PART III.--SEXUAL OFFENDERS.
Section 1.--=Scope and Origin of the Inquiry=: Prisons Board,
Resolution passed; Medical and Surgical Reports; Indeterminate
Sentence; Segregation 24
Section 2.--=Seriousness of the Evil=: Sexual Offenders, Numbers
serving Sentence; Government Statistician's Return of Persons
sentenced 25
Section 3.--=Types of Offences=: Sexual Offences; Various
Classes, with Comments on; Types found in Prisons; Inspector of
Prisons' Opinion; Sexual Perverts, Cure of 25
Section 4.--=Suggested Remedies=: Corporal Punishment;
Inspector-General of Mental Hospitals' Recommendations;
=Sterilization and Desexualization=; Castration; Sterilization;
British Medical Association, N.Z., Motion passed; Vasectomy and
Castration; Committee's Recommendation 26
Section 5.--=Scientific Treatment and Segregation with
Indeterminate Sentence=: Medical Examination; Indeterminate
Sentence; Women and Children, Protection of; Mr. Hawkins's
Evidence on Control of Sexual Perverts 27
Section 6.--=Summary of Recommendations=: Crimes Act; Prisons
Board, Powers of; Psychiatrist, Appointment and Duties; Eugenic
Board, Power to advise Prisons Board; Sterilization;
=Concluding Remarks= 27
APPENDIX.--=Past Mistakes in Immigration=: Extract from Report
on Hospitals and Charitable Institutions of the Colony, 1888,
by the late Dr. Macgregor, Inspector-General. =The Health of
School Children=: Extract from the Report of the Director of
the Division of School Hygiene, 1924. =Return showing Sexual
Offenders= serving Sentence in New Zealand Prisons, 1924.
=Table showing the Number of Sexual Offenders sentenced under
respective Headings in New Zealand Prisons. Some Illustrative
Histories= 29
* * * * *
The Hon. the Minister of Health, Wellington.
SIR,--
The Committee of Inquiry into Mental Defectives and Sexual Offenders
appointed by you to inquire into and report upon the necessity for
special care and treatment of mental defectives and sexual offenders in
New Zealand have the honour to submit herewith their report.
PART I.--INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL.
SECTION 1.--ORIGIN AND SCOPE OF INQUIRY.
For a considerable time there has been a growing feeling of anxiety
among the public owing to the number of mental defectives becoming a
charge upon the State, and also the alarming increase in their numbers
through the uncontrolled fecundity of this class. Furthermore, owing to
the frequency of sexual offences, many of a most revolting character,
there was a strong demand that some action should be taken to prevent
further acts of this nature; it being suggested that the law should be
altered to make it possible for surgical operations to be performed upon
these offenders.
The North Canterbury Hospital Board considered the need for action in
this matter so great that they set up a Committee to go into the
question and take evidence, which was done, and various recommendations
were made to the Government.
A perusal of departmental files reveals that many persons and social
bodies have urged upon the Government the desirability of setting up a
Committee or Commission of Inquiry to go into this subject.
The Minister of Health duly considered the representations made, and
appointed the following Committee to inquire into the question:--
The Hon. W. H. Triggs, M.L.C. (Chairman).
Sir Donald McGavin, Kt., C.M.G., D.S.O., M.D. (Lond.), F.R.C.S. (Eng.).
Sir F. Truby King, Kt., C.M.G., M.B., B.Sc. (Public Health) (Edin.).
J. Sands Elliott, Esq., M.D., Bac. Surg. (Edin.), Chairman of the
Council of the British Medical Association (New Zealand Branch).
Miss Ada G. Paterson, M.B., Ch.B. (N.Z.), L.M. (Dublin).
C. E. Matthews, Esq., Under-Secretary for Justice and Controller-General
of Prisons, &c.
J. Beck, Esq., Officer in Charge, Special Schools Branch, Education
Department.
The function and duty laid upon the Committee was as follows:--
(1.) To inquire and report as to the necessity for special
care and treatment of the feeble-minded and subnormal, and to
propose the general means by which such care and treatment, if
any, should be provided.
(2.) To inquire and report as to the necessity for the
treatment of mental degenerates and persons charged with
sexual offences, and to recommend forms of treatment for the
various types of cases.
The Minister of Health expressed his desire that the Committee should
hear such evidence and representations on the above-mentioned matters as
might be necessary fully to inform the Committee on the questions
referred to it, and further suggested to the Committee that the various
organizations and persons likely to be interested should be notified
that the Committee would, at a certain place and date, hear any evidence
they might desire to tender.
The following places were visited and inspected by the Committee: The
Myers Special School, Auckland; the Waikeria Prison Reformatory; the
Tokanui Mental Hospital, Waikeria; the New Plymouth Prison; the Boys'
Training-farm, Weraroa; the Point Halswell Reformatory for Women,
Wellington; the Special School for Girls, Richmond, Nelson; the Mental
Hospital, Nelson; the Mental Hospital, Stoke, Nelson; the Te Oranga
Home, Burwood, Christchurch; the Paparua Prison, Templeton; the Special
School for Boys, Otekaike; the Caversham Industrial Home for Girls,
Dunedin; the Borstal Institution, Invercargill.
Sittings were held at various centres in New Zealand, and a large number
of witnesses were examined, as shown in the following table:--
-------------------------+------------------------------------------
Places and Dates of |
Sittings. | Witnesses examined or Work done.
-------------------------+------------------------------------------
Wellington, 23rd May, |Preliminary meeting.
1924. (Forenoon only) |
Wellington, 30th May, |Dr. Clark, School Medical Officer, Napier.
1924. (Forenoon only) |Mr. J. Caughley, M.A., Director of Education.
|Professor J. Tennant, Professor of Education,
| Victoria College.
Wellington, 2nd June, |Mr. N. R. McKenzie, Inspector of Schools,
1924. (Forenoon only) | Education Department.
|Miss N. Valentine, Education Department.
|Miss Barlow, Education Department.
|Dr. Elizabeth Gunn, School Medical Officer,
| Wanganui.
Wellington, 4th June, |Mrs. McHugh, Health Patrol, Wellington.
1924. (Afternoon only) |Father McGrath, representing His Grace the
| Archbishop of the Roman Catholic Church.
|Mr. T. P. Mills, Superintendent, Presbyterian
| Orphanage and Probation Officer.
|Dr. Jeffreys, Medical Superintendent, Porirua
| Mental Hospital.
Auckland, 11th June, |Dr. Hilda Northcroft } Representing the
1924. |Dr. Kenneth MacKenzie } British Medical
|Dr. E. Roberton } Association,
| } Auckland Branch.
|Dr. Mildred Staley.
|Dr. J. R. Macredy, School Medical Officer,
| Auckland.
|Canon F. W. Young, Council of Christian
| Churches, Auckland.
|Dr. Fitt, Professor of Education, Auckland
| University.
|Mrs. Nicoll.
|Mrs. Watson.
Auckland, 12th June, |Dr. Milsom, representing the British Medical
1924. | Association, Auckland Branch.
|Professor Anderson, Professor of Moral and
| Mental Philosophy, Auckland University.
|Mr. J. Cupit, Juvenile Probation Officer.
|Mr. W. E. A. Gibbs.
|Professor Sperrin-Johnson, Professor of
| Biology, Auckland University.
|Mr. H. Binstead, Lecturer on Psychology,
| Training School, Auckland.
|Rev. Jasper Calder.
|Mr. W. S. J. Dales.
|Dr. Wilkie, School Medical Officer, Auckland.
Auckland, 13th June, |Sister Hannah, representing the National
1924. | Council of Women.
|Miss M. Girdler, St. Mary's Home, Otahuhu.
|Mr. C. W. Carter.
|Rev. T. K. Jeffreys, Presbyterian Social
| Service Association.
|Mr. J. W. Poynton, S.M.
|Mr. N. Law, Headmaster, Normal School.
|Dr. Beattie, Medical Superintendent,
| Auckland Mental Hospital.
|Dr. D. N. Murray, Prison Medical Officer.
|Visit of Inspection to the Myers Special
| School, Queen Street, Auckland.
Hamilton, 14th June, |Dr. Douglas.
1924. |Dr. F. S. Pinfold.
|Mr. Phillip Goodwin, Juvenile Probation
| Officer.
Waikeria Reformatory, |Dr. H. L. Gribben, Superintendent, Waikeria
15th June, 1924. | Reformatory, and Medical Superintendent of
| the Tokanui Mental Hospital.
|Dr. MacPherson, Tokanui Mental Hospital.
|Visit of inspection paid to Waikeria
| Reformatory and Tokanui Mental Hospital.
New Plymouth, |Miss Tootell, Boarding-out Officer, Wanganui.
