[Illustration: INTERIOR OF GREAT PUBLIC BATHS IN IMPERIAL
ROME.
_Restoration according to Von Falke._]
A DAY IN OLD ROME
A PICTURE OF ROMAN LIFE
BY
WILLIAM STEARNS DAVIS
PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN THE
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA
[Illustration]
ALLYN AND BACON
BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO
ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO DALLAS
COPYRIGHT, 1925
BY ALLYN AND BACON
PAP
Norwood Press
J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
PREFACE
This book tries to describe what an intelligent person would have
witnessed in Ancient Rome if by some legerdemain he had been translated
to the Second Christian Century, and conducted about the imperial city
under competent guidance. Rare and untypical happenings have been
omitted, and sometimes to avoid long explanations _probable_
matters have been stated as if they were ascertained facts: but these
instances it is hoped are so few that no reader can be led into serious
error.
The year 134 after Christ has been chosen as the hypothetical time of
this visit, not from any special virtue in that date, but because Rome
was then architecturally nearly completed, the Empire seemed in its
most prosperous state, although many of the old usages and traditions
of the Republic still survived, and the evil days of decadence were
as yet hardly visible in the background. The time of the absence of
Hadrian from his capital was selected particularly, in order that
interest could be concentrated upon the life and doings of the great
city itself, and upon its vast populace of slaves, plebeians, and
nobles, not upon the splendid despot and his court, matters too often
the center for attention by students of the Roman past.
To acknowledge all the modern books upon which the writer has drawn
heavily would be to present a list of almost all the important
handbooks or discussions of Roman life and antiquities. It is proper
to say, however, that such secondary sources have been mainly useful
so far as they reënforced a fairly exhaustive study of the Latin
writers themselves, especially of Horace, Seneca, Petronius, Juvenal,
Martial, and, last but nowise least, of Pliny the Younger. Inevitably
this volume follows the lines of its companion “A Day in Old Athens,”
published several years ago, a book which has enjoyed such public favor
as to prove the usefulness of this method of presentation; but life
in the Roman Imperial Age has seemed so much more complex than that
in the Athens of Demosthenes, and our fund of information is so much
greater, that the present volume is perforce considerably longer than
its companion. The “day” devoted to Rome will probably seem therefore a
somewhat lengthy one.
To my colleague and friend Dr. Richard C. Cram, Professor of Latin in
the University of Minnesota, I am deeply grateful for a careful reading
of the manuscript and for many helpful and incisive suggestions; and
for a careful checking over of every feature of the work I must once
again gladly acknowledge the gracious and untiring services of my wife.
The illustrations, which, it is hoped, add considerably to the interest
of the book, have been collected from many sources. Many of the highly
informational “restorations” included are from the monumental work of
Jakob von Falke, _Hellas und Rom_, the English version whereof has
long ceased to be available to American readers.
W. S. D.
THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA
MINNEAPOLIS
CONTENTS
PAGE
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxi
Chapter I. The General Aspect of the City
SECTION
1. The Prosperity of Rome in the Reign of Hadrian
(A.D. 117–138) 1
2. Increasing Glory of the Imperial City 2
3. Population and Crowded Condition of Rome 3
4. The Country around Rome 5
5. The Tiber and Its Valley 6
6. A View over Rome from the Campus Martius 7
7. The Seven Hills of Rome 9
8. Building Materials Used in Rome 10
9. The Great Use of Concrete 11
10. Greek Architectural Forms Plus the Arch and Vault 12
Chapter II. Streets and Street Life
11. The Regions of Rome: Fashionable and Plebeian Quarters 15
12. A Typical Short Street, “Mercury Street” 16
13. The House and Shop Fronts 18
14. Street Shrines and Fountains 20
15. Typical Street Crowds 21
16. Frequent Use of Greek in Rome 22
17. Clamor and Thronging in the Streets 23
18. The Processions Attending Great Nobles 24
19. A Great Lady Traveling 25
20. Public Salutations: the Kissing Habit 26
21. The Swarms of Idlers and Parasites 27
22. Public Placards and Notices 28
23. Wall Scribblings 30
24. The Streets Dark and Dangerous at Night 32
25. Discomforts of Life in Rome 33
Chapter III. The Homes of the Lowly and of the
Mighty
26. The Great _Insulæ_--Tenement Blocks 34
27. A Typical Insula 35
28. The Flats in an Insula 36
29. The Cheap Attic Tenements and Their Poor Occupants 37
30. A Senatorial “Mansion” (_Domus_) 39
31. The Plan of a Large Residence 40
32. Entrance to the Residence 42
33. The Atrium and the View across It 42
34. The Rooms in the Rear and the _Peristylium_ 44
35. The Dining Room (_Triclinium_) and the Chapel 45
36. The Garden and the Slaves’ Quarters 47
37. The Floors and Windows 49
38. Frescos, Beautiful and Innumerable 50
39. The Profusion of Statues and Art Objects 51
40. Family Portrait Busts 52
41. Death Masks (_Imagines_) 54
42. Couches, Their General Use 54
43. Elegant Chairs and Costly Tables 55
44. Chests, Cabinets, Water Clocks, and Curios 57
45. Spurious Antiques 58
46. Pet Animals 58
Chapter IV. Roman Women and Roman Marriages
47. Honorable Status of Roman Women 60
48. Men Reluctant to Marry 61
49. Rights and Privileges of Married Women 61
50. Selection of Husbands for Young Girls 63
51. A Marriage Treaty among Noble-Folk 64
52. A Betrothal in Wealthy Circles 65
53. Adjusting the Dowry 66
