[Sidenote: [323-321 B.C.]]
When the empire of Alexander was parcelled out among his generals, the
most desirable lot perhaps was that which fell to the share of Ptolemy.
That astute general chose Egypt for his portion, and despite the efforts
of his rivals, he was able, thanks in part to the isolated geographical
position, to retain it, and ultimately to become its recognised sovereign
and the founder of a dynasty of kings which was to hold unbroken sway
there for the long period of three hundred years.
Ptolemy, besides being an excellent general, was evidently a man of
rather wide culture and varied attainments. His capacities have been
sometimes accounted for by the suggestion that he was probably in fact
the half-brother of Alexander the Great, as his mother had been a
concubine of Philip; though his royal paternity, if indeed a fact, was
never officially recognised. Be that as it may, Ptolemy was a man of
great ability as a ruler, and his general culture is evidenced by the
fact that he wrote a history of the life and campaigns of Alexander,
which work, as we have already seen, was one of the two chief sources
from which the history of Arrian was compiled.
The first Ptolemy founded, and his successors enlarged and extended, the
famous Alexandrian library, which came to be by far the most important
collection of books that had probably been gathered together anywhere in
the world up to that time, comprising, it is said, no fewer than half a
million manuscripts. In connection with the library was an institution
which was virtually a college, where the most distinguished scholars of
the day studied and taught. The language and the entire official life
thus transplanted into Old Egypt were of course Grecian. All official
connection with the mother country was soon utterly broken; the kingdom
of the Ptolemies, as a political factor, was a thing quite apart; but
in the broader sense the new Egyptian power was essentially Greek.
Alexandria, the new Athens, became the centre of Greek life, thought,
and influence; it was there, rather than to Athens itself, that the
youth flocked from the provinces to drink at that fount of Grecian
culture which still maintained its influence in the world for generations
after the original Hellas had been shattered in power and shorn of all
political significance.
But the time came when the Egyptian empire also was to come in conflict
with the Romans. The tragic romance of Cleopatra, the last daughter of
the Ptolemies, is known to every one, though curiously enough the patent
fact is often overlooked that this “daughter of the Nile” was in no
proper sense an Egyptian, but to the last drop of her blood a Macedonian
Greek, bearing the name even of one of the wives of the father of
Alexander the Great. It was this Egyptian empire of the Ptolemies, then,
which served as the direct channel of transit of the old Grecian culture
to Rome, somewhat as Persia had been the channel of transit of Egyptian
and Babylonian culture to Greece. It was a curious and interesting
revival through which Egypt, which for some centuries had ceased to play
an important part in the great game of the nations, came to be again the
centre of culture of the entire world, even though this time it bore an
exotic and not an indigenous culture.
But though this empire of the Ptolemies had thus a vastly greater
importance than the other portions of Alexander’s dismembered empire, we
shall treat its history somewhat briefly here, since we must necessarily
return to some phases of it more in detail in pursuing the history of
that Roman power by which the kingdom of the Ptolemies was finally
overthrown.[a]
THE KINGDOM OF THE PTOLEMIES: THE THIRTY-THIRD EGYPTIAN DYNASTY[d]
YEARS BEGAN B.C.
Lagus or Soter reigned 38 323
Philadelphus 38 285
Euergetes 25 247
Philopator 17 222
Epiphanes 24 204
Philometor 35 181
Physcon or Euergetes II 29 146
Soter II or Lathyrus 10 117
Alexander I (Soter deposed) 18 107
Soter II restored 7 89
Berenice 6 months 81
Alexander II 6 months 80
Neus Dionysus or Auletes 14 80
Ptolemy the Elder 4 51
Ptolemy the Younger 3 48
Cleopatra 14 44
Egypt a Roman province 30
When Egypt was given to Ptolemy by the council of generals, Cleomenes was
at the same time and by the same power made second in command, and he
governed Egypt for one year before Ptolemy’s arrival, that being in name
the first year of the reign of Philip Arrhidæus, or, according to the
chronologer’s mode of dating, the first year after Alexander’s death. The
first act of Ptolemy was to put Cleomenes to death.
[Sidenote: [321-316 B.C.]]
Perdiccas, in the death of Cleomenes and the seizure of the body of
Alexander, had seen quite enough proof that Ptolemy, though too wise to
take the name of king, had in reality grasped the power; and he now led
the Macedonian army against Egypt, to enforce obedience and to punish the
rebellious lieutenant.
Perdiccas attempted to cross the Nile at the deep fords below Memphis.
Part of his army passed the first ford, though the water was up to the
men’s breasts. But they could not pass the second ford in the face of
Ptolemy’s army. After this check, whole bodies of men, headed by their
generals, left their ranks; and among them Pithon, a general who had held
the same rank under Alexander as Perdiccas himself, and who would no
longer put up with his haughty commands. Upon this the disorder spread
through the whole army, and Perdiccas soon fell by the hand of one of his
own soldiers.