25th June, 1924. |Dr. R. C. Brewster, Gaol Surgeon, New
| Plymouth.
|Mr. E. T. Holden, Secretary, New Plymouth
| Hospital Board.
|Visit paid to New Plymouth Prison.
Otekaike, 2nd July, |Miss Wylie, Head Teacher of Special School.
1924. |Mr. William Meikleham, Manager of Special
| School.
|Visit paid to Special School for Boys and
| Farm at Otekaike.
Dunedin, 3rd July, |Mrs. Joan Murray, representing Society for
1924. | Protection of Women and Children.
|Dr. E. Irwin, School Medical Officer.
|Mr. J. Lock, Juvenile Probation Officer.
|Dr. A. M. McKillop, Superintendent, Mental
| Hospital, Seacliff.
|Dr. A. R. Falconer, Medical Superintendent,
| Dunedin Hospital.
|Mr. G. M. Galloway, representing the Society
| for Protection of Women and Children.
Invercargill, 4th July, |Mr. M. Hawkins, Inspector of the Prisons
1924. | Department and Superintendent of the
| Borstal Institution.
|Mr. McCarroll, Juvenile Probation Officer,
| Education Department.
|Mr. Pryde, Secretary of the Hospital Board.
|Mr. McLean, Hon. Secretary of the Prisoners
| Aid Society.
|Visit of inspection paid to Borstal
| Institution and Farm.
Dunedin, 5th July, 1924. |Visit of inspection paid to Caversham
| Industrial School for Girls.
Dunedin, 7th July, 1924. |Dr. Marshall McDonald } Representing the
|Dr. Kenneth Ross } British Medical
| } Association,
| } Dunedin Branch.
|Miss Ralston, Inspector of Industrial and
| Special Schools.
|Dr. Stuart Moore.
|Mr. A. M. Paterson.
Christchurch, 9th July, |Dr. F. V. Bevan-Brown, representing the
1924. | British Medical Association, Christchurch
| Branch.
|Dr. C. L. Nedwill, Prison Medical Officer.
|Miss Cardale, representing the National
| Council of Women.
|Dr. A. C. Thomson, representing the British
| Medical Association.
|Rev. P. Revell, Secretary, Prison Gate
| Mission.
|Mrs. Herbert.
|Miss Hunt, Superintendent, Addington
| Reformatory.
|Mr. J. A. Blank, Attendance Officer,
| Education Department.
|Miss Baughan, Official Visitor to the
| Addington Reformatory.
Christchurch, 10th July, |Dr. Crosbie, Medical Superintendent,
1924. | Mental Hospital.
|Dr. Levinge.
|Mr. Gumming, Juvenile Probation Officer,
| Timaru.
|Mr. William Reece, member of the Prisons
| Board.
|Professor Chilton, Professor of Biology,
| Canterbury College.
|Mr. C. T. Aschman, Headmaster, Normal School.
|Miss Howlett, representing the National
| Council of Women and Women's Christian
| Temperance Union.
|Miss Edwards, Manager of the Receiving Home,
| Christchurch.
|The Hon. G. W. Russell.
|Visit of inspection paid to Te Oranga Home,
| Burwood.
Christchurch, 11th July, |Dr. Phillipps, School Medical Officer.
1924. |Professor Shelley, Professor of Education,
| Canterbury College.
|Mr. A. Bissett, Juvenile Probation Officer,
| Christchurch.
|Visit of inspection paid to Paparua Prison,
| Templeton.
Wellington, 15th July, |Colonel Bray, Secretary, Men's Department,
1924. (Forenoon only) | Social Service Work, Salvation Army.
|Canon T. Feilden Taylor, Social Service
| Department of Church of England.
|Professor Kirk, Professor of Biology,
| Victoria College.
|Mr. F. S. Shell, Juvenile Probation Officer.
Wellington, 16th July, |Dr. E. Fenwick, representing the British
1924. (Forenoon only) | Medical Association, Wellington Branch.
|Mrs. Brigadier Glover, Salvation Army Prison
| Officer and Probation Officer.
|Miss Jean Begg.
|Mr. R. W. Bligh, White Cross League
| representative.
Wellington, 24th July, |Visit of inspection to Point Halswell
1924. | Reformatory, Wellington.
Levin, 5th August, 1924. |Visit of inspection to Boys' Training Farm,
| Weraroa.
Nelson, 22nd August, |Dr. Gray, Superintendent, Mental Hospital,
1924. | Nelson.
|Visit of inspection to Special School for
| Girls, Richmond.
|Visit of inspection to Mental Hospital,
| Stoke.
|Visit of inspection to Mental Hospital,
| Nelson.
Wellington, 9th |Consideration of report.
September, 1924. |
(Forenoon only) |
12th September, 1924. | "
15th September, 1924. | "
(Afternoon only) |
16th September, 1924. | "
(Afternoon only) |
22nd September, 1924. | "
(Afternoon only) |
6th October, 1924. | "
(Forenoon only) |
13th October, 1924. | "
(Forenoon only) |
22nd October, 1924. | "
(Forenoon only) |
24th October, 1924. | "
28th October, 1924. | "
(Forenoon only) |
29th October, 1924. | "
(Forenoon only) |
5th November, 1924. | "
(Forenoon only) |
It will thus be seen that, apart from time spent in travelling, the
Committee have met on thirty-five days and have heard ninety-two
witnesses in person.
The Committee would like to express their thanks to the witnesses, many
of whom went to considerable trouble to collect information and prepare
evidence. They are especially grateful to the British Medical
Association for its willing co-operation and assistance; to the large
number of members of the medical profession throughout the Dominion who
responded to the Committee's request for information; to the authorities
overseas for their response to requests for information; and to many
other persons who by means of correspondence and literature have placed
at the Committee's disposal a large amount of information which has been
of material assistance in the investigation; also to the various
Hospital Boards throughout the Dominion who so willingly placed their
Boardrooms at the disposal of the Committee.
Sir George Newman, the Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education
and the Ministry of Health, England, very courteously supplied the
Committee with a valuable memorandum on the care of mental defectives in
England and Wales, while the Secretary of State for the United States,
through the good offices of the American Consul-General, Mr. Edwin N.
Gunsaulus, kindly forwarded information supplied by the United States
Public Health Service regarding the legislation and regulations in force
in various States where sterilization for eugenical purposes has been
legalized.
Information of great value and interest has also been received from Dr.
E. S. Morris, Director of Health, Tasmania; from Dr. Helen MacMurchy,
Department of Health, Ottawa; and from Dr. Eric Clarke, Toronto,
Assistant Medical Director, Canadian National Conference for Mental
Hygiene.
The Committee further wish to make special mention of the services
rendered by the Secretary, Mr. J. W. Buchanan, whose work has been very
heavy owing to the number of witnesses examined and the extent of ground
covered in a comparatively short time. This would not have been possible
but for the complete arrangements made by Mr. Buchanan, and the ability
and energy which he showed generally in the discharge of his duties left
nothing to be desired.
SECTION 2.--TWO DISTINCT QUESTIONS.
Before proceeding to the subject-matter of the Committee's
investigations and the conclusions arrived at it is necessary to point
out as clearly and emphatically as possible that the questions submitted
to the Committee were entirely separate and distinct from each other. It
is true that a certain proportion of mental defectives show their lack
of self-control in regard to sex instincts and functions as in other
respects. This is particularly the case with mentally defective girls,
and constitutes one of the chief difficulties in dealing with them
satisfactorily. Some of this class find their way into prison on account
of sexual offences, but it is very far from correct to suppose that all
feeble-minded persons are sexual offenders, or that all sexual offenders
are mentally defective. On the contrary, among sexual offenders of the
worst type, those convicted of unnatural offences, are occasionally
found to be persons possessing intellectual and artistic powers above
the average. There is something wrong in their mental, moral, and
emotional balance, as will be pointed out in the proper place, but, as a
rule, it is not the "intelligence quotient" which is at fault.
PART II.--PROBLEM OF THE FEEBLE-MINDED.
SECTION 1.--A MENACE TO MODERN CIVILIZATION.
The Committee are of opinion that the unrestricted multiplication of
feeble-minded members of the community is a most serious menace to the
future welfare and happiness of the Dominion, and it is of the utmost
importance that some means of meeting the peril should be adopted
without delay. The position is the more serious because, while the
feeble-minded are extraordinarily prolific, there is a growing tendency
among the more intellectual classes for the birth-rate to become
restricted.
An American writer, Lothrop Stoddart, in his striking book entitled
"Revolt against Civilization," expresses the fear that the very
foundations of civilization are being undermined. He finds reasons for
great pessimism as regards the future in the results of the intelligence
tests taken in the American Army during the war.
The American War Department made psychological tests of 1,700,000
officers and men, who were graded as follows:--
Grade. Percentage. Mental Age.