54. Dressing the Bride 66
55. The Marriage Ceremonies 67
56. The Wedding Procession 69
57. At the Bridegroom’s House 70
58. Honors and Liberties of a Matron 71
59. Unhappy Marriages and Frivolous Women 72
60. Divorces, Easy and Frequent 74
61. Celibacy Common: Old Families Dying Out 75
62. Nobler Types of Women 75
63. Famous and Devoted Wives 76
64. The Story of Turia 78
Chapter V. Costume and Personal Adornment
65. The Type of Roman Garments 80
66. The Toga, the National Latin Garment 81
67. Varieties of Togas 83
68. Draping the Toga 83
69. The Tunica 84
70. Capes, Cloaks, and Gala Garments 85
71. Garments of Women: the _Stola_ and the _Palla_ 86
72. Materials for Garments. Wool and Silk 88
73. Styles of Arranging Garments. Fullers and Cleaners 89
74. Barbers’ Shops. The Revived Wearing of Beards 90
75. Fashions in Women’s Hairdressing. Hair Ornaments 93
76. Elaborate Toilets 94
77. Sandals and Shoes 95
78. The Mania for Jewels and Rings 96
79. Pearls in Enormous Favor 97
80. Perfumes: Their Constant Use 98
Chapter VI. Food and Drink. How the Day is
Spent. The Dinner
81. Romans Fond of the Table. Gourmandizing. The Famous
Apicius 100
82. Vitellius, the Imperial Glutton 102
83. Simple Diet of the Early Romans 102
84. Bread and Vegetables 103
85. Fruits, Olives, Grapes, and Spices 104
86. Meat and Poultry 105
87. Fish in Great Demand 106
88. Olive Oil and Wine: Their Universal Use 107
89. Vintages and Varieties of Wine 108
90. Kitchens and the Niceties of Cookery 109
91. A Roman Gentleman’s Morning: Breakfast (_jentaculum_)
and the Visit to the Forum 110
92. The Afternoon and Dinner-Time. Importance of the
Dinner (_cena_) 111
93. Dinner Hunters and Parasites (“Shadows”) 112
94. The Standard Dinner Party--Nine Guests 113
95. Preparing the Dinner and Mustering the Guests 114
96. Arrangement of the Couches: Placing the Guests 115
97. Serving the Dinner 116
98. The Drinking Bout (_Comissatio_) after the Dinner 118
99. Distribution of Garlands and Perfumes. Social
Conversation 119
100. Elaborate and Vulgar Banquets. Simple Home
Dinners 120
Chapter VII. The Social Orders: The Slaves
101. Enormous Alien Population in Rome. The “Græcules” 122
102. Strict Divisions of Society. The Régime of _Status_ 123
103. Vast Number of Slaves. Universality of Slavery 124
104. Power of Master over Slaves 125
105. The City Slaves and the Country Slaves 125
106. Purchasing a Slave Boy 126
107. Traffic in the Slave Pens 127
108. Sale of Slaves 128
109. Size of Slave Households (_Familiæ_). Slave Workmen 129
110. Division of Duties and Organization of Slave Households 131
111. Discipline in a Well-Ordered Mansion. Long Hours of
Idleness 132
112. Inevitable Degradation Caused by Slavery. Evil Effect
upon Masters 133
113. Punishment of Slaves 135
114. Branding of Slaves. _Ergastula_--Slave Prisons 136
115. Death Penalties for Slaves. Pursuit of Runaways 136
Chapter VIII. The Social Orders: Freedmen, Provincials,
Plebeians, and Nobles
116. Manumission of Slaves Very Common 139
117. The Ceremony of Manumission 140
118. The Status of Freedmen. Their Great Success in Business 140
119. Humble Types of Freedmen 141
120. Wealth and Power of Successful Freedmen 142
121. Importance of Freedmen in a Roman Family 143
122. The Status of Provincials. The Case of Jesus 143
123. Great Alien Colonies in Rome 145
124. The Roman Plebeians, the “Mob” (_Vulgus_) 145
125. The Desirability of Roman Citizenship. The Case
of St. Paul 146
126. Clientage: Its Oldest Form 147
127. The New Parasitical Clientage: the Morning Salutation 148
128. The Dole to Clients (the _Sportula_) 150
129. Attendance by Clients in Public. Insults They Must
Undergo 151
130. The Decurions: the Notables of the Chartered Cities 152
131. The Equites: the Nobles of the Second Class 153
132. Qualifications and Honors of the Equites 154
133. Review of the Equites. Pretenders to the Rank 156
134. The Senatorial Order. The First-Class Nobility 156
135. Social Glories of Senators 157
136. The Senatorial Aristocracy Greater than the Senate 158
137. Insignia, Qualifications, and Titles of Senators 158
Chapter IX. Physicians and Funerals
138. Scanty Qualifications and Training of Doctors 160
139. Superior Class of Physicians 161
140. A Fashionable Doctor 161
141. Medical Books and Famous Remedies 163
142. Absurd Medicines. Theriac 164
143. Fear of Poisoning. Popularity of Antidotes 165
144. Medical Students, “Disciples,” Beauty Specialists 166
145. Cheap Doctors: No Hospitals 167
146. Suicide as Escape from Hopeless Disease 168
147. Execution of Wills. Numerous Legacies Customary 169
148. Regular Incomes from Legacies. Professional Legacy
Hunters 171
149. Public Bequests 172
150. Great Funerals Very Fashionable. Desire to Be
Remembered after Death 172
151. Preliminaries to a Funeral 173
152. The Funeral Procession. The Display of Masked
“Ancestors” 174
153. The Exhibits in the Procession. The Retinue around
the Bier 175
154. The Funeral Oration in the Forum 176
155. Family Tombs. The _Columbarium_ and the Garden 177
156. The Funeral Pyre and Its Ceremonies 180
157. Funeral Monuments. Memorial Feasts to the Dead 182
158. Funerals of the Poor. “Funeral Societies” 182
Chapter X. Children and Schooling
159. Theoretical Rights of Father over Children. The _Patria
Potestas_ 184
160. Ceremonies after Birth of a Child. The _Bulla_ 185
161. The Roman Name: Its Intricacy 186
162. Irregular and Lengthy Names under the Empire. Names
of Slaves 187
163. Names of Women. Confusion of Roman Names 188
164. Care of Parents in Educating Children 189
165. Toys and Pets 190
166. The Learning of Greek by Roman Children 191
167. Selection of a School 192
168. Extent of Literacy in Rome. Education of Girls 193
169. Schools for the Lower Classes 193
170. Scourging, Clamors, and Other Abuses of Cheap Schools 195
171. A Superior Type of School 196