On the death of their leader, all cause of war ceased. Ptolemy sent corn
and cattle into the camp of the invading army, which then asked for
orders from him who the day before had been their enemy. The princes,
Philip Arrhidæus and the young Alexander, both fell into his hands; and
he might then, as guardian in their name, have sent his orders over the
whole of Alexander’s conquests. But, by grasping at what was clearly out
of his reach, he would have lost more friends and power than he would
have gained; and when the Macedonian phalanx, whose voice was law to the
rest of the army, asked his advice in the choice of a guardian for the
two princes, he recommended to them Pithon and Arrhidæus; Pithon, who had
just joined him, and had been the cause of the rout of the Macedonian
army, and Arrhidæus, who had given up to him the body of Alexander.
[Illustration: BACCHANALIAN FIGURE
(After Hope)]
The Macedonian army, accordingly, chose Pithon and Arrhidæus as
guardians, and as rulers with unlimited power over the whole of
Alexander’s conquests; but though none of the Greek generals who now held
Asia Minor, Syria, Babylonia, Thrace, or Egypt, dared to acknowledge it
to the soldiers, yet in reality the power of the guardians was limited
to the little kingdom of Macedonia. With the death of Perdiccas, and the
withdrawal of his army, Phœnicia and Cœle-Syria were left unguarded, and
almost without a master; and Ptolemy, who had before been kept back by
his wise forethought rather than by the moderation of his views, sent an
army under the command of Nicanor, to conquer those countries. Jerusalem
was the only place that held out against the Egyptian army; but Nicanor,
says the historian Agatharchides, seeing that on every seventh day the
garrison withdrew from the walls, chose that day for the assault, and
thus gained the city. What used to be Egypt was an inland kingdom,
bounded by the desert; but Egypt under Ptolemy was a country on the
seacoast; and on the conquest of Phœnicia and Cœle-Syria he was master
of the forests of Libanus and Antilibanus, and stretched his coast from
Cyrene to Antioch, a distance of twelve hundred miles.
The wise and mild plans which were laid down by Alexander for the
government of Egypt, when a province, were easily followed by Ptolemy
when it became his own kingdom. The Greek soldiers lived in their
garrisons or in Alexandria under the Macedonian laws; while the Egyptian
laws were administered by their own priests, who were upheld in all the
rights of their order and in their freedom from land tax.
While Egypt under Ptolemy was thus enjoying the advantages of its
insulated position, and was thereby at leisure to cultivate the arts of
peace, the other provinces were being harassed by the unceasing wars of
Alexander’s generals, who were aiming like Ptolemy at raising their own
power.
[Sidenote: [316-311 B.C.]]
Antigonus, in his ambitious efforts to stretch his power over the whole
of the provinces, had by force or treachery driven Seleucus out of
Babylon, and forced him to seek Egypt for safety, where Ptolemy received
him with the kindness and good policy which had before gained so many
friends. No arguments of Seleucus were wanting to persuade Ptolemy that
Antigonus was aiming at universal conquest, and that his next attack
would be upon Egypt. He therefore sent ambassadors to make treaties of
alliance with Cassander and Lysimachus, who readily joined him against
the common enemy.
Ptolemy crossed over to Cyprus to punish the kings of the little states
on that island for having joined Antigonus; for now that the fate of
empires was to be settled by naval battles the friendship of Cyprus
became very important to the neighbouring states. He landed there with
so large a force that he met with no resistance. He added Cyprus to the
rest of his dominions. He banished the kings, and made Nicocreon governor
of the whole island. From Cyprus, Ptolemy landed with his army in upper
Syria, and then marching hastily into Asia Minor he took Mallus, a city
of Cilicia. Having rewarded his soldiers with the booty there seized, he
again embarked and returned to Alexandria. This inroad drew off the enemy
from Cœle-Syria.
Ptolemy, on reaching Alexandria, set his army in motion towards Pelusium,
on its way to Palestine. He was met at Gaza by the young Demetrius with
an army of eleven thousand foot and twenty-three hundred horse, followed
by forty-three elephants and a body of light-armed barbarians, who, like
the Egyptians in the army of Ptolemy, were not counted. But the youthful
courage of Demetrius was no match for the cool skill and larger army
of Ptolemy; the elephants were easily stopped by iron hurdles, and the
Egyptian army, after gaining a complete victory, entered Gaza, while
Demetrius fled to Azotus. Ptolemy, in his victory, showed a generosity
unknown in ancient warfare; he not only gave leave to the conquered army
to bury their dead, but sent back the whole of the royal baggage which
had fallen into his hands, and also those personal friends of Demetrius
who were found among the prisoners. By this victory the whole of Phœnicia
was again joined to Egypt, and Seleucus regained Babylonia.
When Antigonus, who was in Phrygia on the other side of his kingdom,
heard that his son Demetrius had been beaten at Gaza, he marched with
all his forces to give battle to Ptolemy. Ptolemy did not choose to risk
his kingdom against the far larger forces of Antigonus. Therefore, with
the advice of his council of generals, he levelled the fortifications
of Acca, Joppa, Samaria, and Gaza, and withdrew his forces and treasure
into Egypt, leaving the desert between himself and the army of Antigonus.
Antigonus then led his army northward, leaving Egypt unattacked.
[Sidenote: [311-306 B.C.]]