A 4½ 18-19 Very superior intelligence.
B 9 16-17 Superior intelligence.
C1 16½ 15 Average intelligence. (Rarely capable
of finishing high-school course.)
C-- 25 13-14 Low average intelligence.
D 15 11 Inferior intelligence.
D-- 10 10 Very inferior intelligence.
Assuming that these 1,700,000 men are a fair sample of the entire
population of 100,000,000 (and Stoddart says there is every reason to
believe that it is a fair sample), this means that the average mental
age of Americans is only about fourteen; that 45,000,000, or nearly
one-half of the whole population, will never develop mental capacity
beyond the stage represented by a normal twelve-year-old child; that
only 13,500,000 will ever show superior intelligence; and that only
4,500,000 can be considered "talented." "Still more alarming," the
author continues, "is the prospect of the future. The overwhelming
weight of evidence indicates that the A and B elements in America are
barely reproducing themselves, while the other elements are increasing
at rates proportionate to their decreasing intellectual capacity; in
other words, that intelligence is to-day being steadily bred out of the
American population."
The biologist Davenport calculated that at present rates of reproduction
1,000 Harvard graduates of to-day would have only fifty descendants two
centuries hence, whereas 1,000 Roumanians to-day in Boston, at their
present rate of breeding, would have 100,000 descendants in the same
space of time.
Mr. Lothrop Stoddart emphatically scouts the view which is occasionally
put forward to the effect that genius is a form of insanity, and that
therefore one ought to be careful about discouraging the marriage even
of epileptics and mentally unbalanced persons for fear a possible
Napoleon or Julius Cæsar or Beethoven should be lost to the world.
"Careful scientific investigation," he says, "has clearly disproved this
notion. For one thing, elaborate statistical studies of eminent persons
have shown them to be less liable to insanity than the general
population. Of course, a considerable number of eminent men can be
listed who unquestionably suffered from various neuropathic traits. But
it was not those traits that made them eminent; on the contrary, these
were handicaps. Somewhere back in their ancestry a taint was introduced
into a sound superior strain, and produced this disharmonic combination
of qualities."
SECTION 2.--HEREDITY _V._ ENVIRONMENT.
The Committee feel bound to refer to the great strides made during the
last half-century towards establishing laws and theories of genetics and
heredity. Unfortunately, terms such as the "integrity of the germ plasm"
and "the Mendelian law," while marking great advances in biological
thought and science, have become too much associated in the public mind
with a depressing and fatalistic notion that heredity determines
everything and that environment can play but a very insignificant part
in human evolution, development, and progress--physical, mental, or
moral. Such, of course, is not the case.
In ultimate origin all evolution and all heredity are the outcome,
summation, and expression of the effects of environmental influences,
acting on the whole organism under certain laws of transmission. The
laws of heredity, though as yet only partially determined, are already
sufficiently ascertained to prove for practical purposes that, in order
to promote integration and further progress in human evolution--not
disintegration and degeneration--two things are essential and
complementary. On the one hand, we must do everything possible in the
direction of improving the nutrition, health, conditions of life, and
habits of the community; and, on the other hand, we must promote and
encourage parenthood on the part of the best and stablest stocks, and do
everything in our power to discourage, or in the extreme cases even to
prevent, proliferation of unfit and degenerate strains.
For the purpose of the present inquiry we need merely state as a
practical preliminary regarding heredity that it has been proved beyond
question that if two feeble-minded persons marry they will most probably
produce abundant offspring, of whom all may be subnormal, and a large
proportion will become a burden on the State; and that if one such
person is mated with a healthy individual an undue proportion of their
children are likely to prove degenerate or defective, and the
unsoundness will continue to make its appearance in succeeding
generations.
While local evidence confirmatory of this came before the Committee,
first place will be given to certain classic and exhaustive
investigations and life-histories of degenerate families, going back
many generations, such as no young country could possibly supply.
However, the forcible and far-sighted report of the late Dr. Duncan
Macgregor (originally Professor of Mental Science at Otago University,
and subsequently Inspector-General of Asylums, Hospitals, and Charitable
Aid), quoted in the Appendix, shows clearly that some very degenerate
stocks imported into this country under the active immigration policy of
the "seventies" and "eighties" were already threatening, thirty-five
years ago, to become a serious tax on the country, as well as tending to
lower the high physical, mental, and moral standard established by the
original pioneers and settlers.
We shall now revert for the moment to the environmental factor. The
first most pressing and immediate practical duty of the Government and
the community is to spare no pains to improve the status and environment
of the family so as to promote the highest attainable standard of
physical, mental, and moral health for the new generation--already in
our midst or bound to arrive in the course of the next few years.
It is becoming more and more widely recognized that by due attention to
the pre-natal and post-natal care of mother and child an infinity of
good can be done--indeed, a great deal is already under way in this
direction throughout the Dominion. But the Committee are satisfied that
much more ought to be done to ensure for children of the pre-school and
school ages more generally favourable home conditions, and healthier
environment and habits outside the home.
In the meantime it is obvious that very little can be effected in the
way of bettering the average heredity; but are we taking adequate
measures in the direction of improving the environment of mother and
child? The housing problem is still far from satisfactory; help in the
home can scarcely be procured, and the rearing and care of children
throughout the pre-school and school periods, in a large proportion of
cases, is neither conducive to a high standard of nutrition, growth, and
moral development, nor to the establishment of normal self-control,
especially as regards sexual habits and manifestations. The Committee
cannot ignore the fact that the leading medical and psychological
authorities lay it down as an axiom that the power of self-control is at
its highest when the individual is physically active, well-nourished,
and in perfect bodily health, and that impaired control always
accompanies impaired nutrition, debility, and disease. It has been said,
with profound wisdom and insight, that ultimately and fundamentally
reproduction should be regarded as essentially "an exuberant phase of
nutrition"; and there is no escaping the wide implication of Schiller's
aphorism that "Love and Hunger rule the World."
In view of these considerations the Committee feel compelled to refer to
such serious handicaps to all-round health, control, and efficiency as
the prevalence of wrong feeding habits--_e.g._, giving children food
between meals and the insufficient provision of fresh fruit and
vegetables in the daily diet and the abuse of sweets. Other prominent
and avoidable handicaps, seriously affecting many children throughout
the Dominion, which ought to receive more serious attention are
insufficiency of sunlight and fresh air in the home and at school,
insufficient daily outing and exercise, lack of adequate provision in
the way of playgrounds and swimming-baths, and last, but not least, the
highly injurious practice of frequenting "picture-shows."
As the Committee are called on to deal specially with the problem of
increasing manifestations of sexual depravity they cannot pass by the
fact that in the course of the last twenty years the younger members of
the community have been spending a steadily increasing proportion of
their time, during the most impressionable period of life, in what are
liable to prove forcing-houses of sexual precocity and criminal
tendencies. There is every reason for regarding the habit of "going to
the pictures" without adequate restrictions as contributing seriously to
precocious sexuality, and also to weakening the powers of inhibition and
self-control in other directions--powers which are the distinctive
attributes of the higher human being.
Alongside these considerations, the bodily harm done to the young by
frequently spending their afternoons and evenings in hot, stuffy,
overcrowded halls shrinks into insignificance, though serious enough in
itself.
The Committee endorses the opinions expressed by Education authorities,
and by practically every organization throughout the Dominion concerned
with the welfare of children, upon the harmful effect of moving-picture
shows as at present conducted. The Committee sympathizes with proposals
for reform along the following lines:--
(1.) Stricter censorship, not only of films, but of picture
posters, handbills, and advertisements.
(2.) Regulations as to the age of admission for children when
unaccompanied by a responsible adult, and to such pictures as
are not pronounced by the Censor as suitable for children.
(3.) Proper safeguards for the morals of children and young
persons within picture-theatres, including adequate
supervision of the premises.
The Committee desire it to be clearly understood that in this report
they have not particularly dealt with mental disabilities resulting from
diseases such as syphilis, or toxic influences such as alcohol, drugs,
&c. These questions have already been covered to some extent by the
Report of the Venereal Diseases Committee, and in any case would involve
too wide a field of investigation for the present inquiry.
An authoritative summary taken from this year's report of the Director
of the Division of School Hygiene is quoted in the Appendix as pointing
out most of the faults and mistakes in environment and upbringing to
which reference has been made, and because it draws special and
much-needed attention to the injurious effects of overwork and excessive
competition and the need for more sleep and rest.
We would merely add to this very clear, practical statement that
encouragement of excessive competition, inside or outside the school,
for any purpose whatsoever, is costly and damaging to the whole being,
and that, in the opinion of the Committee, nothing needs to be impressed
more strongly on parents and school-teachers than Froebel's injunction,
"Give space and time and rest."