172. Methods of Teaching 197
173. Training in Higher Arithmetic 199
174. The Grammarians’ High Schools 199
175. Oratory Very Fashionable 200
176. Professional Rhetoricians 201
177. Methods in Rhetoric Schools: Mock Trials 201
178. Enormous Popularity of Rhetoric Studies 203
179. Philosophical Studies: Delight in Moralizing 204
180. Children’s Games. “Morra” and Dice 204
181. Board Games of Skill: “Robbers” (_Latrunculi_) 205
182. Out-Door Games. Ball Games, Trignon 206
Chapter XI. Books and Libraries
183. Letters and Writing Tablets 207
184. Personal Correspondence and Secretaries 208
185. Books Very Common: Papyrus and the Papyrus Trade 209
186. Size and Format of Books 210
187. Mounting and Rolling of Books 211
188. Copying Books: the Publishing Business. Horace’s
and Martial’s Publishers 212
189. Passion for Literary “Fame” 214
190. Zeal for Poetry: Multiplication of Verses 216
191. Size of Libraries 217
192. A Private Library 218
193. The Great Public Libraries of Rome 219
Chapter XII. Economic Life of Rome: I. Banking,
Shops, and Inns
194. Passion for Gain in Rome 220
195. Life in Rome Expensive. Premiums upon Extravagance
and Pretence 221
196. Rome a City of Investors and Buyers of Luxuries 222
197. Multiplicity of Shops. The Great Shopping Districts 223
198. Arrangement of Shops. Streets Blocked by Hucksters 224
199. Barbers’ Shops and Auction Sales 225
200. Superior Retail Stores 226
201. Numerous Banks and Bankers 227
202. A Great Banker and His Business 228
203. Trust Business: Savings Banks 229
204. Places of Safe Deposit: The Temple of Vesta 230
205. Inns: Usually Mean and Sordid 231
206. Reckonings and Guests at a Cheap Inn 233
207. Noble Frequenters of Taverns 234
208. Respectable Eating-Houses 235
209. _Thermopolia_--“Hot Drink Establishments” 236
Chapter XIII. Economic Life of Rome: II. The
Industrial Quarters. The Grain Trade. Ostia.
The Trade Guilds
210. Industrial Quarters by the Tiber 238
211. Conditions of Industrial Labor 238
212. Great Trade through Ostia and the Campanian Ports 239
213. The Emporium and Its Wharves: The Tiber Barges 240
214. The Marble and Grain Trades 241
215. The Public Grain Doles 242
216. Distribution of Free Bread: Extraordinary Bonuses
(_Congiaria_ and _Donativa_) 244
217. The Trade in Sculptures and Portrait Statues 246
218. The Tiber Trip to Ostia: The Merchant Shipping 247
219. Imperial Naval Vessels 248
220. The Harbor Town of Ostia 249
221. The Roman Guilds (_Collegia_) 249
222. Very Ancient Guilds. The Flute-Blowers 250
223. Importance of the Guilds 251
224. Multitude of Beggars 252
Chapter XIV. The Fora, Their Life and Buildings.
The Daily Journal
225. The Fora, the Centers of Roman Life 254
226. Incessant Crowds at the Forum. The Centers of Gossip 256
227. Grandiose Architecture: Vast Quantities of Ornaments
and Statues 258
228. Use of Color on Sculptures and Architecture 259
229. Entering the Series of Fora: the Temple of Venus and
Rome 260
230. The Arch of Titus: Continuation of the Sacred Way 262
231. House and Temple of Vesta: the Regia: the Temple of the
Divine Julius 265
232. The Old Forum (_Forum Romanum_) 265
233. The Forum Area: the Posting of Public Notices 268
234. Western End of Forum: Rostra: the Golden Milestone:
the Tullianum Prison 269
235. The Basilica Æmilia: the Temple of Janus: the Senate
House (_Curia_) 271
236. The Basilica Julia, the Greatest Court House in Rome;
the _Lacus Curtius_ 272
237. The New Fora of the Emperors: the Temple of Peace 275
238. The Fora of Julius, Augustus, and Nerva 276
239. The Forum, Column, and Libraries of Trajan 278
240. The Park System of the Campus Martius: the Pantheon 280
241. The Daily Gazette (_Acta Diurna_). How Rome Gets Its
News 282
242. Contents of the Acta Diurna 283
243. Miscellaneous Entries and Gossip in the “Gazette” 284
Chapter XV. The Palatine and the Palace of the
Cæsars. The Government Offices, and the Police
and City Government of Rome
244. History of the Palatine: Its Purchase by Augustus 286
245. Extension of the Imperial Buildings: Central Position of
the Palatine 287
246. Commanding View from the Palatine Hill 288
247. Magnificence of the Palatine Structures 288
248. The More Famous Buildings on the Palatine: Enormous
Display of Art Objects 290
249. The Triclinium and Throne Room of Domitian 291
250. Swarms of Civil Officials Always on the Palatine 293
251. The Emperor Center of High Social Life 294
252. Friends of Cæsar (_Amici Cæsaris_) 295
253. The Imperial Audiences 296
254. Social Ruin through Imperial Disfavor 296
255. Enormous Value of Imperial Favor 298
256. City Government of Rome: the “City Præfect” (_Præfectus
Urbi_) 299
257. The Municipal Superintendents and Commissioners
(_Curatores_) 301
258. Excellent Water Supply of Rome 301
259. The Great Aqueducts 303
260. The Police System Instituted by Augustus 304
261. The Police-Firemen of the Watch (_Vigiles_). The
_Præfectus Vigilum_ 304
Chapter XVI. The Prætorian Camp. The Imperial
War Machine
262. The Army the Real Master of the Roman Empire 307
263. Army Held under Stiff Discipline and Concentrated
on Frontiers 308
264. The Prætorian Guard of the Emperors 309
265. The Prætorian Præfect and the Prætorian Camp 311
266. Organization and Discipline of the Prætorians 312
267. The City Cohorts (_Cohortes Urbanæ_) 313
268. A Private in the Legions. The Legionary Organization 314
269. Training of the Legionaries: the _Pilum_ and the
_Gladius_ 316
270. Defensive Weapons 318
271. Rewards and Punishments for Soldiers 319
272. Pay and Rations in the Army: Soldiers’ Saving Banks 320
273. The Training of Soldiers: Non-Military Labors 321
274. Petty Officers in the Legions 322
275. The Centurions: Their Importance and Order of Promotion 323
276. The _Primipilus_: the Great Eagle of the Legion 325
277. Locations and Names of Legions 326