This retreat was followed by a treaty of peace between these generals,
by which it was agreed that each should keep the country that he then
held; that Cassander should govern Macedonia until Alexander Ægus, the
son of Alexander the Great, should be of age; that Lysimachus should
keep Thrace, Ptolemy Egypt, and Antigonus Asia Minor and Palestine; and
each wishing to be looked upon as the friend of the soldiers by whom his
power was upheld and the whole of these wide conquests kept in awe, added
the very unnecessary article that the Greeks living in each of these
countries should be governed according to their own laws.
All the provinces held by these generals became more or less Greek
kingdoms, yet in no one did so many Greeks settle as in Lower Egypt.
Though the rest of Egypt was governed by Egyptian laws and judges, the
city of Alexandria was under Macedonian law. It did not form part of
the nome of Hermopolites in which it was built. It scarcely formed a
part of Egypt, but was a Greek state in its neighbourhood, holding the
Egyptians in a state of slavery. In that city no Egyptian could live
without feeling himself of a conquered race. He was not admitted to the
privileges of Macedonian citizenship; while they were at once granted to
every Greek, and soon to every Jew, who would settle there.
By the treaty just spoken of, Ptolemy, in the thirteenth year after the
death of Alexander, was left undisputed master of Egypt. During these
years he had not only gained the love of the Egyptians and Alexandrians
by his wise and just government, but had won their respect as a general
by the skill with which he had kept the war at a distance. He had lost
and won battles in Syria, in Asia Minor, in the island of Cyprus, and at
sea; but since Perdiccas marched against him, before he had a force to
defend himself with, no foreign army had drunk the sacred waters of the
Nile.
The next year Ptolemy, finding that his troops could hardly keep their
possessions in Cilicia, carried over an army in person to attack the
forces of Antigonus in Lycia. He gained the whole southern coast of Asia
Minor.
[Sidenote: [306-280 B.C.]]
While Ptolemy was busy in helping the Greek cities of Asia to gain their
liberty, Menelaus, his brother and admiral, was almost driven out of
Cyprus by Demetrius. On this Ptolemy got together his fleet, to the
number of 140 long galleys and two hundred transports, manned with not
less than ten thousand men, and sailed with them to the help of his
brother. This fleet under the command of Menelaus was met by Demetrius
with the fleet of Antigonus, consisting of 112 long galleys and a number
of transports; and the Egyptian fleet, which had hitherto been master of
the sea, was beaten near the city of Salamis in Cyprus by the smaller
fleet of Demetrius. This was the heaviest loss that had ever befallen
Ptolemy. Eighty long galleys were sunk, and forty long galleys with one
hundred transports and eight thousand men were taken prisoners. He could
no longer hope to keep Cyprus, and he sailed hastily back to Egypt,
leaving to Demetrius the garrisons of the island as his prisoners, all
of whom were enrolled in the army of Antigonus, to the number of sixteen
thousand foot and six hundred horse.
This naval victory gave Demetrius the means of unburdening his proud mind
of a debt of gratitude to his enemy; and accordingly, remembering what
Ptolemy had done after the battle of Gaza, he sent back to Egypt, unasked
for and unransomed, those prisoners who were of high rank, that is to
say, the whole that had any choice about which side they fought for; and
among them were Leontiscus the son, and Menelaus the brother of Ptolemy.
Antigonus was overjoyed with the news of his son’s victory. By lessening
the power of Ptolemy, it had done much to smooth his own path to the
sovereignty of Alexander’s empire, which was then left without an heir;
and he immediately took the title of king, and gave the same title to his
son Demetrius. In this he was followed by Ptolemy and the other generals,
but with this difference--that while Antigonus called himself king of all
the provinces, Ptolemy called himself king of Egypt; and while Antigonus
gained Syria and Cyprus, Ptolemy gained the friendship of every other
kingdom and of every free city in Greece; they all looked upon him as
their best ally against Antigonus, the common enemy.
The next year Antigonus mustered his forces in Cœle-Syria, and got ready
for a second attack upon Egypt. The pride of Antigonus would not let him
follow the advice of the sailors, and wait eight days till the north
winds of the spring equinox had passed; and by this haste many of his
ships were wrecked on the coast, while others were driven into the Nile
and fell into the hands of Ptolemy. Antigonus himself, marching with the
land forces, found all the strong places well guarded by the Egyptian
army; and, being driven back at every point, discouraged by the loss of
his ships and by seeing whole bodies of his troops go over to Ptolemy, he
at last took the advice of his officers and led back his army to Syria,
while Ptolemy returned to Alexandria, to employ those powers of mind in
the works of peace which he had so successfully used in war.
[Illustration: GREEK VASE
(In the British Museum)]
Antigonus then turned the weight of his mighty kingdom against the little
island of Rhodes. The galleys of Ptolemy, though unable to keep at sea
against the larger fleet of Demetrius, often forced their way into the
harbour with the welcome supplies of corn. Month after month every
stratagem and machine which the ingenuity of Demetrius could invent were
tried and failed; and after the siege had lasted more than a year he was
glad to find an excuse for withdrawing his troops; and the Rhodians in
their joy hailed Ptolemy with the title of Soter or “saviour.” This name
he ever afterwards kept, though by the Greek writers he is more often
called Ptolemy the son of Lagus, or Ptolemy Lagus.