SECTION 3.--ILLUSTRATIVE CASES OF HEREDITARY DEGENERACY.
_The Juke Family._
To show the close relationship existing between the criminal and the
psychopath the record of the so-called Juke family in America was
compiled by R. L. Dugdale.
The descendants of one morbid couple were traced through five
generations. Whilst a small proportion were honest workers, the great
majority were paupers, criminals, and prostitutes.
Of 540 Jukes practically one-fifth were born out of wedlock, 37 were
known to be syphilitic, 53 had been in poorhouses, 76 had been sentenced
to prison, and of 229 women of marriageable age 128 were prostitutes.
The economic damage inflicted upon the State of New York by the Jukes in
seventy-five years was estimated at more than $1,300,000, to say nothing
of diseases and other evil influences which they helped to spread.
A more recent investigation shows that 2,820 people have been studied;
2,094 were of Juke blood and 726 of "X" blood married into the Juke
family; of these, 366 were paupers, while 171 were criminals, and 10
lives have been sacrificed by murder. In school-work 62 did well, 288
did fairly, while 458 were retarded two or more years. It is known that
166 never attended school; the school data for the rest of the family
were unobtainable. There were 282 intemperate and 277 harlots. The total
cost to the State has been estimated at $2,093,685.
_The Kallikak Family._
The history of the Kallikak family has been traced and fully described
in detail by Dr. Goddard, and his study shows the hereditary nature and
sociological bearings of feeble-mindedness.
Martin Kallikak was a youthful soldier in the Revolutionary War. At a
tavern frequented by the militia he met a feeble-minded girl by whom he
became the father of a feeble-minded son. In 1912 there were 480 known
direct descendants of this temporary union. It is known that 36 of these
were illegitimates; that 33 were sexually immoral; that 24 were
confirmed alcoholics; and that 8 kept houses of ill-fame. The
explanation of so much immorality will be obvious when it is stated that
of the 480 descendants 143 were known to be feeble-minded, and that many
of the others were of questionable mentality.
A few years after returning from the war this same Martin Kallikak
married a respectable girl of good family. From this union 496
individuals have been traced in direct descent, and in this branch of
the family there were no illegitimate children, no immoral women, and
only one man who was sexually loose. There were no criminals, no keepers
of houses of ill-fame, and only two confirmed alcoholics. Again the
explanation is clear when it is stated that this branch of the family
did not contain a single feeble-minded individual. It was made up of
doctors, lawyers, judges, educators, traders, and landholders.
_New Zealand Cases._
But it is not necessary to go to the records of older countries to find
examples of this kind. Unfortunately, this young Dominion, whose history
as a European settlement is comprised within the lifetime of its oldest
inhabitants, is already reproducing some of the saddest problems of
civilization which perplex the people of the Old World. We started with
every advantage in the shape of a favourable climate and rich natural
resources. The original settlers were, for the most part, men and women
of sturdy determination, enterprising spirit, and strong physique.
In the "seventies" a vigorous public-works policy was inaugurated, and
great efforts were made to introduce fresh population, the result being
that undoubtedly a great impetus was given to settlement, and the
country was fairly started on the road to prosperity. But,
unfortunately, it is now only too apparent that insufficient care was
taken in the selection of immigrants.
The following extract from a statement made to the Committee by Sir
Robert Stout, Chief Justice, and President of the Prisons Board,
illustrates this point: "The Prisons Board has sometimes brought before
it several persons of one family who have offended against our laws, and
in the experience I had in 1884 and 1885, when looking after our
Hospitals and Charitable Aid Department in the General Government, I
found that people obtaining charitable aid had done so for three
generations; that is, grandfather, father or mother, and children were
all obtaining aid from the Government because they were unable to
maintain themselves. Some of the cases were traced, and it was found
that the grandfathers, or grandparents, had been originally in
poorhouses in the Homeland, and although they came to New Zealand and
had greater opportunities than they had in their Homeland, yet their
inability to provide for themselves continued."
How serious the problem has already become will be seen from the
following illustrative cases selected from a large number given in the
evidence:--
_Case No. 1._
+--------------------------------+
| Father: | Mother: |
| Weak-minded. | Weak-minded. |
| | |
+----------+----------+----------+
|Female, |
|born 1906.|
+----------+
|Female, |
|born 1907.|
+----------+
|Female, |
|born 1908.|
+----------+
|Female, |
|born 1909.|
+----------+
|Female, |
|born 1911.|
+----------+
|Male, |
|born 1912.|
+----------+
|Male, |
|born 1913.|
+----------+
|Male, |
|born 1915.|
+----------+
|Female, |
|born 1916.|
+----------+
All these children except one are feeble-minded, and when committed to
the care of the State were found living under deplorable conditions.
Most of these children will require lifelong control in an institution.
The total cost of maintaining this family will be approximately £9,500.
These children are cousins of another family under State control. There
are four children, two of whom are simple-minded. The mother is
feeble-minded, and the father died in a mental hospital. In this case
the mothers of the children are sisters.
_Case No. 2._
+----------------------------------+
| Father: | Mother: |
| Feeble-minded. | Feeble-minded |
| | and drunkard. |
| | |
+---------+-------------+----------+
|Female, |
|illegitimate,|
|born 1902. |
+-------------+
|Male, |
|born 1904. |
+-------------+
|Male, |
|born 1906. |
+-------------+
|Male, |
|born 1907. |
+-------------+
|Male, |
|born 1910. |
+-------------+
|Male, |
|born 1912. |
+-------------+
|Female, |
|born 1914. |
+-------------+
|Female, |
|born 1916. |
+-------------+
|Male, |
|born 1918. |
+-------------+
|Male, |
|born 1920. |
+-------------+
|Male, |
|born 1923. |
+-------------+
All these children are feeble-minded and have been brought under State
control shortly after birth. Some are now in mental hospitals and some
in special schools. All these children are lifelong custodial cases. The
cost to the State for maintenance is approximately £16,000, towards
which amount the father has contributed but £6.
_Case No. 3._
+----------------------------------------------------+
| Father: | Mother: |
| Old-age pensioner in | Apparently weak mentally |
| Home for Aged People. | and morally--at present |
| | in reformatory home. |
| | |
+------------------+-------------------------+---------------------+
|1. Female. | Female, Female, Male, | All these children |
| Prostitute | born born born | are illegitimate. |
| residing with | 1908. 1911. 1913. | Reputed father a |
| drunkard. | | drunkard and man of |
| | Male, | bad character. |
| | born 1915. | |
+------------------+-------------------------+---------------------+
|2. Female. | Male, Male, Female, | All these children |
| Prostitute and | born born born | are illegitimate. |
| addicted to | 1907. 1910. 1912. | In most cases the |
| drink. | | father is unknown. |
| | Male, Female, | |
| | born 1914. born 1917. | |
+------------------+-------------------------+---------------------+
|3. Female. | Male, Male, | Both illegitimate. |
| Immoral and | born 1911. born 1912. | Reputed fathers |
| generally bad | | well-known bad |
| character. | | characters. |
| Inmate of | | |
| private | | |
| reformatory. | | |
+------------------+-------------------------+---------------------+
|4. Female. | Female, Female, | Mother married a |
| Indifferent, | born born | widower with three |
| married | 1908. 1912. | children. There are |
| criminal, now | | three more the |
| in prison. | Female, born 1916. | result of marriage |
| | | maintained by the |
| | | State. |
+------------------+-------------------------+---------------------+
|5. Female. | Female, Female, | All delicate |
| Drunkard and | born born | neurotic types and |
| married a | 1898. 1900. | difficult to |
| drunkard | | manage. |
| although man | Female, Female, | |
| of good | born 1902. born 1905. | |
| education. | | |
| | Female, born 1908. | |
+------------------+-------------------------+---------------------+
|6. Female. | Male, born 1910. | |
| Well-known | | |
| prostitute, | | |
| married member | | |
| of notorious | | |
| criminal | | |
| family, and | | |
| himself | | |
| criminal. | | |
+------------------+-------------------------+---------------------+
All these children, numbering twenty-one, were committed to the care of
the State, in most cases shortly after birth. Twelve of the children are
illegitimate. The husband of daughter No. 6 is also the father of one
each of the offspring of daughters Nos. 2 and 3. Most of the children
are delicate and poorly developed, and at least six of them are
definitely tubercular. The remainder are either neurotic or erratic in
their conduct and have given a great deal of trouble in their
upbringing. The total cost to the State for the maintenance of these
children may be quoted at £10,000, but of this amount £482 has been
recovered from the various men liable. It is difficult to assess the
State's total commitment. If some of the children have to be maintained
until they reach the age of twenty-one the additional cost will be
£3,000. There is the probability, too, that the offspring of these
children will become charges upon the State.