278. The Auxiliary Cohorts: the Second Grand Division of the
Army 327
279. The Præfect of the Camps and the Legate of the Legion 328
280. Care for Veterans: Retiring Bonuses and Land Grants 329
281. Barrier Fortresses; System of Encampments; Flexible
Battle Tactics; Siege Warfare 330
282. Limited Size of the Imperial Army: Its Great
Efficiency 331
Chapter XVII. The Senate: A Session and a
Debate
283. Apparent Authority and Importance of the Senate 334
284. Actual Weakness of the Senate 335
285. Amount of Power Left to the Senate 336
286. Organization and Procedure of the Senate 337
287. The _Curia_ (Senate House) and Its Arrangement of
Benches 338
288. The Gathering of the Senators 339
289. Opening the Session: Taking the Auspices 340
290. Presentation of Routine Business: Taking a Formal Vote 341
291. Presenting an Impeachment at a Senate Trial 342
292. The Water Clocks; Method of a Prosecutor; Applause
in the Senate 344
293. Speech for the Defendant: Methods of a Professional
Advocate 345
294. Concluding Speeches; Interrupting Shouts; Personal
Invectives 347
295. Taking the Opinion of the Senate 348
296. An Uproar in the Senate: An “Altercation” 350
297. Taking a Vote of the Senate. A Sentence of Banishment 351
Chapter XVIII. The Courts and the Orators. The
Great Baths. The Public Parks and Environs of
Rome
298. Roman Court Procedure Highly Scientific 353
299. The Great Tribunals in the Basilicas 354
300. Great Stress on Advocacy 355
301. Cheap Pettifogging Lawyers 356
302. Character Witnesses; Torture of Slave Witnesses 357
303. Written Evidence; High Development of the Advocate’s
Art 357
304. Popularity and Necessity of the Baths 358
305. Luxurious Private Baths 359
306. Government and Privately Owned Public Baths: Both
Very Popular 360
307. The Great Baths of Trajan: Baths, Club-House, and Café 361
308. Heterogeneous Crowds in the Great Baths 362
309. Entering the Thermæ 363
310. Interior of the Baths: the Cold Room (_Frigidarium_) 364
311. The Great Swimming Pool and the _Tepidarium_ 365
312. The Hot Baths (_Caldaria_): Their Sensuous Luxury 366
313. Restaurants, Small Shops, and Sports in or around the
Baths 367
314. The Great Porticoes along the Campus Martius. The
Park System towards the Tiber 368
315. Public Buildings upon the Campus Martius 369
316. The Tombs of Hadrian and Augustus 370
Chapter XIX. The Public Games: the Theater,
the Circus, and the Amphitheater
317. Roman Festivals: Their Great Number 374
318. Passion for Public Spectacles: Mania for Gambling 375
319. Expenses of Public Spectacles to Great Officials 376
320. Indescribable Popularity of the Games 377
321. The Theater Less Popular than the Circus or Amphitheater 378
322. The Mimes: Character Plays 380
323. The Pantomimes: Their Real Art 381
324. Extreme Popularity of the Circus 382
325. Popular Charioteers (_Aurigæ_): the Great Racing
Factions 383
326. The Circus Maximus 384
327. The Race-Track: Procession before the Races 384
328. Beginning a Race in the Circus 386
329. Perils of the Races; Proclaiming the Victors 386
330. Gladiatorial Contests Even More Popular than the
Circus 389
331. Gladiator Fights at Funerals 390
332. Gladiator “Schools” (_Ludi_): Inmates Usually Criminals 390
333. Severe Training of Gladiators; Their Ephemeral Glory 392
334. Normal Arrangements for an Arena Contest 393
335. The Flavian Amphitheater (Later “Colosseum”) 394
336. Exterior and Ticket Entrances to the Flavian
Amphitheater 396
337. Interior Arrangements of the Flavian 396
338. Procession of Gladiators 397
339. Throwing a Criminal to the Beasts. The Animal Hunt 398
340. Interval in the Contests: Scattering of Lottery Tickets 399
341. Beginning the Regular Gladiatorial Combats 401
342. Mounted Combats: the Signals for Ruthlessness and Mercy 403
343. Combats between Netters (_Retiarii_) and Heavy-Armed
Warriors (“Thracians”) 404
344. End of the Combats: Rewarding the Victors 405
Chapter XX. The Roman Religion: the Priesthoods,
the Vestal Virgins
345. Religious Symbols Everywhere in Rome 407
346. Epicureanism and Agnosticism among the Upper Classes 407
347. Stoicism: Revival of Religion under the Empire 408
348. Foreign Cults Intruded upon the “Religion of Numa” 410
349. Superstitious Piety of the City Plebeians 411
350. Roman Religion Originally Developed by Italian Farmers 411
351. Native Italian Gods: Janus, Saturn, Flora. The Lares
and Penates 413
352. Personified Virtues as Gods: Cold and Legalistic Character
of the Roman Religion 414
353. Priestly Offices: Little Sacrosanct about Them 416
354. The Pontifices 417
355. The Augurs 418
356. The Flamens 420
357. The _Salii_ (“Holy Leapers”) 421
358. The _Fetiales_ (“Sacred Heralds”): Ceremony of Declaring
War 422
359. The Arval Brethren (_Fratres Arvales_) 423
360. Rustic Ceremonies; Soothsaying, Astrologers, and
Witches 424
361. A Private Sacrifice 425
362. Ceremony at the Temple 426
363. A Formal Prayer: the Actual Sacrifice 428
364. The Vestal Virgins: Their Sanctity and Importance 429
365. The Temple of Vesta and the House of the Vestals 431
366. Appointment of Vestals 432
367. Duties of the Vestals: the Maxima 433
368. Punishments of Erring Vestals 434
369. Remarkable Honors Granted the Vestals 435
Chapter XXI. The Foreign Cults: Cybele, Isis,
Mithras. The Christians in Pagan Eyes
370. Saturnalia: the Exchange of Presents on New Year’s Day 437
371. Multiplication of Oriental Cults 437
372. The Cult of the Deified Emperors 439
373. The “Divine Augustus” and His Successors 439
374. The Cult of Cybele, the “Great Mother” 441
375. Cult of Isis and Associated Egyptian Gods 442
376. Ceremonies at an Isis Temple 443
377. Cult of Serapis and of Other Oriental Gods 445
378. The Cult of Mithras: Its Relative Nobility 445
379. The _Taurobolium_ (“Bath in Bull’s Blood”) 447
380. The Christians: Pagan Account of Their Origin 449
381. The Persecution of Christians: Their “Insane Obstinacy” 450
