POTATO WASTE AS AN ASSET TO INDUSTRY
The potato has entered so intimately into our domestic life as to be
regarded as indispensable to the human dietary. Whether its food value
be exaggerated or otherwise, the fact remains that, speaking generally,
it now ranks second to wheat in the estimation of the bread-eating
nations. A potato-less dinner-table would create more dismay than one
from which the familiar roll is missing, while some of us may even
recall the widespread misery which was provoked in Ireland during the
black years of 1845 and 1846 from the failure of the potato crop. The
succulent tuber has achieved such a high estate among the community as
to be deemed capable of taking the place of the cereal associated with
the staff of life should exigencies so demand.
In view of such extreme popularity it is not surprising to find
the potato cultivated extensively in the British Islands to serve
essentially as a foodstuff for both man and beast. No allotment-holder
would consider his endeavours to be complete without the inclusion of
this vegetable in his gardening programme. As illuminative of the grip
which the cult of the potato has secured upon the amateur son of Adam
it may be mentioned that the allotment-holders of England and Wales
raised a round 1,000,000 tons of this tuber, for the most part upon
10-rod plots, during the year 1918. Many farmers now regard it as the
backbone to their agricultural endeavours, especially in those parts of
the country where the soil conditions are particularly favourable to
its easy and prolific cultivation.
Yet, in our use of the potato, we are extremely wasteful. We lose or
discard at least one-third of what we grow. It is estimated that 25
per cent. of the value of a crop is lost to the farmer in cartage,
carriage, clamping, bagging, marketing, and grading. This figure does
not take into account the circumstance that only the cream of the
crop--the ware potato--is set aside for human consumption, for which,
of course, the maximum price is demanded. Neither does it refer to the
losses incurred from the ravages of diseases, which, while varying
according to the soil and weather conditions, are always material. An
appreciable proportion of this loss and waste might be avoided were
the practice of storage by clamping superseded by a method more in
accordance with contemporary thought.
A further loss, even in connection with those set aside for the table,
is incurred in the preparation of the vegetable. Peeling, as a rule, is
clumsily and perfunctorily performed, “spud drill” being considered as
one of the drudgeries of domestic life, because a pronounced portion
of the edible flesh is removed with the skin, eyes and other unsightly
or inedible parts. The extent of this loss varies with the size of the
tuber and the carelessness or skill of the peeler. Consequently it may
vary from 10 to 30 per cent. or even more.
What is done with the peelings? For the most part, notably in towns
and cities, they suffer cremation, either at the destructor, via the
dust-bin, or in the kitchen stove. But potato-peelings constitute
an expensive fuel. The rural resident is generally more thrifty. He
throws the peelings into the swill-tub for pig-food, or husbands them
to boil and to blend with grain offal to sustain his poultry-run, but
the quantity thus turned to economic account is really an insignificant
proportion of the whole. Quite 600,000 tons of potato offal are
destroyed in ignorance during the year--a deliberate wastage of
valuable raw material.
The growers’ losses are equally startling, more particularly in
clamping. The tubers afflicted with disease meet with instant rejection
and destruction. Even the balance of good and sound tubers, remaining
after the selection of the ware and seed grades, is utilized along the
most wasteful lines, being regarded as fit for cattle only.
The farmer is not to be blamed for such extravagant use of the
proportion of his crop which fails to rise to the high standard set
for the table. He has not been enlightened either in regard to the
constitution of the potato or its potential industrial uses. Even if
he be cognizant of these factors he cannot more profitably exploit his
surplus owing to the absence of all facilities to such an end.
Of what is the potato composed? Here is the result of an average
analysis:--
Per cent.
Fat 0.3
Cellulose 1
Mineral matter 1
Dextrine and pectose 2
Fibrin and albumen 2.3
Starch 17
Water 75
Waste 1.4
The term “waste” included in the above table in reality is somewhat
misplaced, as I explain later. The starch content is also a variable
factor. While one analysis may show a percentage of only 15, another
will yield a figure exceeding 18 per cent. Consequently that quoted may
be accepted as representative.
Familiarity with the chemical composition of the humble potato prompted
the Germans to regard it from two distinct view-points. The one,
as in these islands, concerned its food potentialities; the second
took into consideration its possible application as a raw material
for several industries, such as the manufacture of alcohol, starch,
glucose, dextrine, and other articles of commerce. Consequently, potato
quotations upon the Teuton markets were dual and distinct. The one
price, which was the higher, related to produce intended for the table,
while the second, and lower, governed its industrial use.