_Case No. 4._
+--------------------+---------------------+
| Father: | Mother: |
| Addicted to drink | Drunkard and |
| and degenerate. | morally deficient. |
| | |
+------------------------------------+----------------+
| | Female, |
| | born 1908. |
| +----------------+
| | Male, |
| | born 1909. |
|All these children are illegitimate |Admitted special|
|and are feeble-minded, requiring | school, 1920. |
|lifelong control. Three are now +----------------+
|inmates of mental hospitals, and | Female, |
|in time the remainder of the | born 1910. |
|family at present in special +----------------+
|schools will be sent on to mental | Male, |
|hospitals. | born 1914. |
| +----------------+
| | Male, |
| | born 1916. |
| +----------------+
| | Female, |
| | born 1917. |
+------------------------------------+----------------+
| | Male, |
| | born 1918. |
|All probably feeble-minded. +----------------+
|Not yet brought under | Male, |
|State control. | born 1920. |
| +----------------+
| | Male, |
| | born 1923. |
+------------------------------------+----------------+
An officer of the Education Department describes the home as "one of the
dirtiest and most squalid homes I have seen." The cost (including past,
present, and approximate future maintenance) to the State for the upkeep
of this family is estimated at £10,000. Nothing has been paid by the
parents towards the support of these children. In all probability, the
remaining members of the family will be brought under State control at a
probable cost of £4,500.
_Case No. 5._
+--------------------------------------------------+
| Father: | Mother: |
| Drunken waster; | Feeble-minded helpless |
| subnormal; | invalid. Died shortly |
| frequently in gaol. | after children committed |
| | to care of State. |
| | |
+--------------------------------------------------+
|Male, born 1904. |
|Tubercular. Partly |
|self-supporting. |
+------------------------+
|Female, born 1907. |
|Tubercular. Suffers |
|from epileptic seizures.|
|Inmate mental hospital. |
|Lifelong custody. |
+------------------------+
|Male, born 1909. |
|Subnormal. May in |
|time become partly |
|self-supporting |
|under favourable |
|conditions. |
+------------------------+
|Male, born 1911. |
|Mentally deficient. |
|Case for lifelong |
|control. |
+------------------------+
|Male, born 1913. |
|Mentally deficient. |
|Lifelong custodial |
|case. |
+------------------------+
|Female, born 1914. |
|Feeble-minded and |
|badly nourished. Case |
|for permanent |
|segregation. |
+------------------------+
|Male, born 1916. |
|Very backward. May |
|become partly |
|self-supporting |
|under favourable |
|conditions. |
+------------------------+
In 1916 the whole of this family was committed to the care of the State,
and at least six of them will be lifelong cases. The cost to the State,
computed up to twenty-one years in each case, is approximately £8,500,
but the additional future cost may easily be estimated at £5,000, making
in all the sum of £13,500. The father was ordered to pay at the rate of
15s. a week, but the amount recovered from him to date is only £156.
_Case No. 6._
+---------------------+-----------------------+
| Father: | Mother: |
| Subnormal. Was a | Has always been |
| watersider, so | addicted to periodic |
| dirty in habits | fits of insanity. |
| that watersiders | Has been in mental |
| complained. A | hospital on several |
| sexual case. | occasions. |
| | |
+--------------------------------+----------------+
| | Female, |
| | born 1904. |
| | Subnormal. |
| +----------------+
| | Female, |
| | born 1909. |
|These four children were | Subnormal; |
|committed to the care of |also delinquent.|
|the state in 1917. +----------------+
| | Female, |
| | born 1915. |
| | Subnormal. |
| +----------------+
| | Female, |
| | born 1916. |
| | Subnormal. |
|--------------------------------+----------------+
| | Unknown |
|Not yet brought under +----------------+
|State control. | Unknown |
| +----------------+
| | Unknown |
+--------------------------------+----------------+
The approximate cost to the State of maintaining these four children
will be £5,150, less what is recovered from the father. Up to the
present the amount received from him is £176. Should the other three
children be brought under State control, the additional cost may amount
to approximately £5,000.
This is a glaring case of persons being allowed to marry who are totally
unfit to marry. A relative stated that the mother's mentality was in a
shocking state at the time of marriage. The father has always been
subnormal. The woman is too insane at times to attend to ordinary
household duties or matters of ordinary personal cleanliness. At the
time the children were committed the home was in a shockingly filthy
condition, and at that time was one of the worst brought under the
notice of the Department in the district. The second girl (age fifteen)
has had her hair cut for the sake of cleanliness by some kindly disposed
well-wisher. The mother allowed the dirt to accumulate to such an extent
that the whole of the girl's head was covered with a scab of dirt. She
had to enter the Hospital to have this removed. This was a most
objectionable case. After the State took charge of these children the
mother and father were still allowed to cohabit, with the result that
three more children have been born. Without doubt, these children will
also be supported by the State. The father is a sexual case, and
foster-parents of the children have objected to the father visiting them
on account of the way he handles them.
SECTION 4.--ELEMENTS OF THE PROBLEM.
Wallen, in his book "Problems of Subnormality," draws attention to three
basic phases of the problem of the feeble-minded:--
"(1.) The obligation of society to identify and register as
early as possible all feeble-minded children. All students of
social problems will concede that feeble-mindedness is one of
the fundamental causes of our numerous social ills. It is a
prolific source of poverty, destitution, all kinds of crimes
against property and person, social immorality, illegitimacy,
and of prolific and degenerate progeny.
"There are few problems in present-day constructive social
economics which are more important than the development of a
State-wide and a nation-wide policy for the compulsory
official identification and registration of feeble-minded
children, particularly all those who come from homes where the
conditions are not such as to guarantee continuous supervision
and support.
"(2.) The proper educational care and training of
feeble-minded children. The adequate discharge of this
obligation involves segregating the feeble-minded in special
classes as soon as they can be indubitably diagnosed and
providing for them the type of training which will maximally
develop those powers and aptitudes which they possess and
which will maximally equip them for earning their livelihood.
"(3.) Provision for continuous oversight and supervision over
the feeble-minded."
It is clear that if we wish to reduce the number of mentally defective
and socially inadequate individuals we must not only consider measures
for preventing as far as possible the transmission of hereditary defect,
but must also provide for the youth of the country an environment and
training calculated to encourage the development of its best powers.
There is no doubt that unfavourable home conditions and unsuitable
educational methods conspire to keep many children from realizing their
full capabilities. This is especially true of the backward and
feeble-minded. It is, moreover, wasteful and ineffective to force on
children of poor mental receptivity and potentialities an educational
curriculum devised for those of normal mentality, since the subnormal
impede the general progress in an ordinary class, and in it they soon
form a discouraged minority which learns to accept failure
unquestioningly. Untrained to perform the simple work which is within
their power and in the achievement of which they might earn self-respect
and happiness, they feel themselves to be aliens, and may cease to
regard the laws of society in which they have no sense of membership. In
such cases the community which might have benefited from their work had
their potentialities been properly developed is burdened by their
maintenance, and, further, if they are not law-abiding, has also the
expense of segregating them in reformatories and gaols. Hence it is
clearly the duty of the State to adapt the educational curriculum to the
requirements of various groups of children.
The child who has been handicapped by illness and lack of opportunity,
the child who is inherently dull and backward, must be distinguished
from the child with nervous instability or definite mental defect.
Wherever possible, the training suitable for various improvable types of
children should be arranged in connection with the ordinary public
schools. But the curriculum must be modified to suit the need of the
individual and should be directed with the object of making him a useful
member of society. By this means these pupils are not deprived of that
association with their normal fellows which is of such value as a
preparation for their after-life in the community.
For children whose homes are unsuitable or too remote from centres, who
require more continuous supervision, or who tend to become delinquent,
special residential schools will be necessary. These schools would also
be used for those whose capabilities cannot be assessed without extended
expert observation for a considerable period.
The special school is to be regarded as a training-centre for such
feeble-minded children as are expected as a result of the training
received there to be fitted to take a place in the community and to
perform useful work under adequate supervision. There is a danger of
filling the special schools with children whose poor mental endowment
renders them incapable of receiving benefit at all commensurate with the
energy and expense devoted to them. Such children are subjects for
custodial institutions.
Institutional care is necessary for mentally defective persons whose
helplessness or anti-social traits would render them either the victims
of the unscrupulous or a menace to society. Such individuals should be
segregated in farm and industrial colonies, so that not only is the
community freed from the responsibility of their presence, but they
themselves are afforded opportunity of leading much happier and more
useful lives, and of becoming, to some extent, self-supporting.
All feeble-minded children within the community, whether in special
classes, or on parole from an institution for the feeble-minded, or over
school age, should be carefully supervised.