382. Current Charges against the Christians 451
Chapter XXII. A Roman Villa. The Love of the
Country
383. Appreciation of Country Life by the Romans 453
384. Praises of the Country Towns and Villas 453
385. Comfortable Modes of Travel: Luxurious Litters
and Carriages 454
386. Multiplication of Villas: Seashore Estates at Baiæ, etc. 456
387. Villas in the Mountains; Small Farms near Rome 457
388. Great Estates in the Hills: Pliny’s Tuscan Villa 458
389. Charming Location of Pliny’s Villa 460
390. Terraces of the Villa: the Porticoes: Summer-Houses
and Bedrooms 462
391. The Baths: the Rear Apartments: the Riding Course 464
392. The Fountains and Luxurious Pavilions in the Gardens 465
393. Life of Sensuous Luxury at Such a Villa. Contrast in
Human Conditions under the Roman Régime 466
Chapter XXIII. The Return of the Emperor
394. Character of Hadrian: Prosperity and Good Government
of His Reign 468
395. Return of Hadrian to Italy 469
396. Imperial Procession Entering Rome 470
397. Hailing the Emperor 472
398. The Donatives, Fêtes, and Games 472
399. A Christian Gathering 473
INDEX 475
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Interior of Great Public Baths in Imperial Rome _Frontispiece_
Map of Rome in the Days of Hadrian 6
Capitoline Hill and Temples as seen from Palatine 8
Typical Temple Front 12
Arch of Constantine 13
Street in Pompeii 16
Stepping Stones across a Side Street 17
Street Scene before a Cook-Shop 19
Shrine at the Crossways 20
Monument of a Wine Seller 28
Tenants Paying Rent to a Landlord’s Agent 38
Atrium of House in Pompeii 41
Plan of a Roman Mansion 43
Interior of a Roman Mansion 44
Scene in a Peristylium 45
Roman Type of House at Pompeii 46
Corner in a Garden in Rear of a Roman House 48
Portrait Bust--Pompey the Great 52
Typical Roman Portrait--Marc Antony 53
Roman Lamps 55
Altar with Design of a Curule Chair 56
A Roman Matron 62
Wedded Pair with _Camillus_ 76
Seated Noblewoman 77
Romans wearing the Toga 81
A Roman Matron: showing the _stola_ and _palla_ 87
Scene before a Barber’s Shop 91
Roman Female Heads 92
Sandals 95
Roman Jewelry and Ornaments 96
Roman Banquet Scene 101
Grist Mill turned by Horse 103
Nine Guests in a Triclinium 116
Roman Serving Forks 117
Drinking Cup 118
Slaves working in a Bakery 131
Clients gathering in the Rain, before their Patron’s Door 149
Invalid with Attendants 162
Scene along the Appian Way 178
Pyramid--Tomb of Gaius Cestius 179
View along the Appian Way showing Funeral Monuments 180
Street of the Tombs at Pompeii 181
Boy Studying 194
School Discipline 196
Grammarian instructing Two Upper Pupils 200
Wax Tablet with Stilus Attached 207
Writing Tablets and Stilus 208
Book Cupboard 209
Book Container 210
Double Inkstand 210
Pen and Scroll 211
Book Scroll 212
Old Forum, looking towards Northern Side: restoration 216
Tradesmen’s Scales and Balances 224
Monument of a Hostler 231
Gateway at Pompeii: present state 232
Cheap Grocery and Cook-Shop 235
River Boat Loaded with Hogsheads of Wine 241
Distributing Bread 243
Oven and Grist Mill in a Bakery 245
Environs of Rome 247
General View of Old Forum and Capitol 254
Old Forum: present state, looking towards the Capitol 255
The Heart of Rome; the Fora, the Palatine, etc. 261
Spoils from Jerusalem: Arch of Titus 263
View through the Arch of Titus 264
Old Forum: looking west. Restoration 266
Old Forum, looking towards Capitol. Restoration 267
Old Forum, present condition, looking east 270
Interior of a Basilica: restored 273
The Tarpeian Rock 275
Forum of Augustus and Temple of Mars the Avenger: restored 277
An Imperial Forum, near the Column of Trajan. Restoration 279
Interior of the Pantheon. Restoration 281
Arch of Titus 287
Palatine and Palace of the Cæsars. Restoration 289
Roman Urn 290
Cæsar Augustus 298
Ruined Aqueduct in the Roman Campagna 302
Prætorian Guardsmen 310
A Slinger 315
Roman Siege Works. Restoration 316
Storming a City with the _Testudo_ 317
Catapult 318
Cuirass 319
Javelin: _pilum_ 320
Sword 320
Helmet 321
Shield of the Legionary 322
Military Trumpet 323
Legionaries 324
Roman Officer 325
Light-Armed Soldier 327
Storming a Besieged City 331
Coop of Sacred Chickens 341
Cicero denouncing Catiline before the Senate 346
Plan of Roman Public Baths 363
Castle of St. Angelo: Tomb of Hadrian in its present state 371
Tomb of Hadrian. Restored 372
At the Theater Entrance 376
Theater at Pompeii 379
Circus Maximus. Restoration 385
Race in the Circus Maximus 388
Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum): present state 395
Boxers 400
Gladiators saluting the Editor 402
Defeated Gladiator Appealing for Mercy 403
Maison Carrée, Nîmes 408
Farmer’s Calendar 413
Circular Temple, probably of Goddess Matuta, Rome 415
Roman Altar 425
A Military Sacrifice 427
Roman Altar 428
Vestal Virgin 430
Archi-Gallus, Priest of Cybele 441
Shrine of Cybele 442
Mithras the Bull Slayer 446
Mithraic Emblems 447
Traveling Carriage (_Reda_) 454
Roman Bridge 455
Roman Spades 458
Ruins of Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli (_Tibur_) 459
Ruins of Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli (_Tibur_) 460
Villa of Pliny the Younger; restored 461
Roman Garden Scene 463
Marble Urn or Garden Ornament 464
Hadrian 469
View in the Christian Catacombs 473
A DAY IN OLD ROME
CHAPTER I
THE GENERAL ASPECT OF THE CITY
=1. The Prosperity of Rome in the Reign of Hadrian= (117–138 A.D.).--In
the year 134 A.D. the great Emperor Hadrian was turning his steps back
to Rome after three long journeys of inspection over his enormous
dominions. Never before had that Empire seemed so prosperous. No
serious war was upon the horizon. The Parthian king and the Germanic
chiefs were only too happy to keep beyond the Euphrates or the Rhine
and the Danube, highly respectful before the disciplined power of the
guardian legions.