The provision of two separate markets for the commodity produced
the inevitable result. Farmers were assured of lucrative prices
for their crop set aside for edible use, while the second market
absorbed practically the whole of what was not required to satisfy the
first-named demand, and that at an attractive figure. Accordingly,
there was every inducement to bring more and more acres under the
tuber, which led to the reclamation of poor soils regarded as utterly
useless for general agriculture.
But the encouragement thus extended wrought many other far-reaching
benefits. To persuade the poor soils devoted to the culture of the
potato to become fertile led to an increased demand for artificial
fertilizers, and provided a big domestic outlet for the native potash.
The farmers were enlightened as to the many virtues possessed by such
manures and were urged to use them liberally. The potash deposits were
not the only home resources to enjoy prosperity from such propaganda.
The steel industry reaped a certain measure of profit, because the
land offered an encouraging market for the enormous accumulations of
basic slag arising from the working in steel. Then the alcohol derived
from the potato assisted other industries, notably that concerned with
the manufacture of coal-tar dyestuffs. From this it will be seen that
the increased production of the potato, and its submission to the
most economic processes, exercised a repercussive effect in various
directions.
It was the pursuit of this policy which enabled Germany to raise
54,000,000 tons of potatoes a year. Of this enormous yield
approximately 30,000 tons were used to feed other industries with
essential raw materials. The energy displayed by the farmer resulted
in the supply exceeding the demand, so it became necessary to devise
measures to cope with the glut to avoid the grower, from the receipt
of absurdly low prices, being discouraged. The German farmer does not
favour clamping: he desires to dispose of his product immediately it is
gathered. With such an enormous output this tendency proved an awkward
obstacle. The auxiliary industries planned their operations upon a
twelve months scale. That is to say, they naturally desired to work
steadily the whole year round. The raw material from the soil came to
hand in tidal waves, and inconveniently.
The problem of meeting these sudden seasonal surges provoked
difficulty and dissatisfaction. The dependent industries acquired
their requirements, which left a very large quantity of potatoes upon
the growers’ hands. They could not hold them through the winter owing
to the extreme susceptibility of this vegetable to injury from frost.
The merchants were ready to accept delivery and to hold them in store
against the calls of commerce, but only at a price which was so low
as to leave the growers on the wrong side. The latter, dissatisfied,
threatened retaliation in the form of curtailment of production. At
this declaration the alcohol-distilling interests took alarm. To secure
themselves against any shortage of raw material they decided to hasten
to the farmers’ assistance, the merchants being ignored. The Alcohol
Association and the Farmers’ Societies collaborated to perfect ways and
means of saving the surplus both from destruction and the profiteering
of the factors. The co-operation of the Government was also sought. The
last-named assented to extend tangible aid and forthwith prizes to the
value of £1,500--$7,500--were offered to stimulate inventive fertility.
As a result of the various discussions it was decided that the most
promising solution of the vital question would be to convert the potato
into a dried product.
Inventive effort responded very promptly upon the narrowing down of
the issue. As a result of searching tests two dehydrating methods were
adopted. By these processes the potatoes are washed, cooked, dried, and
reduced to a flake and shredded form respectively. The product from
the first-named process is described as “flocken” from its flake-like
character, while the second is called “schnitzel.” The latter is the
cheaper process, the cost of dehydrating a ton of potatoes being about
4s.--$1.00--while the conversion of a ton of tubers into flocken
costs 10s.--$2.50. However, the capital investment incurred with the
machinery for producing schnitzel is higher than that for yielding the
flake, and initial outlay being the most compelling feature it is the
process which has been most widely adopted. In 1914 there were over
400 factories in operation converting the surplus potato crop into a
dried form, of which about 75 per cent. followed the flocken method.
But it does not matter which process is employed, the result is the
same--the production of a dried potato pulp, capable of being kept
indefinitely so long as it is protected against the ravages of damp,
and which suffers no injury from frost. From this dehydrated potato it
is possible to work up a cheap, excellent cattle-food.
The ability to render the potato into a convenient dry form at a low
figure prompted other countries, notably Japan and the United States
of America, to resort to similar methods, but to a different end.