It is clear that the problem of making provision for the feeble-minded
and mentally abnormal in the community is first to be encountered in the
schools, though there must be considered also a much smaller number of
such low mental capacity that they have never sought admission there.
In deciding the place of the feeble-minded in the community factors
other than the degree of mental defect have to be considered. Many
feeble-minded individuals are capable of performing useful work, and
provided they have no anti-social traits and can receive adequate care
outside their permanent inclusion in an institution is undesirable, not
only from consideration of their own well-being, but also from a social
and economic standpoint. Many feeble-minded individuals are so dependent
upon routine that having once been trained in the regular performance of
simple duties they find difficulty in breaking their methodical
programme. In this way their lack of initiative is really protective, as
it tends to keep them steadfastly at their labours.
In the case of all feeble-minded persons living outside institutions,
whether with relatives or otherwise, the State should, in the interest
of both such feeble-minded individuals and of society, have the ultimate
right of supervision.
The magnitude of the task to be undertaken cannot be estimated unless we
have some indication of how numerous are those for whom special measures
must be adopted. The information given below must not be too literally
interpreted, but will serve to throw some light upon existing conditions
in New Zealand.
SECTION 5.--ESTIMATES AS TO NUMBERS OF MENTAL DEFECTIVES.
In the absence of a complete system of notification, which the Committee
consider is urgently necessary, any estimate as to the number of
feeble-minded to be dealt with must be largely a matter of conjecture.
From the annual report of the Education Department, however, interesting
information is available showing the ages of the pupils in the several
classes of the primary schools. The following table is considered worthy
of reprinting in this report, for from the figures it supplies some idea
may be formed of the number of backward and feeble-minded children
attending primary schools. Children of extremely low-grade mentality do
not attend school as a rule, while feeble-minded children higher in the
scale, discouraged by the unsuitable course of instruction and lack of
sympathetic treatment, tend to leave school early. Hence the number of
feeble-minded children in any community must be considerably larger than
the school records indicate.
The following table shows the ages of pupils in the several classes of
the primary schools. The numbers between the heavy horizontal lines
represent those that, beginning school under six years of age spend an
average of two years in the preparatory classes and one year in each of
the standards. The numbers above the upper heavy lines have progressed
at a greater rate than that indicated, and those below the lower lines
have either begun school later or have progressed more slowly.
The most arresting feature in the table (p. 13) is the large number of
children in classes lower than should be expected at their age. Thus the
preparatory classes had 12,693 pupils over the age of eight years. This
number is certainly a considerable reduction on the total for the
previous year, but it still represents no less than 18 per cent. of the
total roll of those classes. Particular attention is being directed to
the problem of retardation, and in some of the larger centres special
classes for retardates have been established.
It will also be seen that the actual number of children retarded three
years or more, including the preparatory classes and up to Standard
III--beyond which the higher grades of the feeble-minded do not progress
as a rule--is 4,917 out of a total of 212,709 children attending school,
or a trifle over 2 per cent. In some countries three years' retardation
is regarded as _primâ facie_ evidence of mental deficiency. Probably New
Zealand has much the same proportion of mental defectives as other
countries. This is stated by Goddard to be between 2 and 3 per cent. of
the population.
A recent survey made by the Education Department of the children
attending the primary schools in a typical area disclosed the fact that
out of a total school population of 16,499 no fewer than 950 pupils,
constituting 5.7 per cent. of the total school enrolment, are retarded
two years or more. Some of these may be classed as dull normal; some may
be suffering from remediable physical defects; others may be merely the
victims of unfavourable circumstances, while others again may be what
Burt calls "late bloomers"--_i.e._, cases of slow development. Many of
them, however, will ultimately prove to be mental defectives. Deficiency
sometimes does not reveal itself definitely until the pre-adolescent
period or early adolescence.
Of the total number on the school registers 266, or 1.6 per cent., are
retarded three years or more. It is interesting to note from information
supplied by Mr. N. R. McKenzie, Inspector of Schools, that this is
exactly the percentage of defectives discovered in the schools of a
section of the city of Toronto as the result of a psychological survey.
It also corresponds with the number in the Vancouver city schools, where
nineteen special classes are operating with a school population of
19,000--_i.e._, one class per 1,000 pupils.
For the purpose of this report a preliminary survey from information
supplied by social workers, school-teachers, police, Hospital Boards,
&c., has been made by the Education Department of what may be regarded
as the obviously feeble-minded and epileptic cases known to exist
outside institutions in the Dominion.
The following figures show the number of such cases reported, but these
figures are incomplete--the actual number must be greater:--
At 24th June, 1924.
Feeble-minded. Epileptic.
Age. Male. Female. Male. Female.
Under sixteen years 524 285 41 43
Over sixteen years 305 203 35 31
___ ___ __ __
829 488 76 74
_Recapitulation._
Males 905
Females 562
_____
1,467
_Table showing Ages of Pupils in the several Classes of the Primary
Schools._
+---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
| | Class P. | Standard I. | Standard II. |
| Ages. +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| | Boys. | Girls.| Boys. | Girls.| Boys. | Girls.|
+---------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
|5 and under 6 | 7,923 | 7,334 | .. | .. | .. | .. |
| | | | | | | |
|6 " 7 |10,776 |10,356 | 73 | 72 | 3 | 2 |
| | | | | | | |
|7 " 8 |10,324 | 9,291 | 2,021 | 2,047 | 111 | 141 |
| |================================ | |
|8 " 9 | 4,970 | 4,183 = 5,696 | 5,413 = 1,729 | 1,884 |
| | | ================================|
|9 " 10 | 1,400 | 1,118 | 4,443 | 3,732 = 5,011 | 5,152 |
| | | | | ================|
|10 " 11 | 393 | 277 | 1,657 | 1,162 | 4,210 | 3,624 |
| | | | | | | |
|11 " 12 | 112 | 107 | 487 | 383 | 1,814 | 1,461 |
| | | | | | | |
|12 " 13 | 54 | 30 | 146 | 91 | 628 | 425 |
| | | | | | | |
|13 " 14 | 18 | 13 | 51 | 24 | 201 | 125 |
| | | | | | | |
|14 " 15 | 7 | 5 | 10 | 9 | 58 | 42 |
| | | | | | | |
|15 " 16 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 6 | 12 | 6 |
| | | | | | | |
|16 " 17 | 1 | .. | 1 | 2 | .. | 2 |
| | | | | | | |
|Over 17 | .. | .. | .. | 1 | .. | .. |
+---------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
|Totals (1923) |35,980 |32,715 |14,587 |12,942 |13,777 |12,864 |
+---------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
| Standard III. | Standard IV. | Standard V. | Standard VI. |
|-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| Boys. | Girls.| Boys. | Girls.| Boys. | Girls.| Boys. | Girls.|
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |
| | | | | | | | |
| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |
| | | | | | | | |
| 3 | 1 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |
| | | | | | | | |
| 113 | 135 | 3 | 2 | .. | .. | .. | .. |
| | | | | | | | |
| 1,447 | 1,531 | 102 | 66 | .. | 4 | 1 | .. |
|================ | | | | | |
| 4,570 | 4,749 = 1,311 | 1,439 | 82 | 108 | 6 | 4 |
|================================ | | | |
| 4,202 | 3,827 = 4,166 | 4,214 = 1,123 | 1,202 | 93 | 95 |
| | ================================= | |
| 2,268 | 1,860 | 3,890 | 3,515 = 3,540 | 3,664 = 1,020 | 1,064 |
| | | | ================================|
| 935 | 669 | 2,129 | 1,764 | 3,766 | 3,271 = 3,255 | 3,277 |
| | | | | | ================|
| 235 | 139 | 790 | 500 | 1,848 | 1,499 | 3,101 | 2,883 |
| | | | | | | | |
| 36 | 26 | 148 | 81 | 532 | 349 | 1,454 | 1,010 |
| | | | | | | | |
| 8 | 6 | 11 | 13 | 61 | 30 | 194 | 114 |
| | | | | | | | |
| 1 | .. | .. | 3 | 8 | 8 | 25 | 13 |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
|13,818 |12,943 |12,550 |11,597 |10,960 |10,135 | 9,149 | 8,460 |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+---------------+-----------------+
| Standard VII. | Totals. |
|-------+-------+--------+--------+
| Boys. | Girls.| Boys. | Girls. |
+-------+-------+--------+--------+
| .. | .. | 7,923 | 7,334 |
| | | | |
| .. | .. | 10,852 | 10,430 |
| | | | |
| .. | .. | 12,459 | 11,480 |
| | | | |
| .. | .. | 12,511 | 11,617 |
| | | | |
| .. | .. | 12,404 | 11,603 |
| | | | |
| .. | .. | 12,229 | 11,363 |
| | | | |
| .. | 1 | 11,997 | 11,290 |
| | | | |
| 3 | 3 | 11,549 | 10,652 |
| | | | |
| 20 | 42 | 10,375 | 9,185 |
|===============| | |
| 34 | 47 | 6,083 | 5,124 |
| | | | |
| 23 | 37 | 2,209 | 1,516 |
| | | | |
| 3 | 15 | 279 | 182 |
| | | | |
| 1 | 3 | 35 | 28 |
+-------+-------+--------+--------+
| 84 | 148 |110,905 |101,804 |
+-------+-------+--------+--------+
SECTION 6.--STUDY OF FEEBLE-MINDED AND DELINQUENT CHILDREN.