The next of Ptolemy’s conquests was Cœle-Syria; and soon after this
the wars between these successors of Alexander were put an end to by
the death of Antigonus, whose overtowering ambition was among the
chief causes of quarrel. This happened at the great battle of Ipsus in
Phrygia, where they all met, with above eighty thousand men in each army.
Antigonus king of Asia Minor was accompanied by his son Demetrius, and
by Pyrrhus king of Epirus; and he was defeated by Ptolemy king of Egypt,
Seleucus king of Babylon, Lysimachus king of Thrace, and Cassander king
of Macedonia; and the old man lost his life fighting bravely. After the
battle, Demetrius fled to Cyprus, and yielded to the terms of peace which
were imposed on him by the four allied sovereigns. He sent his friend
Pyrrhus as a hostage to Alexandria; and there this young king of Epirus
soon gained the friendship of Ptolemy and afterwards his step-daughter in
marriage. Ptolemy was thus left master of the whole of the southern coast
of Asia Minor and Syria--indeed of the whole coast of the eastern end of
the Mediterranean, from the island of Cos on the north to Cyrene on the
south.
During these formidable wars with Antigonus, Ptolemy had never been
troubled with any serious rising of the conquered Egyptians; and perhaps
the wars may not have been without their use in strengthening his throne.
[Sidenote: [304-285 B.C.]]
Ptolemy’s first children were by Thais the noted courtesan, but they were
not thought legitimate. Leontiscus, the eldest, we afterwards hear of,
fighting bravely against Demetrius; of the second, named Lagus after his
grandfather, we hear nothing. He then married Eurydice the daughter of
Antipater, by whom he had several children. The eldest son, Ptolemy, was
named Ceraunus, “the thunderbolt,” and was banished by his father from
Alexandria. In his distress he fled to Seleucus, by whom he was kindly
received; but after the death of Ptolemy Soter he basely plotted against
Seleucus and put him to death. He then defeated in battle Antigonus the
son of Demetrius, and got possession of Macedonia for a short time.
He married his half-sister Arsinoe, and put her children to death; he
was soon afterwards put to death himself by the Gauls, who were either
fighting against him or were mercenaries in his own army. His Macedonian
coins, with the name of Ptolemy Ceraunus, prove that he took the name
himself, and that it was not a nickname given to him for his ungovernable
temper, as has been sometimes thought.
Another son of Ptolemy and Eurydice was put to death by Ptolemy
Philadelphus, for plotting against his throne, to which, as the elder
brother, he might have thought himself the best entitled. Their daughter
Lysandra married Agathocles the son of Lysimachus; but when Agathocles
was put to death by his father, she fled to Egypt with her children, and
put herself under Ptolemy’s care. Next he married Berenice, a lady who
had come into Egypt with Eurydice, and had formed part of her household.
She was the widow of a man named Philip; and she had by her first husband
a son named Magas, whom Ptolemy made governor of Cyrene, and a daughter,
Antigone, whom Ptolemy gave in marriage to Pyrrhus, when that young king
was living in Alexandria as hostage for Demetrius.
With Berenice Ptolemy spent the rest of his years without anything to
trouble the happiness of his family. He saw their elder son Ptolemy, whom
we must call by the name which he took late in life, Philadelphus, grow
up everything that he could wish him to be; and, moved alike by his love
for the mother and by the good qualities of the son, he chose him as his
successor on the throne, instead of his eldest son Ptolemy Ceraunus, who
had shown, by every act in his life, his unfitness for the trust. His
daughter Arsinoe married Lysimachus in his old age, and urged him against
his son Agathocles, the husband of her own sister. She afterwards married
her half-brother Ptolemy Ceraunus; and lastly we shall see her the wife
of her brother Philadelphus. Argæus, the youngest son of Ptolemy, was
put to death by Philadelphus, on a charge of treason. Of his youngest
daughter Philotera we know nothing, except that her brother Philadelphus
afterwards named a city on the coast of the Red Sea after her.
After the last battle with Demetrius, Ptolemy had regained the island of
Cyprus and Cœle-Syria, including Judea; and his throne became stronger as
his life drew to an end.
His last public act, in the thirty-eighth year of his reign, was ordered
by the same forbearance which had governed every part of his life.
Feeling the weight of years press heavily upon him, that he was less
able than formerly to bear the duties of his office, and wishing to see
his son firmly seated on the throne, he laid aside his diadem and his
title, and without consulting either the army or the capital, proclaimed
Ptolemy, his son by Berenice, king, and contented himself with the modest
rank of somatophylax, or satrap, to his successor.
PTOLEMY PHILADELPHUS
[Sidenote: [285-245 B.C.]]
One of the chief troubles in the reign of Philadelphus was the revolt
of Cyrene. The government of that part of Africa had been entrusted to
Magas, the half-brother of the king, a son of Berenice by her former
husband. Berenice, who had been successful in setting aside Ceraunus to
make room for her son Philadelphus on the throne of Egypt, has even been
said to have favoured the rebellious and ungrateful efforts of her elder
son Magas to make himself king of Cyrene.