In the provinces there was generally loyalty and contentment, save
only in unhappy Judæa where the Roman generals were stamping out
the last embers of a desperate rebellion, undertaken by those Jews
allowed to remain in Palestine after Titus’s capture of Jerusalem
(70 A.D.). The imperial government created by Augustus and
strengthened by later emperors appeared an unqualified success, while
the tyrannies of Nero and Domitian were becoming things merely of
frightened memory.
All over this vast Empire with a population and area nearly equal to
that of the United States there reigned the blessed _Pax Romana_.
Robbers had been cleared from the roads and pirates from the seas.
Commerce went to and fro with surprisingly little interference from
customs barriers or provincial boundaries. The same coin was current
from the cataracts of the Nile to the Caledonian Wall across Britain.
A scientific system of law, on the whole administered with remarkable
firmness and justice, prevailed between the same wide boundaries.
The central government was, indeed, in essence a despotism, but it was
a despotism infused with an extreme intelligence, and it left many of
the forms of liberty, especially of local liberty, in the municipal
matters which touch men nearest home. The Emperor Hadrian, himself,
although sometimes guilty of eccentricities and even harshness, was, in
the main, a ruler singularly intent upon benefiting his subjects. In
all his constant travels he had showered favors upon the communities
which he visited. It was as if he (and his great predecessor Trajan)
had set out to justify monarchy as an ideal government by showing how
much good monarchs could do to the governed.
=2. Increasing Glory of the Imperial City.=--All this prosperity
had inevitably reacted upon the city of Rome itself. In a most literal
sense of the word “all roads led to Rome,” not merely the vast network
of government highways and the paths of maritime commerce, but those of
intellectual, artistic, and moral influence. Rome was incomparably the
best market for the merchant, it provided the largest audiences for the
philosopher or rhetorician, the wealthiest patrons for the sculptor. It
had, in fact, become the common center and crucible for everything good
and bad in the huge, teeming Mediterranean World.
Outwardly the city was near the summit of its architectural perfection.
In Cicero’s day it could not compare in the elegance of its squares
and avenues, and the magnificence of its buildings with Alexandria,
Antioch, or several lesser cities which lay at the mercy of the
legions; but with the coming of the Empire there has been an incessant
process of demolishing, rebuilding, and extending. “I found Rome
built of brick; I leave it built of marble,” Augustus had boasted when
near his end (14 A.D.). However, even after him, there had been only a
gradual transformation until the great fire of Nero in 64 A.D. Terrible
as has then been the devastation, the calamity has at least required
a general rebuilding of almost half of the city usually upon a much
handsomer and more artistic scale. Since then each succeeding Emperor
has tried to leave some great architectural memorial behind him.
Vespasian and Titus have built the Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum),
Trajan a noble Forum, and Hadrian is now completing a magnificent
“Temple of Venus and Rome.”
After this time there will perhaps be a few more remarkable structures
erected, _e.g._ the Baths of Caracalla and of Diocletian and the
Basilica (Court House) of Constantine, but for practical purposes
imperial Rome has now been created. In 134 A.D. it is already
architecturally what it will be in 410 A.D. (except then for a certain
decadence) when Alaric’s Goths knocked at the gates. There is,
therefore, hardly a better time than this year, 134 A.D., to visit
the “Eternal City,” if we would discuss the best and the worst, the
strength and the weakness of that Roman society which is to hold men
fascinated across the ages. Let it be assumed, therefore, that on a
warm spring morning we are being guided about the enormous capital of
which bronze-skinned Arabs and blond-haired Frisians alike speak in
awestruck whispers; the city apparently ordained by the gods to be the
center and ruler of the conquered world.
=3. Population and Crowded Condition of Rome.=--Before entering
such a metropolis it is a fair question to present: “How large is
Rome, at this time of our supposed visit?” Unfortunately the imperial
government will fail to transmit to later ages its census statistics,
and the conjectures of learned men will vary most seriously. By
taking into account some data as to the number of citizens receiving
grain doles, by adding to these the known size of the garrison, by
establishing the extent of a great colony of resident foreigners and
the still greater hordes of slaves, assertions can be made that the
population exceeds 2,000,000, and again that it is barely 800,000.
Both reckonings may be quite wrong. It seems reasonable to suppose
that in Julius Cæsar’s day the city lacked considerably of 1,000,000
inhabitants, but these probably increased with the rising prosperity
of the Empire. Hadrian’s “City Praefect” perhaps has to administer the
peace for some 1,500,000 people. In later generations, however, the
population will again slowly dwindle with the wave of the imperial
system.
However, this million and a half produces a sense of immensity greater
perhaps than that in a later New York or London. Rome is, roughly
speaking, some three miles long and nearly the same in breadth, no
remarkable area as American cities will go;[1] but, as duly explained,
population within these limits is extraordinarily congested. The
streets overflow with pedestrians to the exclusion of most wheeled
traffic. There are no “rapid transit” cars, no taxicabs, no telephones,
and even no public postal service.