_Methods employed in other Countries._
In many parts of America and in some European countries the problem of
the mentally backward and feeble-minded child receives close attention.
The juvenile delinquent is also carefully studied. For children who fail
to make good in school, or who are guilty of frequent misdemeanours, a
system of intelligence testing and psychological analysis is carried
out. A study is also made of family history and environmental
influences. Children who are "maladjusted to their environment" are kept
under survey with a view to finding what is the difficulty and how it
can be overcome. To quote from the "Mental Hygiene Bulletin," published
by the National Committee for Mental Hygiene for the United States of
America: "Children showing definite problems are selected for more
intensive study and treatment. The grossly mentally handicapped child,
who is likely to become a social problem if not properly dealt with in
childhood; the psychopathic and mentally maladjusted child, who later in
life may develop mental disease; the child manifesting conduct disorders
which may be the beginning of a delinquent or criminal career; the
retarded child; the epileptic; the child with speech-defect or with some
physical disability; the child with gross personality difficulties; the
exceptionally brilliant child--all present problems that demand
attention during the child's school life. Such children are given a
thorough physical examination, a careful psychiatric study, and an
individual psychological examination, including a variety of
psychological tests, not only to determine the child's intelligence
rating, but, in so far as possible, his special abilities and
disabilities. A social study is made of the child's home, school, and
other environments to determine what factors may have unfavourably
influenced the development of the child, and what forces may be utilized
in securing the child's adjustments. The results of all these studies
are given to the school authorities with recommendations relative to the
needed adjustments."
In New Zealand there is need of increased facilities for the study of
the individual child, and the services of psychological experts should
be available in order to group children according to their mental
equipment and special requirements. Only those fully qualified to
estimate accurately all the evidence available are fitted to decide the
destiny of children.
Herein lies the danger of relying exclusively upon the use of mental
tests.
_Mental tests_ are of definite value in enabling the observer to arrive
at a conclusion regarding the general mental development of the subject,
or to investigate some particular psychological function. A too
exclusive dependence upon the result of the application of these tests,
especially by a layman, would invariably lead to error. A comprehensive
survey is necessary, taking into consideration such factors as family
history, environment, physical condition, behaviour, temperament, &c.
The observation, possibly for a considerable period of time, of an
expert psychiatrist or psychologist may be necessary in order to arrive
at an accurate estimate of the mental ability of the subject.
In this regard we quote from Tredgold, "Mental Deficiency": "There are,
however, very many exceptions, particularly when we are dealing with the
milder grades of deficiency, so that if serial tests are depended upon
for the diagnosis of these cases they may be, and often are, very
fallacious. I may say here that although it would, of course, be
extremely valuable if we could devise tests which would accurately
measure mental capacity, particularly that capacity and those qualities
which are needed for social adaptation and maintenance, we have not yet
succeeded in doing so. The mental factors which may be involved in this
capacity for social adaptation, and which render the individual in need
of care, supervision, or control, are many and varied, and there is even
some danger that too much reliance upon serial tests may distract from
the adequate investigation of these qualities and defects and lead to
totally erroneous conclusions."
There is no doubt, however, that in the hands of competent observers
properly applied tests afford information of great value in assessing
mental and moral capacity, but the observer must be competent.
SECTION 7.--METHOD OF DEALING WITH MENTAL DEFECTIVES IN NEW
ZEALAND.
_Present Legal Provision for Notification and Education of Feeble-minded
Children, and for Care of Custodial Feeble-minded Adults and Children._
The Education Act, 1914, contains provision (see section 127) for the
establishment of special schools for the education and training of
afflicted children (deaf, blind, feeble-minded, and epileptic) between
the ages of six and twenty-one years, with provision in the case of
inmates of special schools for extension of the period of detention
where it is considered necessary in the public interest. For the
purposes of this Act,--
"'Feeble-minded child' means a child who, not being an idiot or imbecile
or otherwise a proper person to be sent to an institution under the
control of the Mental Hospitals Department, and not being merely
backward, is by reason of mental or physical defect incapable of
receiving proper benefit from instruction in an ordinary school, but is
not incapable by reason of such defect of receiving benefit from
instruction in a special school."
"'Epileptic child' means an epileptic child who is unfit by reason of
severe or frequent epilepsy to attend an ordinary school, but is not
idiot or imbecile or otherwise a proper person to be sent to an
institution under the control of the Mental Hospitals Department."
Section 127: "(2.) It shall be the duty of the parent of any ...
feeble-minded or epileptic child to provide efficient and suitable
education for such child."
"(3.) If the parent of such child fails to provide such education for
such child, or is deemed by the Minister to be unable to provide such
education, the Minister may direct that such child be sent to such
special school or other institution for the education of feeble-minded
or epileptic children as he thinks fit."
Section 129: "Every parent, teacher of a school (either public or
private), constable, or officer of a charitable or kindred institution
who is aware of the place of residence (either temporary or permanent)
of a blind, deaf, feeble-minded, or epileptic child, and the householder
in whose house any such child resides, shall send notification of the
fact to the Minister, giving name, age, and address of the child; and if
any such person neglects or fails to comply with this provision, such
person shall on conviction thereof be liable to a fine not exceeding one
pound, or in the case of a second or subsequent offence, whether
relating to the same or another child, not exceeding five pounds."
Section 56: "Every public school shall be organized and conducted in
accordance with regulations (a copy of which shall be conspicuously put
up in the school): Provided that the Minister may, on the application of
the Board, sanction the establishment of special classes for backward
children--that is, children who, through physical infirmity, absence
from school, or otherwise, are below the average standard of education
reached by other children of the same age."
The Mental Defectives Act, 1911, divides mentally defective persons into
six classes, as under:--
"'Mentally defective person' means a person who, owing to his mental
condition requires oversight, care, or control for his own good or in
the public interest, and who, according to the nature of his mental
defect, and to the degree of care, oversight, or control deemed to be
necessary, is included in one of the following classes:--
"_Class I:_ Persons of unsound mind--that is, persons who,
owing to disorder of the mind, are incapable of managing
themselves or their affairs.
"_Class II:_ Persons mentally infirm--that is, persons who,
through mental infirmity arising from age or decay of their
faculties, are incapable of managing themselves or their
affairs.
"_Class III:_ Idiots--that is, persons so deficient in mind
from birth or from an early age that they are unable to guard
themselves against common physical dangers, and therefore
require oversight, care, or control required to be exercised
in the case of young children.
"_Class IV:_ Imbeciles--that is, persons who, though capable
of guarding themselves against common physical dangers, are
incapable, or if of school age will presumably, when older, be
incapable, of earning their own living by reason of mental
deficiency existing from birth or from an early age.
"_Class V:_ Feeble-minded--that is, persons who may be capable
of earning a living under favourable circumstances, but are
incapable from mental deficiency existing from birth or from
an early age of competing on equal terms with their normal
fellows, or of managing themselves and their affairs with
ordinary prudence.
"_Class VI:_ Epileptics--that is, persons suffering from
epilepsy."
This is similar to the classification in the English Mental Deficiency
Act, which also includes the following definition:--
"'Moral imbeciles'--that is, persons who from an early age
display permanent mental defect, coupled with strong criminal
or vicious propensities, on which punishment has little or no
deterrent effect."
In the opinion of the Committee it is very important that a similar
definition should be included in any amendment of the New Zealand Act.
A Magistrate may order the committal to an institution of any person
coming within these definitions if he is satisfied that such person is
mentally defective and two medical men give a certificate to that
effect. Persons coming under the description in Classes I, II, III, or
IV are committed to the mental hospitals, but there seems to be
considerable reluctance both on the part of medical practitioners to
certify and of Magistrates to commit to a mental hospital epileptics and
those described as "feeble-minded." Evidence was given before the
Committee to the effect that there would not be the same disinclination
to send these classes of patients to a special institution such as a
farm colony or an industrial colony.
Apart from the residential special schools, special classes have been
established in connection with public schools in each of the large
centres of population throughout the Dominion with promising results.
The Committee visited the special classes in one of the centres, and
were impressed with the sympathetic attitude of the teachers towards
their scholars and the happy appearance of the children, who seemed to
be keenly interested and busy over their appointed tasks.