After the war between the brothers had lasted some years, Magas made
an offer of peace, which was to be sealed by betrothing his only child
Berenice to the son of Philadelphus. To this offer Philadelphus yielded;
as by the death of Magas, who was already worn out by luxury and disease,
Cyrene would then fall to his own son. Magas, indeed, died before the
marriage took place; but, notwithstanding the efforts made by his widow
to break the agreement, the treaty was kept, and on this marriage Cyrene
again formed part of the kingdom of Egypt.
But the black spot upon the character of Philadelphus, which all the
blaze of science and letters by which he was surrounded cannot make us
overlook, is the death of two of his brothers.
Philadelphus had, when young, married Arsinoe the daughter of Lysimachus
of Thrace, by whom he had three children--Ptolemy, who succeeded him,
Lysimachus, and Berenice; but, having found that his wife was intriguing
with Amyntas, and with his physician Chrysippus of Rhodes, he put these
two to death, and banished the queen Arsinoe to Coptos in the Thebaid.
He then took Arsinoe his own sister as the partner of his throne. She had
married first the old Lysimachus king of Thrace, and then Ceraunus her
half-brother, when he was king of Macedonia. As they were not children of
the same mother, this second marriage was neither illegal nor improper
in Macedonia; but her third marriage, with Philadelphus, could only be
justified by the laws of Egypt, their adopted country. They were both
past the middle age, and whether Philadelphus looked upon her as his wife
or not, at any rate they had no children. Her own children by Lysimachus
had been put to death by Ceraunus, and she readily adopted those of
her brother with all the kindness of a mother. This seeming marriage,
however, between brother and sister did not escape blame with the Greeks
of Alexandria. The poet Sotades, whose verses were as licentious as his
life, wrote some coarse lines against the queen, for which he was forced
to fly from Egypt, and being overtaken at sea he was wrapped up in lead
and thrown overboard.
In the Egyptian inscriptions Ptolemy and Arsinoe are always called “the
brother-gods”; on the coins they are called Adelphi, “the brothers”; and
afterwards the king took the name of Philadelphus, or “sister-loving,” by
which he is now usually known.
The wars between Philadelphus and his great neighbour Antiochus Theos
seem not to have been carried on very actively, though they did not
wholly cease till Philadelphus offered as a bribe his daughter Berenice,
with a large sum of money under the name of a dower. Antiochus was
already married to Laodice, whom he loved dearly, and by whom he had two
children, Seleucus and Antiochus; but political ambition had deadened
the feelings of his heart, and he agreed to declare this first marriage
void and his two sons illegitimate, and that his children, if any should
be born to him by Berenice, should inherit the throne of Babylon and the
East. The peace between the two countries lasted as long as Philadelphus
lived, and was strengthened by kindnesses which each did to the other.
Philadelphus was of a weak frame of body, and had delicate health; and
though a lover of learning beyond other kings of his time, he also
surpassed them in his unmeasured luxury and love of pleasure.
He reigned over Egypt, with the neighbouring parts of Arabia; also over
Libya, Phœnicia, Cœle-Syria, part of Ethiopia, Pamphylia, Cilicia,
Lycia, Caria, Cyprus, and the isles of the Cyclades. The island of
Rhodes and many of the cities of Greece were bound to him by the ties of
friendship, for past help and for the hope of future. The wealthy cities
of Tyre and Sidon did homage to him, as before to his father, by putting
his crowned head upon their coins. The forces of Egypt reached the very
large number of two hundred thousand foot and twenty thousand horse, two
thousand chariots, four hundred Ethiopian elephants, fifteen hundred
ships of war, and one thousand transports. Of this large force, it is not
likely that even one-fourth should have been Greeks; the rest must have
been Egyptians and Syrians, with some Gauls.
These large forces were maintained by a yearly income, equally large, of
fourteen thousand eight hundred talents, or two millions and a quarter
pounds sterling, besides the tax on corn, which was taken in kind, of
a million and a half of artabas, or about five millions of bushels. To
this we may add a mass of gold, silver, and other valuable stores in the
treasury, which were boastfully reckoned at the unheard-of sum of seven
hundred and forty thousand talents, or above one hundred million pounds
sterling.
The trade down the Nile was larger than it had ever been before; the
coasting trade on the Mediterranean was new; the people were rich and
happy; justice was administered to the Egyptians according to their own
laws, and to the Greeks of Alexander, according to the Macedonian laws;
the navy commanded the whole of the eastern half of the Mediterranean;
the schools and library had risen to a great height upon the wise plans
of Ptolemy Soter; in every point of view Alexandria was the chief city in
the world. Athens had no poets or other writers during this century equal
in merit to those who ennobled the Museum. Philadelphus, by joining to
the greatness and good government of his father the costly splendour and
pomp of an eastern monarch, so drew the eyes of after ages upon his reign
that his name passed into a proverb.
Needless to say, the civilisation of this time was essentially Greek. The
main body of writers and scholars of the period naturally gave the stamp
of this culture to the epoch. Yet the old civilisation of Egypt must have
reacted upon the intruders in many ways.
Philadelphus died in the thirty-eighth year of his reign, leaving the
kingdom as powerful and more wealthy than when it came to him from his
father; and he had the happiness of having a son who would carry on, even
for the third generation, the wise plans of the first Ptolemy.
