and the pope to the highest

Italian society, which he fascinated by the frankness of his manner and

the grace and dignity of his bearing. In 1737 James despatched his son

on a tour through the chief Italian cities, that his education as a

prince and man of the world might be completed. The distinction with

which he was received on his journey, the royal honours paid to him in

Venice, and the jealous interference of the English ambassador in regard

to his reception by the grand-duke of Tuscany, show how great was the

respect in which the exiled house was held at this period by foreign

Catholic powers, as well as the watchful policy of England in regard to

its fortunes. The Old Pretender himself calculated upon foreign aid in

his attempts to restore the monarchy of the Stuarts; and the idea of

rebellion unassisted by invasion or by support of any kind from abroad

was one which it was left for Charles Edward to endeavour to realize. Of

all the European nations France was the one on which Jacobite hopes

mainly rested, and the warm sympathy which Cardinal Tencin, who had

succeeded Fleury as French minister, felt for the Old Pretender resulted

in a definite scheme for an invasion of England to be timed

simultaneously with a prearranged Scottish rebellion. Charles was

secretly despatched to Paris in January 1744. A squadron under Admiral

Roquefeuil sailed from the coast of France. Transports containing 7000

troops, to be led by Marshal Saxe, accompanied by the young prince, were

in readiness to set sail for England. A severe storm effected, however,

a complete disaster without any actual engagement taking place.

The loss in ships of the line, in transports, and in lives was a

crushing blow to the hopes of Charles, who remained in France for over a

year in a retirement which he keenly felt. He had at Rome already made

the acquaintance of Lord Elcho and of John Murray of Broughton; at Paris

he had seen many supporters of the Stuart cause; he was aware that in

every European court the Jacobites were represented in earnest intrigue;

and he had now taken a considerable share in correspondence and other

actual work connected with the promotion of his own and his father's

interests. Although dissuaded by all his friends, on the 13th of July

1745 he sailed from Nantes for Scotland on board the small brig "La

Doutelle," which was accompanied by a French man-of-war, the

"Elisabeth," laden with arms and ammunition. The latter fell in with an

English man-of-war, the "Lion," and had to return to France; Charles

escaped during the engagement, and at length arrived on the 2nd of

August off Erisca, a little island of the Hebrides. Receiving, however,

but a cool reception from Macdonald of Boisdale, he set sail again and

arrived at the bay of Lochnanuagh on the west coast of Inverness-shire.