The potato is rich in carbohydrates, and this fact suggested the
subsequent milling of the dry material into a flour, commercially
known as “farina,” which has proved a conspicuous commercial success.
The demand for this flour is expanding rapidly, because it serves as
excellent material for the preparation of bun-flours, cake-flours,
custard-powders, soups, and other foodstuffs, designed and marketed
with the primary idea of lessening the worries and labours of the
housewife.
Previous to the war the price for this imported article varied
between £25 and £35--$125 and $175--per ton, the cost of production
ranging from £14 to £20--$70 to $100--per ton. The margin of profit
was sufficiently wide to warrant the development of the process.
Under war conditions the price soared as high as £90--$450--per
ton, but subsequently dropped to about £45-£50--$225-$250. A very
marked diminution upon this latter figure is improbable, owing to the
increased manufacturing costs which now rule.
Therefore the question arises as to whether Britain cannot turn the
balance of her potato crop to greater commercial advantage. There is no
reason why we should not do so, seeing that in 1913 we imported over
40,000 tons of farina, while in 1917 the value of our importation of
this flour rose to £1,040,319--$5,201,595--for about 25,000 tons. It
must be conceded, however, that under present conditions less scope
exists for such a manifestation of enterprise in this country, seeing
that our potato crop is only about one-tenth of what Germany normally
raises. But the demand for the by-products in this country is every
whit as heavy and sustained as in Germany, while the fact that in this
raw material we have the base wherewith to revive an industry--the
production of starch--which Germany wrenched from us by unscrupulous
trading, alone should be sufficiently attractive to warrant such an
attempt being made. Our consumption of starch is heavy, exceeding
50,000 tons a year, while our purchases of dextrine and unpotable
methylic-alcohol, both of which can be made from the potato, run into
£70,000--$350,000--apiece during the year. Even the industrial alcohol,
despite the adverse taxation conditions which prevail, is in urgent
demand for many new industries.
If we confine the issue to the farina we have a distinctly promising
outlook. British inventive effort has been encouraged, and has evolved
a process and product of this character which are immeasurably superior
to those of the foreigner. To us the domestic manufacture of farina is
of far wider significance than its mere mention might suggest, inasmuch
as it would prove of far-reaching value as an ingredient to the loaf.
As a matter of fact the authorities, in their resolve to grapple with
the national food question, provisionally ear-marked 2,000,000 tons
of the 1918 British potato crop for conversion into farina, to be
blended with the domestic wheaten flour, to induce the supplies of the
last-named to go farther. The conclusion of hostilities rendered this
precautionary measure unnecessary.
In the eyes of many people the addition of potato-flour to wheaten
flour for bread may seem reprehensible, and to savour of adulteration.
Prejudice is a wellnigh insuperable obstacle to overcome. But in this
instance such opposition is misplaced. The introduction of farina to
the loaf cannot be regarded as an adulterant, substitute, or even a
diluent. Rightly or wrongly, the potato is invested with a high food
value: in some quarters it is even held to be an equivalent to the
wheat flour. Doubtless opposition would arise from memories of the
practice which obtained during the early days of the war. But the
faults which were encountered then were due to the method and not to
any shortcomings upon the part of the ingredient.
The utilization of the potato for the production of bread is not even
a modern innovation. It really represents a revival of a long-since
abandoned and wellnigh forgotten art. In the early years of the
Victorian era our bakers were compelled to make resort to the potato as
a constituent of the loaf. The home-grown wheat physiologically was not
adapted to the making of bread, and the same argument applies more or
less to the domestically grown cereal of these days. Normally, only a
certain volume can be used; it has to be blended with imported flour to
obtain the requisite percentage of gluten in which the domestic cereal
is deficient. The bakers of a century ago used the potato to obtain the
gluten content. With the availability of the more glutinous imported
flour recourse to the potato declined, until finally the practice was
abandoned.
The revival of the principle to meet the conditions of war proved a
failure from the simple fact that the baker had lost his cunning, and
was neither so clean nor so painstaking as his forbears in regard to
his utensils and the handling of the tuber. The potato is particularly
sensitive to contamination. Should an imperfectly-cleaned utensil be
used the resultant bread will speedily sour. Moreover, the mashing of
the potato was carried out very indifferently, while its admixture with
the other constituents was still more unsatisfactorily fulfilled, with
the result that the loaf was a spongy, unattractive, unappetizing, and
indigestible mass of doubtful nutritive value.