There is as yet no special provision in New Zealand for the education of
epileptic children. Fortunately, the number of these is apparently
small, but, as in many cases it is undesirable for them to attend the
ordinary classes of the elementary schools, the question of arranging
for their tuition otherwise requires earnest consideration.
Following on legislative authority contained in the Education Act
already referred to, provision for feeble-minded children, within the
meaning of the Act, was made by establishing the special school at
Otekaike, near Oamaru, with accommodation for 195 boys, and some years
later a similar institution was opened at Richmond, near Nelson, with
provision for about eighty girls.
These institutions contain two separate divisions, providing for--(1)
The training of children of school age, and (2) the instruction of young
persons over school age in handicraft and farm-work.
Both institutions have modern and well-equipped day schools with trained
women teachers, and at Otekaike the industrial division is provided with
workshops and instructors in trades and handicrafts.
The children are housed in modern and well-appointed cottage homes, each
with accommodation for thirty-five, and are supervised by selected women
attendants.
The Committee visited and inspected both Otekaike and Richmond, and were
very favourably impressed with the healthy environment and careful
management of these institutions, and with the humane and sympathetic
methods adopted for the purpose of making the best of imperfect human
material.
At both places physical exercises, musical drill, and organized games
form an important part of the training, and the teachers deserve
commendation for the efficiency of the pupils in these respects and
their general appearance of physical fitness.
Moral training and training in habits of personal cleanliness and prompt
obedience form an important part of the curriculum, and the effects are
noticeable in the quick movements and alert attitude of the inmates. The
girls at Richmond receive training in domestic work, needlework,
knitting, darning, &c., according to their ability.
The children are taught various kinds of handiwork, and by grouping them
according to mental capacity they are given a school course modified to
suit the individual. In the industrial division at Otekaike, baskets,
sea-grass furniture, and all kinds of wickerware and coir mats are well
made, and are readily sold. Bootmaking and repairing for the institution
are also carried out by certain of the inmates under a practical man.
Attached to Otekaike there is an area of land where farming, gardening,
and fruitgrowing absorb most of the labour of the older inmates.
At Richmond the area of land available for cultivation is limited, but
even so it occurred to the Committee that something more might possibly
be done in the direction of providing congenial and profitable work for
the older girls, as, for instance, the growing of flowers for sale in
the Wellington markets.
At Otekaike, after training, the best types of the older inmates are
placed out, usually with farmers in the district, and for the most part
are leading useful lives under the supervision of the local Juvenile
Probation Officers of the Education Department.
The matter of placing out girls from the school at Richmond is obviously
one of much greater difficulty.
At both Otekaike and Richmond there is a growing group of custodial
cases, due to the fact that in many instances the parents or guardians
are either unable to provide proper protective measures for the children
if released, or are unsuitable in other ways to have the control of
them. On the other hand, there is reluctance on the part of medical
practitioners to certify such cases for a mental hospital. It is very
desirable, of course, that the special schools should be used as
trying-out places for children whose mental equipment is questionable,
but where after a reasonable trial it is evident that merely custodial
care is required there should be some simple method of passing them on
to farm colonies or suitable custodial homes.
As a matter of fact, the school at Richmond has its full complement of
pupils, and as many cases have now to be refused admission it is
urgently necessary that other provision should be made, especially for
the older girls needing custodial care.
Mention should also be made of a visit paid by the Committee to the
industrial school at Caversham, which deals with girls and young women
who have failed to make good when placed out under supervision in the
community. There is a small clothing-factory attached to the
institution, which provides useful employment for certain of the
better-type girls. It is stated that, even under present conditions,
which are not altogether satisfactory, the majority of the Caversham
girls benefit from the training they receive to such an extent that they
can be trusted to earn their living in the community under supervision.
The Committee, however, are of opinion that the buildings and site are
most unsuitable for such an institution. Little level space is available
for recreation purposes, the property is overlooked at the back, and the
location and general plan of the buildings are such that the utmost
vigilance has to be exercised. For the inmates belonging to the
reformatory section it is considered that such an institution should be
situated in the country with sufficient suitable land to permit of
gardening and farming on a small scale. This would afford healthful
occupation for the inmates and contribute towards their support. Such an
institution should be so situated as to be readily accessible from all
parts of the Dominion.
In the matter of the admission of young offenders over sixteen years of
age to the Caversham Industrial School, and also to the Boys'
Training-farm at Weraroa, the Committee found that in these cases the
Courts have no authority to commit direct, but must first sentence the
young person to imprisonment and then recommend transfer to an
industrial school. Such a system is not only cumbersome, but is
fundamentally wrong, and should be remedied as soon as possible. The
Courts should have discretionary powers to commit any young offender
under eighteen years of age direct to an industrial school.
At Caversham there is a small proportion of the inmates who should be
transferred to a Borstal institution. This refers to the so-called
"over-sexed" girl, and the girl with strong anti-social proclivities,
who should be confined to an institution where there is provision for
segregation and treatment of refractory cases. In many instances these
young women should be kept under control for a considerable period. Many
are hopelessly immoral, and in the interests of society should not be
allowed their liberty.
That section of the Caversham institution comprising children committed
to the care of the State on account of destitution or unsuitable
conditions in their homes would be better provided for in a separate
receiving home. This would be in accord with the practice obtaining in
all the other centres.
The Education Department deals with all children committed to the care
of the State for causes varying from destitution to delinquency. The
procedure is for the police to charge the children and for the
Magistrate to commit them to the nearest receiving home, where they are
kept under observation, trained in proper habits, and so forth, and as
soon as possible, if they exhibit no anti-social traits, placed out in
selected foster-homes. The Department holds the view, shared by leading
authorities, that home life, however humble, provided the foster-parents
are suitable people, is better than institution life for the majority of
the children who are cast on the State for sustenance and protection.
The supervision of these cases, and the selection of employment for them
when they become old enough, are carried out by the nurses, Managers of
receiving homes, and Juvenile Probation Officers of the Education
Department. Several of these officers gave valuable evidence in the
course of this inquiry. These officials not only look after the welfare
of the children brought under State control, but also carry out a great
deal of preventive work in the way of advising parents and supervising
children, who by their timely and kindly intervention are saved from
coming within the scope of the law.
SECTION 8.--CHILDREN'S COURTS.
Several witnesses before the Committee pointed out the need for the
establishment of special Courts for children and juveniles.
The Committee recommend that such provision be made, and also that
clinics be established providing for the physical and psychological
examination of all children coming under the jurisdiction of these
Courts. The fuller knowledge thus acquired would be extremely valuable
to the authorities dealing with the children.
Many countries have recognized this need and have established properly
constituted Courts for dealing with children and juveniles as apart and
distinct from Police Courts.
In this connection it is surprising to find that New Zealand is lagging
behind in that in the laws relating to the punishment of crime hardly
any distinction in procedure is made between the child and the adult. It
is true, of course, that a practice has grown up whereby children are
dealt with in the Police Courts at a time apart from the hearing of
adult cases, but the procedure of the Criminal Court has been
retained--_i.e._, the young delinquent is charged with an offence, is
required to plead, and if found guilty is liable to conviction. In the
majority of such cases the charges are for minor offences and are dealt
with summarily, but a child charged with an indictable offence and
remanded to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence may in the interim
be detained in prison.
By arrangement between the Departments concerned most of the cases of
children and juveniles are investigated by the Juvenile Probation
Officer of the Education Department prior to the hearing, but these
officers have no legal standing in any Court, and are not even empowered
to bring a destitute child before a Magistrate for committal to the care
of the State. This function must be carried out by a police constable.
The Children's Court, as it is constituted in other countries, is a
Court of equity, and its principal function is to consider all children
brought before it as cases requiring protection and care. It is the
business of the Court, by means of careful investigation in each case of
conduct, school history, family history, and mental condition, to
ascertain, if possible, the reason for misconduct, and either to
eliminate or modify the causes, or to remove the child from the
environment that has contributed to its present condition.
The presiding Magistrates are usually selected on account of their
experience with children and knowledge of child psychology. In some of
the Courts in America women are selected for these positions.
It is common knowledge that lack of mental balance, retardation, and
physical defect are responsible for much juvenile delinquency, and it is
therefore essential that if the children appearing before the Courts are
to be dealt with in a scientific manner there should be provision on the
lines recommended above.
SECTION 9.--POLICY FOR THE FUTURE.
It seems to the Committee that the Dominion has now come to the parting
of the ways in this matter, and unless the multiplication of the
feeble-minded is to be allowed to go on in an ever-increasing ratio,
with consequences dreadful to contemplate, the problem must be dealt
with on broader lines, and in a more comprehensive fashion.