If, therefore, you have the slightest business across the city, you
must walk the entire distance, or be borne in a litter or send a
messenger--methods taking about equally long. As will be seen, even
the use of horses and carriages is largely prohibited. Besides, the
mild climate and method of building the houses compel people to spend
a great fraction of their day in the streets, or in the public plazas
and buildings. Human life teems everywhere. One is overwhelmed by
the jostling multitudes even in the remoter quarters. Everything
(including many personal acts which other ages keep in strict privacy)
seems going on in public. There is, in fact, no city where it is easier
to be “lost in a crowd” than in Rome; no city where the good and the
bad, the divine and the bestial in humanity are so incessantly in
evidence and in such abrupt contact.
=4. The Country around Rome.=--Rome is some thirteen miles from the
nearest seacoast, but the distance down the twisting “yellow” Tiber to
Ostia (“River Mouth”) is nearly twice as great. The city itself lies
near the northerly end of that broad plain later called the Campagna
which stretches southeasterly for nearly seventy miles but whereof the
width betwixt ocean and Apennines seldom exceeds twenty-five. Looking
off from any of the heights of Rome towards the east, the whole horizon
from north to south seems traced by a continuous chain of mountains
about ten to twenty miles distant. Very beautiful they are when seen
through a soft blue or golden haze beneath the Italian sky; and by
facing straight north one can discover the round isolated peak of
Mount Soracte (2420 feet high), made famous by the poets, near whose
southeastern base the Tiber winds on its tortuous progress towards the
sea.
Then following the line of mountains southward one can notice the chain
of the Sabine hills, some with peaked and lofty summits, and next is
discovered the spot where the Tiber rests embosomed in its gray olive
groves. More southward still are the hills on whose slopes rests “Cool
Præneste,” and then, running over a horizon of four or five miles and
ending in the plain, is beheld the noble form of Mount Albinus, the
isolated volcanic peak sacred to the Latin Jupiter and at whose base by
tradition lay Alba Longa, the parent town of Rome; after that the view
takes in nothing but the undulating plain, which at length sinks off
into the sea.
[Illustration:
Map of ROME
in the Days of Hadrian
about 135 A.D.]
=5. The Tiber and Its Valley.=--Near at hand, of course, is the
Campagna itself, a series of gentle ridges, covered at this epoch with
one long series of delightful suburban villas and thrifty produce
farms, sometimes grouped into rich little villages.[2] In a general
direction of north to south the Tiber flows along the western skirts of
Rome, with only a minor settlement on the western banks. If it ran by
a less famous city, the Tiber would pass for a rather ordinary stream.
Its yellow, turbid waters come with such force from the Apennines
that there can be little navigation for part of the year beyond the
point where the Anio flows into it from the east, about three miles
above Rome. Grain and timber can, however, be floated down on barges,
and when the mountain snows are melting the river swells to a truly
dangerous size, flooding all the lowlands near the city and sometimes,
despite a careful system of dykes, causing freshets which are simply
ruinous to large sections of the metropolis inhabited by the very
poor. The Emperors Augustus and Tiberius set up a regular board of
“Tiber Commissioners” to keep the rebellious river in bounds, but their
efforts are still often vain.
Between Rome and Ostia the Tiber is indeed navigable at most seasons
for the smaller kind of vessels, but, as will be seen, Rome is scarcely
a first-class seaport; however, special river craft easily bring up
heavy freight from Ostia--an enormous economic advantage for the great
city.
=6. A View over Rome from the Campus Martius.=--Before descending into
the city it is well to ascend some height or lofty building well to the
western verge of the _Campus Martius_ (“Field of Mars”) at the great
bend of the Tiber as it sweeps by its levees. Before the onlooker there
spreads what seems at first an indescribable confusion of enormous
buildings, gilded roofs, stately domes, serried phalanxes of marble
columns and far-stretching porticoes, some on level ground, others
upon the summits or clinging to the slopes of several hills. Mixed
with these are an incalculable number of red-tiled roofs obviously
covering more humble private structures. Here and there, mostly on
the outskirts, are also broad patches of greenery, public parks, and
private gardens.
After more study, however, the first confusion begins to adjust itself
into a kind of order. It is possible, for example, to recognize
directly in the foreground a small and comparatively abrupt hill
crowned at either end by temples of peculiar magnificence. This is
the _Capitol_, particularly the seat of the fane of _Jupiter Optimus
Maximus_ (“Jupiter Best and Greatest”), officially the chief temple
of Rome. Beyond it at a certain distance rises a gray cylinder of
enormous bulk. That, of course, is the _Flavian Amphitheater_, and
in the hollow between it and the capitol but nigh concealed by many
structures stretches the _Old Forum_ of the Republic--the most famous
spot in Rome. To the south of the Forum, and in no wise concealed,
lifts another hill covered with a vast complex of buildings, which,
even when seen in the distance, is of extraordinary splendor. This is
the _Palatine_, the present residence of the Cæsars and the seat of the
government.
[Illustration: CAPITOLINE HILL AND TEMPLES AS SEEN FROM
PALATINE: restored according to Von Falke.]
Just to the south and right of the Palatine there runs a long hollow,
the edges of which flash with settings of marble; it is the _Circus
Maximus_, the chief race course. These are the structures or
localities that stand out clearly at first glance. Close at hand,
in the Campus Martius itself, is a perfect labyrinth of covered
promenades, dome-capped public baths, theaters, and circuses, as well
as the remarkable _Pantheon_ and other far-famed structures, the
details whereof can wait. Behind the onlooker is winding the Tiber,
spanned by at least eight bridges; and across the river, before the
view wanders off into the hills of Etruria, are seen numerous suburban
settlements and heights whereof the most conspicuous is that around
_Mount Janiculum_ crested with verdant gardens. But our attention
must be centered upon Rome itself. Before descending from the coign of
vantage it is needful to distinguish her Seven Hills.
=7. The Seven Hills of Rome.=--The two most famous of these hills (the
_Capitoline_ and the _Palatine_) have been named already, but they
have five distinguished rivals. Probably in prehistoric days all these
“mountains” rose like separate islands from a treacherous marsh or
even from a lake connected with the Tiber; but long since they have
silted down, and presently man came to add his drains and channels.
They are now, therefore, connected by valleys which are crammed with
habitations, although in any case the most desirable residences are
near the summits of the hills and the humble folk are compelled to live
in the gulleys. Each of these hills has a history: for example, the
Aventine is alleged to have remained apart from the others for long
after the founding of the city, merely as a fortified outpost for the
protection of shepherds; but we cannot stop to recite pleasant legends.