If the potato be used in the farinaceous form no such objections can
be levelled against the ultimate bread. The ingredients can be blended
more completely. It is this circumstance which renders the outlook
for the potato-flour so promising, and the British process which has
been perfected for its production should meet with far more gratifying
success.
The preparation of the farina is simple and straightforward. The
potatoes are taken in hand immediately after they have been dug, and
so are perfectly fresh. They are emptied into hoppers to pass to
the washing machine. Then they proceed to the steam-cooker where,
unpeeled, they are partially cooked. Finally they are conveyed to the
flaking machine, where the first stage of the process is completed.
The potato is passed between closely-set, internally-heated rollers,
the pulp being rolled out into a continuous sheet about as thick as
tissue paper. During this stage the cooking process is completed, while
the product is dried and converted into a crisp substance which is
peeled from the final roller to fall in a shower of tiny flakes into a
trough. It will be observed that the skin, eyes, and other deleterious
portions, from which all flesh has fallen away, is collected with the
main product.
Cooking, pulping, and flaking expels practically the whole of the 75
per cent. of water entering into the composition of the raw potato. The
secret of the process is the control of the temperature, which must
be maintained at a critical level, to assure the perfection of the
product. If this be excessive there is the risk of the flake becoming
charred, while, similarly, should the heat fall below the predetermined
point, the product will lack dryness and crispness. As may be imagined,
the treatment reduces the bulk of the potato very perceptibly, 5 tons
of potatoes being required to furnish 1 ton of flake.
The second process is of the conventional milling character, the flake
being ground to an extremely fine consistency. During this process the
skin and all other inedible portions are removed. It may be mentioned
that by turning the tubers into flake, slightly diseased potatoes,
which would be useless for the table, or which could only be wastefully
adapted to such a purpose, may be used without imperilling the purity
of the product in any way, and with the minimum of loss. The flaking
process presents an absolutely sterilized flour, the diseased portions
being removed during milling.
All offal is carefully collected to be treated separately. It has
pronounced food value for cattle, and, consequently, is converted into
a meal. The production of 1 ton of farina yields about 300 lb. of
offal, worth about £20--$100--a ton. The farina itself is of very fine
consistency, yellowish-white in colour, appetizing in appearance, of
pleasing aroma, the distinctive fragrance of the potato being scarcely
discernible, and, if preserved from the damp, may be kept indefinitely.
It is not imperative that the flake should be milled immediately. In
the former condition the potato may be safely stored in bags in a dry
place after the manner of grain. It is not even essential to turn it
into farina at all. In the flake form it constitutes an excellent
base for the other industries to which it may be applied. It may be
distilled for the extraction of the alcohol, excellent whisky, as
is doubtless well known, being made from the potato, while large
quantities of British brandies are produced from the starch which, by
treatment with weak sulphuric acid, is converted into glucose, which
is then fermented. Thus, it will be seen, the flake really represents
the starting-point for numerous applications, each of which has its
individual commercial possibilities. The outstanding advantage accruing
from the conversion of the potato into flake is that it enables the
product to be kept indefinitely, without suffering the slightest
deterioration, and without any waste being incurred. I have seen
samples which have been stored for seven years, and which to-day are in
every way as good as flake fresh from the machine.
In setting forth the composition of the succulent tuber I referred to
the item waste, which in the analysis given stands at 1.4 per cent.
This is the ultimate residue from certain operations, but is not common
to all, as, for instance, in the production of farina, where everything
of a solid nature is utilized. But in some branches of industrial use
there results a residue for which, at present, no attractive purpose
has been found, although there are hopes that even this insignificant
fraction will ultimately prove capable of profitable exploitation.
Turning once more to the utilization of farina as a constituent of the
loaf, we encounter a possible development which should play a very
emphatic part towards rendering ourselves less dependent upon foreign
sources of wheat supplies. A series of baking tests were conducted
under ordinary commercial conditions. The farina was mixed with the
wheat-flour in the proportion of 5 per cent. of the former to a sack of
the latter. Government Regulation flour was employed. The sack contains
280 lb., so that the addition of the farina was equal to 14 lb. Seeing
that the farina represents the potato in a highly concentrated form--5
to 1--the addition was really equal to 70 lb. of mashed potatoes--a
degree to which no ordinary baker would be prepared to venture.