PTOLEMY EUERGETES
Ptolemy, the eldest son of Philadelphus, succeeded his father on the
throne of Egypt, and after a short time took the name of Euergetes. He
began his reign with a Syrian war; for no sooner was Philadelphus dead
than Antiochus, who had married Berenice only because it was one of
the articles of the treaty with Egypt, sent her away together with her
young son. Antiochus then recalled his first wife, Laodice, and she,
distrusting her changeable husband, had him at once murdered to secure
the throne to her own children. Seleucus, the eldest, seized the throne
of Syria; and, urged on by his mother, sent a body of men after Berenice,
with orders to put her to death, together with her son, who by the
articles of marriage had been made heir to the throne.
[Sidenote: [245-222 B.C.]]
The cities of Asia Minor hastily sent help to the queen and her son,
while Ptolemy Euergetes, her brother, who had just come to the throne
of Egypt, marched without loss of time into Syria. But it was too late
to save them; they were both put to death by the soldiers of Seleucus.
Many of the cities, moved by hatred of their king’s cruelty, opened their
gates to the army of Euergetes; and, had he not been recalled to Egypt
by troubles at home, he would soon have been master of the whole of the
kingdom of Seleucus. As it was, he had marched beyond the Euphrates, had
left an Egyptian army in Seleucia the capital of Syria, and had gained a
large part of Asia Minor. On his march homeward, he laid his gifts upon
the altar in the temple of Jerusalem, and there returned thanks to heaven
for his victories. He had been taught to bow the knee to the crowds of
Greek and Egyptian gods; and, as Palestine was part of his kingdom, it
seemed quite natural to add the god of the Jews to the list.
No sooner had Euergetes reached home than Seleucus, in his turn, marched
upon Egypt, and sent for his brother Antiochus Hierax, to bring up his
forces and to join him. But before Antiochus could come up the army
of Seleucus was already beaten; and Antiochus, instead of helping his
brother in his distress, strove to rob him of his crown. Instead of
leading his army against Euergetes, he marched upon Seleucus, and by the
help of his Gallic mercenaries beat him in battle. But the traitor was
himself soon afterwards beaten by Eumenes, king of Bithynia, who had
entered Syria in the hope that it would fall an easy prey into his hands
after being torn to pieces by civil war. Antiochus, after the rout of his
army, fled to Egypt, believing that he should meet with kinder treatment
from Euergetes, his enemy, than after his late treachery he could hope
for from his own brother. But he was ordered by Euergetes to be closely
guarded, and when he afterwards made his escape he lost his life in his
flight by the hands of Celtic assassins, as already related.
Euergetes, finding himself at peace with all his neighbours on the coasts
of the Mediterranean, then turned his arms towards the south. He easily
conquered the tribes of Ethiopia, whose wild courage was but a weak
barrier to the arms and discipline of the Greeks; and made himself for
the moment master of part of the highlands of Abyssinia, the country of
the Hexumitæ.
Euergetes did not forget his allies in Greece, but continued the yearly
payment to Aratus, the general of the Achæan League, to support a
power which held the Macedonians in check; and when the Spartans under
Cleomenes tried to overthrow the power of the Achæans, Euergetes would
not help them. Euergetes had married his cousin Berenice, who, like the
other queens of Egypt, is also called Cleopatra; by her he left two
sons, Ptolemy and Magas, to the elder of whom he left his kingdom, after
a reign of twenty-five years of unclouded prosperity. Egypt was during
this reign at the very height of its power and wealth. It had seen three
kings, who, though not equally great men, not equally fit to found a
monarchy or to raise the literature of a people, were equally successful
in the parts which they had undertaken. Euergetes left to his son a
kingdom perhaps as large as the world had ever seen under one sceptre,
and though many of his boasted victories were like letters written in the
sand, of which the traces were soon lost, yet he was by far the greatest
monarch of his day.
But here the bright pages in the history of the Ptolemies end. Though
trade and agriculture still enriched the country, though arts and letters
did not quit Alexandria, we have from this time forward to mark the
growth of only vice and luxury, and to measure the wisdom of Ptolemy
Soter by the length of time that his laws and institutions were able to
bear up against the misrule and folly of his descendants.
PTOLEMY PHILOPATOR
[Sidenote: [222-216 B.C.]]
[Illustration: A GREEK MAIDEN]
Nothing is known of the death of Ptolemy Euergetes, and there is no proof
that it was by unfair means. But when his son began a cruel and wicked
reign by putting to death his mother and brother, and by taking the name
of Philopator, or father-loving, the world seems to have thought that he
was the murderer of his father, and had taken this name to throw a cloak
over the deed. Unfortunately history is not free from acts of successful
wickedness. By this murder of his brother, and by the minority both of
Antiochus king of Syria and of Philip king of Macedonia, Philopator found
himself safe from enemies either at home or abroad, and he gave himself
up to a life of thoughtlessness and pleasure. The army and fleet were
left to go to ruin, and the foreign provinces, which had hitherto been
looked upon as the bulwarks of Egypt, were only half guarded; but the
throne rested on the virtues of his forefathers, and it was not till his
death that it was found to have been undermined by his own vices.[c]
At the instigation of his minister, Sosibius, he caused his brother Magas
to be murdered, lest he might endeavour to secure the kingdom to himself.