The “Seven Hills” of Rome have really become eight, as the city has
extended. Not one of these is lofty, but they give a diversity to the
city that prevents the great masses of blank walls and of ungainly
tenement houses lining most of the streets from becoming too ugly,
and they secure light and air to many quarters that are grievously
congested.
These hills can be thus catalogued:
1. _Capitoline_, about 150 feet above sea level.[3]
2. _Palatine_ (S. E. of Capitoline), about 166 feet high.
3. _Aventine_ (South of Palatine), about 146 feet high.
4. _Cœlian_ (East of Palatine), about 158 feet high.
5. _Esquiline_ (North of Cælian), about 204 feet high.
6. _Viminal_ (North of Esquiline), about 160 feet high.
7. _Quirinal_ (N. E. of Capitoline), about 170 feet high.
To the familiar “seven” ought to be added the hill of the great
northern suburb.
8. _Pincian_, or “Hill of the Gardens” (North of Quirinal),
about 204 feet high.
Highest of all rises the _Janiculum_ beyond the Tiber, 297 feet
high; commanding a noble prospect over the city and the whole Campagna
beyond. It formed, therefore, in the olden days, a very proper place
for the fort with its watch-tower and its sentinel, when Rome dreaded
an Etruscan raid from the north, and when the citizens dropped their
tools to seize their weapons the minute the “flag on Janiculum” was
struck as signal that the foe was at hand.
=8. Building Materials Used in Rome.=--The most cursory view of
the city gives an overwhelming impression of the _enormous quantities
of building material_, as well as of the expenditure of human labor
which has gone into the creation of Rome. Strabo the geographer[4]
has wisely observed that it is lucky that the city can get a constant
supply of stone, timber, etc., on account of “the ceaseless building
which is rendered needful by the pulling down of houses and on account
of the great fires and constant sales of [house] property,” everybody
being incessantly scrapping old buildings, erecting new ones, and
speculating generally in real estate.
Of course, the great public buildings are erected with extremely
durable materials which will defy the assaults of time, but the
vast districts of ugly tenement houses are often thrown together
in as flimsy a manner as those in the least elegant quarters of
American cities of another age. However, there are almost no wooden
houses in Rome; and for the better structures there is provided most
excellent building stone. The standard masonry is of _tufa_,
a soft red or black stone needing a stucco to protect it from the
weather; for superior work there is dark brown _peperino_, golden
_travertine_, and last but not least, for the finest buildings,
white and many colored _marble_. The marble trade, as will be
explained, is, in fact, one of the greatest commercial activities of
the city.
=9. The Great Use of Concrete.=--Going about Rome one is led to
imagine, however, that many very pretentious structures are of solid
brick. This is seldom the case. Bricks and tiles are often in evidence
because they can be worked into the face of naturally ugly concrete to
disguise the nakedness of its surfaces. _Concrete_ has really made
it comparatively easy to create Rome as an enormous city. If concrete
has not been invented by the Romans, they are at least the first great
people to put it to a very general use. In their neighborhood can
be found huge quantities of _pozzolana_,[5] a volcanic deposit
which can be readily worked up into admirable cement. It is this very
practical material which makes the vast domes, cupolas, and other
architectural triumphs possible. Many a pretentious temple or residence
flaunts a marble exterior; this, however, is a mere shell and covering;
strip it away, and within is an enormous mass of concrete.
This material can be handled by comparatively small labor gangs,
rendering it feasible to erect huge structures without mobilizing such
wholesale man-power as was needed for the great monuments of Egypt.
It is very durable, almost nothing can destroy it. Indeed it will be
written later that “This _pozzolana_ [for concrete] more than any
other material contributed to make Rome the proverbial ‘Eternal City.’”
[Middleton.]
=10. Greek Architectural Forms Plus the Arch and Vault.=--Every
building by the Tiber apparently bears the impress of Greece. Greek
architects are said to have designed many of the finest public
edifices, while Greek artists have chiseled the statues or painted the
pictures which all the Roman world admires. The “orders” of the columns
everywhere in evidence are the Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian that one
might find at Athens, although it can be complained that the Romans are
over-fond of the most ornate form--the florid Corinthian.
[Illustration: TYPICAL TEMPLE FRONT.]
In general, lovers of the purer architectural types of Hellas may
allege that Roman architecture and ornamentation is too elaborate and
extravagant. There are too many scrolls and floriated designs. Every
possible surface is covered with statuary or bas-reliefs, often in
decidedly inferior taste. There is too garish a display, also, of blue,
green, white, and orange-colored marble. The whole effect of most Roman
buildings is, therefore, _grand rather than beautiful_. It is the
architecture of a civilization apparently growing a little weary and
striving to startle itself by remarkable effects.
[Illustration: ARCH OF CONSTANTINE: typical of many
triumphal arches: date about 315 A.D.]
Nevertheless, this borrowing from Greece has not been slavish.
Romans, if not great artists, are master adapters. Perhaps they have
not invented the _arch_ and the _vault_,[6] but in any case they
have utilized them in connection with the Greek system of columns to
produce magnificent effects whereof Argos and Ephesus never dreamed.
By concrete vaulting can be made those enormous substructures which
sustain the great palaces, and again, the lofty domes of such splendid
creations as the Pantheon. By the arches can be upheld the tiers of the
Flavian Amphitheater, the pretentious company of theaters and circuses,
and last but not least the long arrays of stately aqueducts which bring
the great water supply so many miles to Rome. Underground also the
arch system is upbearing the vast network of sewers which has redeemed
the city from a quagmire. In the _fora_ and across many avenues are
thrown in their turn the imposing _triumphal arches_, crowned with
heroic statues or with prancing chariots which are unmatched by
anything in Greece.
Having taken in the generalities, it is now proper to go down from our
viewpoint and plunge boldly into the vast city. The wise man should
not, however, visit at first the Fora, the Palatine, and the other
“show places” which officious guides here as everywhere are always glad
to display to visitors. More helpful it is to examine at the outset
certain typical streets first in a poor and next in a more aristocratic
quarter, to enter the houses, and to penetrate the daily lives of the
masses of the people. Then with better understanding can one approach
the famous “Heart of Rome.”