In the first test the bread was moulded by hand, and the sack produced
104 loaves, each weighing, ready for the oven, 2 lb. 3 oz., as compared
with 94 loaves of equivalent weight normally obtained from the sack
at this bakery. Under machine bread-making conditions, which obtained
with the second test, and which was in accordance with the conventional
practice of the firm in question, the yield from the blended flour, for
technical reasons, was slightly lower, being 101 loaves, the weight of
the loaf, ready for the oven, being the same as in the first experiment.
Baking was conducted at a temperature of 560 degrees, the loaves
scaling barely 2 lb. 2 oz. upon withdrawal from the oven, and falling
to 2 lb. net fifteen hours after baking. The bread was examined by
experts who were present, and was declared to leave little or nothing
to be desired. Judging from the public point of view it was held to
be more attractive, owing to its increased volume, even texture, and
perfect homogeneity, while it was found to be more digestible and
satisfying.
In the hot condition the bread revealed only a slight trace of the
peculiar fragrance of the potato, but this disappeared entirely upon
cooling. The palate was unable to detect the potato-flour addition. The
keeping qualities of this bread aroused particular comment. Four days
after baking it was found to be still moist, while, upon the lapse of
a fortnight, two loaves were rebaked and then found to be totally free
from sourness. The striking success recorded was accepted by the expert
opinion to be sufficiently conclusive: indeed, the suggestion was made
that the proportion of farina might safely be increased to 7¹⁄₂ per
cent. without allowing the presence of the potato to be detected. Tests
were also carried out to determine the suitability of the potato-flour
as an ingredient in the preparation of cakes and pastries. Here again
the blended flour was unequivocally declared to yield better and more
appetizing articles than was possible with pure wheaten flour.
But, taking the 5 per cent. addition as the figure coinciding with
all-round requirements, it will be seen that the potato holds out
great economic possibilities towards the reduction of the expense
of the nation’s bread bill. During the year 1916 our consumption of
flour totalled 37,000,000 sacks, of which approximately 12,000,000
sacks represented imported flour. Assuming that 30,000,000 sacks were
devoted to the production of bread, the aggregate yield of loaves was
approximately 2,820,000,000. Had we used home-produced farina from
home-grown potatoes to the extent of 5 per cent. we could have reduced
the foregoing consumption of the wheaten product by 1,500,000 sacks,
and that without losing a single loaf. As a matter of fact we would
have been better off, because, on the higher average yield of 101
loaves per sack to which farina has been added, we should have obtained
2,875,500,000 loaves--an increase of 55,500,000 loaves.
The economy possible from the more enterprising utilization of the
potato in connection with our daily bread is so impressive as to
command attention, even to-day. Presuming that the foregoing figures
still hold good, the blending of 5 per cent. of native farina would
save 200,000 tons of shipping per year. To supply the requisite 188,000
tons of farina would involve 940,000 tons of potatoes. Seeing that the
authorities, under the dictates of war, contemplated setting aside
2,000,000 tons from the 1918 crop for the production of potato-flour,
such a demand as indicated would not impose an intolerable strain upon
our potato-growing resources. Were such a scheme carried to fruition we
should also be able to recover 28,000 tons of valuable cattle meal to
feed our stock during the winter season.
But, as already mentioned, the farina represents only one phase of
a big issue possessed of vast possibilities. The other available
openings for the products of the tuber would consume from four to eight
times the volume of potatoes available. In Germany, out of the total
54,000,000 tons raised during the year only a round 4,000,000 tons have
to be turned into flocken and schnitzel to save them from destruction
by frost. In these circumstances there would appear to be scope for the
cultivation of a further 5,000,000 tons, or twice the prevailing annual
crop in these islands, with this advantage. The farmer, assured of his
market and a fair price for his product, would be encouraged to extend
his activities, and would be prompted to exploit considerable acreage
of land which at present is regarded as waste, for the simple reason
that it cannot be cultivated under existing conditions to profit.
Even disease and its ravages would be regarded by the growers with
perfect equanimity were the industrial uses of the potato to be
developed in this country. A farmer would not be faced with disaster in
such an eventuality, as is the case to-day, because the diseased tubers
would be available for the production of alcohol. Indeed, the more
advanced the stage of disease the more suitable is the potato to this
range of exploitation.