The death of Cleomenes, the exiled king of Sparta, who had been protected
and provided for by the preceding king, soon followed. Antiochus the
Great, who at this time ruled in Syria, perceiving the disorder and
licentiousness which prevailed in the court of Egypt, thought it a
favourable time to declare war against that country. Ptolemy, who seems
not to have lacked courage, roused himself for the emergency, collected a
great army, and proceeded to meet the enemy. In the beginning of the war,
Antiochus obtained some advantages over the Egyptian troops: but shortly
after, in a great battle fought at Raphia near Gaza, he was completely
defeated, with great loss; and Ptolemy obtained a large extension of
influence in Palestine and Syria. Humbled by this defeat, and alarmed
at the progress of Achæus in Asia Minor, Antiochus was anxious to
make peace with Ptolemy; and the Egyptian king, although he had every
inducement to prosecute the war, being equally anxious to return to his
licentious pleasures, was ready to receive his overtures. A peace was in
consequence concluded, by which Cœle-Syria and Palestine were confirmed
as belonging to Egypt. This being done, Ptolemy went to Jerusalem, where
he was well received, and treated the inhabitants kindly, until, having
made a fruitless attempt to enter the inner sanctuary, he retired from
the city threatening the whole nation of the Jews with extermination.
It does not appear that he dared to assail the sacred city; but, on
returning to Egypt, he published a decree which he caused to be engraved
on a pillar erected at the gate of his palace, excluding all those who
did not sacrifice to the gods whom he worshipped. By this means the
Jews were virtually outlawed, being prevented from suing to him for
justice, or from claiming his protection. But this was not the extent of
his infliction. By another decree he reduced them from the first rank
of citizens, to which they had been raised by the favour of Alexander,
to the third rank. They were in consequence degraded so far as to be
enrolled among the common people of Egypt.
[Sidenote: [216-170 B.C.]]
During this reign the Romans, being again at war with Carthage, sent
ambassadors to Egypt, to renew their ancient friendship, who brought
magnificent presents to Ptolemy and his queen.
EPIPHANES
At the death of Philopator, 204 B.C., Ptolemy Epiphanes, being then a
child of five years old, ascended the throne. In the early part of his
reign another Roman embassy visited Egypt, when the king’s counsellors
took the opportunity of placing the young prince under the guardianship
of the powerful republic. The senate of Rome accepted the charge, and
sent Marcus Lepidus to act as guardian--a trust which, after a short stay
in Egypt, he conferred upon Aristomenes, an Acarnanian, who discharged
the duties of this important office with integrity and ability for
several years, until the king had attained the age of fourteen, when,
according to the usage of the country, he was entitled to take the
administration of the kingdom into his own hands. The folly of investing
a person so young with absolute power, was in this instance made fully
apparent. The youth, who had been universally popular whilst under the
direction of Aristomenes, was no sooner enthroned than he placed himself
under the influence of worthless men, by whose advice he was led to the
adoption of measures through which great disorders were introduced into
every branch of the government; and at length his former able and honest
minister was put to death.
Epiphanes married Cleopatra, daughter of Antiochus the Great. This
marriage appears to have taken place when the young king was about
seventeen years old. It is generally supposed that he was taken off by
poison, administered by his nobles, to prevent him from entering on a war
with Syria to which he had committed himself, when the national finances
were so low that they feared they should have to contribute largely
towards the expenses of the contest. He left two sons, Philometor and
Physcon; and a daughter, Cleopatra, who was successively married to her
two brothers.
PHILOMETOR AND PHYSCON
[Sidenote: [170-146 B.C.]]
Philometor, the elder of the two sons, then but six years old, was placed
on the throne under the guardianship of his mother Cleopatra, who for
eight years conducted the affairs of the kingdom with great judgment
and success. After her death, Lenæus, a nobleman of distinction, and
Eulæus, a eunuch, were charged with the government of the country. One of
their earliest measures was to insist on the restoration of Cœle-Syria
and Palestine to Egypt,--these provinces having been wrested from the
dominion of Egypt by the power of Antiochus the Great. This demand led
to a violent contest, which tended more than any preceding event to
demonstrate the rapid decline of Egyptian power, and the rising sway of
Rome.
The Syrian army, under the command of Antiochus Epiphanes, prosecuted
the war with such vigour and success that it penetrated to the walls
of Alexandria, and actually secured the person of the Egyptian king.
Whether he was taken in war, or placed himself willingly in the hands of
the Syrian king, does not clearly appear. But, however this may be, the
Syrian monarch gained little by his acquisition. For although he induced
Philometor to enter into a treaty with him, this was instantly disallowed
by the nation, who, regarding a sovereign in the power of an enemy as
lost to his country, immediately raised Physcon, the king’s brother, to
the throne. This led to a second Syrian invasion, which resulted in the
expulsion of Physcon; Antiochus restoring Philometor to the government,
but retaining Pelusium, the key to the country, in the possession of
Syrian troops. From this and other indications of the Syrian king’s
intentions, Philometor rightly judged that it was his design, by setting
the two brothers in continued collision with each other, to retain Egypt
virtually in his own power. Acting on this judgment, Philometor invited
his brother to terms of reconciliation, which, by the aid of their sister
Cleopatra, was happily effected.