Lifting the commercial horizon, in so far as it affects the potato,
demands support for other reasons. It would encourage inventive effort,
which, in turn, would undoubtedly lead to the elimination of wastage
in the household. Evaporative or dehydrating processes are already
in operation, and it is only logical to assume that this tendency
is capable of considerable expansion. The perfection of a simple
and inexpensive process of drying the potato, either whole or in
conveniently sized sections, as is common to culinary practice, capable
of restoration, if necessary, to the original condition before cooking
for the table, would benefit the whole community. “Spud drill,” the
_bête noire_ of every home, restaurant and hotel, with its concomitant
wastage of time and heavy loss of valuable food material, would be
eliminated. The removal of the greater part, or whole, of the 75 per
cent. of the water contained in the raw tuber would decrease bulk, and
effect a very valuable saving in transport. At the present moment the
carriage of one ton of potatoes involves the useless dragging about
of 15 cwt. of water which is superfluous. Only 5 cwt. of the load
represents solid foodstuff. Dry the potato, expel the water, and from
4 to 5 tons of the product could be carried in the space now demanded
to receive one ton. We have milk, peas, fruits, and other commodities
innumerable in an evaporated form, which in their raw condition are
associated with heavy proportions of water, so that there does not
appear to be any valid reason why the potato should not be supplied to
the housewife in a similar form and at a low figure. The perfection
of such a process would completely obviate all waste because the
offal--the peel and other inedible portions--would be recovered for
conversion into food for animals, instead of suffering incineration.
The recovery of the skin alone would bring within reach of the
cattle-raiser for winter feed upwards of 30,000 tons of meal worth from
£400,000 to £600,000--$2,000,000 to $3,000,000.
We, who live in these islands, scarcely understand the potato. We
are content to cling tenaciously to the traditions established three
hundred years ago. It is estimated that the British farmers lost over
£6,000,000--$30,000,000--in handling their 1918 crop owing to the
employment of obsolete and wasteful methods. The greater part, if not
the whole, of this loss might have been averted had more enlightened
methods prevailed concerning the utilization of the tuber. The
above-mentioned figure does not take into account the losses suffered
from disease and other causes, which must also have amounted to
millions sterling.
Our system is as pre-historic as many of the agricultural methods
practised by the fellaheen in the Land of the Pharaohs. The potatoes
are dug and then collected for storage in big clamps. These have to
be opened at intervals to allow the contents to be turned over and
inspected, to ascertain whether or no latent disease has asserted
itself. The potatoes have to be graded and bagged preparatory for
market, while there is the formidable item of transport to be
considered. Between the harvesting of the crop and its ultimate
disposal considerable handling ensues, while the difference in value
between the “ware,” or table, potatoes and the “chats,” or those
regarded as fit only for the pigs, is also very pronounced.
Contrast this method with what would obtain were we to develop the
Continental system. After digging and grading the crop the farmer would
merely be called upon to convey his harvest to the factory, when all
anxiety, so far as he was concerned, would end. The method would be
comparable with that pertaining to the handling of the wheat harvest in
the great grain-growing countries, where the farmer is merely called
upon to gather his grain and to haul it to the elevator. The saving
in time and labour alone--two vital factors in these days--would be
incalculable, while the risks of loss of crop would be completely
obviated.
The super-scientific exploitation of the potato would extend
far-reaching benefits in every direction. Not only would considerable
stretches of derelict agricultural Britain be brought into
productivity, but the very stimulation of the poor soils would bring
about startling expansion in the production of artificial fertilizers,
and would tend to stabilize such industries. In this way the recovery
of waste in many other directions would be fostered--potash from the
flues of the blast furnaces; basic slag from the dumps disfiguring the
countryside in the vicinity of our ironworks; sulphate of ammonia from
our gas and coking ovens; nitrates from the air. These would offer
scope for employment, and tend to keep money within the confines of
these islands, because the expansion of waste-recovery plants upon
a sufficiently impressive scale in the interests of agriculture,
with the local demand constituting the backbone of the trade, would
encourage production for export. The labour thus absorbed would more
than counter-balance the displacement experienced on the farms, and
would redound to the benefit of the latter, because foods for poor
and rich soils would be turned out in increasing streams and at lower
prices. Thus it will be seen that any development of the potato, along
modern scientific lines, and in such a way as to frustrate waste, must
represent a big stride forward in the progressive cycle.