The measures adopted by the two brothers to restore Egypt to an
independent and prosperous condition, induced Antiochus again to march
an army into that country. He was on this occasion, however, compelled,
by the prompt and energetic interference of the Romans, to abandon the
enterprise. By agreement between the two brothers, they were to reign
jointly; but they were no sooner freed from the danger of foreign
aggression, than they began to quarrel between themselves. This quickly
produced an open rupture, in which Physcon succeeded in driving his
brother out of the kingdom. He was, however, soon after restored by
the power of Rome, which at the same time assigned Libya and Cyrene to
Physcon. New disputes arose, and various contests took place between
them, in all of which Rome regarded herself as entitled to act as the
paramount ruler of Egypt, and to award the sovereignty according to her
will.
Philometor was soon after provoked into a war with Alexander Balas, who
had been raised to the throne of Syria mainly by his support. In the
prosecution of this contest, the king of Egypt marched into Syria, where
he completely routed the army of Alexander near Antioch, but died, a few
days after, from wounds received in the battle. He left behind him a
high reputation for wisdom and clemency. It was in his reign, and by his
favour and that of his queen Cleopatra, that the Jews under Onias were
permitted to build the famous Jewish temple at Heliopolis.
[Sidenote: [146-107 B.C.]]
On the death of her husband, Cleopatra endeavoured to secure the crown
for their son; but some of the leading men inclined towards Physcon,
and invited him from Cyrene, where he then reigned, into Egypt. The
queen raised an army to oppose him, and a civil war was imminent, when
an accommodation was arranged, through the mediation of Rome, by which
Physcon married Cleopatra, who was his sister and his brother’s widow, on
the understanding that they were to reign with joint authority, and that
Cleopatra’s son by Philometor should be declared next heir to the crown.
This agreement was no sooner completed than it was violated. On the day
of his marriage Physcon murdered the son of Philometor in the arms of
his mother, and commenced a career of iniquity and slaughter of which
this was a fitting prelude. He indeed assumed the name of Euergetes,
“benefactor,” which the Alexandrians changed into Kakergetes, “the
evil-doer”--an epithet which he justly merited; for he was the most cruel
and wicked, most despicable and vile, of all the Ptolemies. To the Jews
he evinced unmitigated enmity and cruelty, because they had espoused the
cause of Cleopatra. He then divorced Cleopatra, his wife, and married her
daughter, of the same name, who was his own niece; but not before he had
subjected the young princess to the vilest indignity.
[Illustration: HEAD-DRESSES]
Such conduct excited the disgust of his subjects, and, accompanied as it
was with excessive cruelty, produced a revolt which drove him from the
kingdom. He, however, succeeded in recovering his position, and at length
died in the sixty-seventh year of his age, having reigned twenty-nine
years.
It is a fact as singular as unaccountable, that this most licentious
and bloody prince, whose name is infamous, as associated with almost
every crime, is notwithstanding celebrated by the most respectable
ancient writers as a great restorer of learning, a patron of learned
men, and withal an author of some celebrity himself. Physcon left three
sons--Apion, by a concubine, and Lathyrus and Alexander by his wife
Cleopatra. By his will he left the kingdom of Cyrene to Apion, and the
crown of Egypt to his widow in conjunction with either of her sons whom
she should choose. In the exercise of this discretionary power the
queen would have preferred Alexander, the younger son; but this was so
distasteful to the people that she was compelled to admit Lathyrus to the
joint sovereignty, and place Alexander in the kingdom of Cyprus. After
reigning ten years, the former prince was obliged to leave Egypt, to
which his brother immediately returned; Lathyrus repairing to Cyprus, and
taking upon himself the government of that country. It was at this period
that Lathyrus invaded Judea, then governed by Alexander Jannæus, and
obtained such advantages over him that the Jewish state was only saved
from ruin by the aid sent to it by Cleopatra from Egypt.
[Sidenote: [107-48 B.C.]]
In the meantime the younger brother, Alexander, having for nearly
eighteen years, while bearing the name of “king,” submitted as a slave to
the violent and capricious will of his mother, became quite weary of her
intolerable tyranny, and put her to death. This fact being made public,
he was driven from the throne, and Lathyrus, or Soter II, restored;
he reigned seven years longer. During this period the ruin of Thebes
took place. Lathyrus, freed from the power of his rival, undertook to
restore the government of the kingdom to its former state. This led to an
insurrection, of which Thebes was the centre. That ancient city not only
refused to submit to the prescribed laws, but even struggled to regain
its lost independence. The effort was vain. The king, having defeated the
rebels in several battles, besieged Thebes, which, having held out for
three years, was at length subdued, and so devastated that this noble
capital was never afterwards repaired, and consequently sank into ruin.
ROMAN INTERFERENCE
Lathyrus was succeeded by his only legitimate child, Cleopatra, whose
proper name was Berenice. This princess, however, had scarcely assumed
the sovereignty, when she was called to submit to the dictation of Roman
power. Sulla, then perpetual dictator of the imperial city, no sooner
heard of the death of Lathyrus, than he conferred the crown of Egypt on
Alexander, a son of the king of that name who had been driven out of the
country for having murdered his mother. The Alexandrians succeeded in
persuading Alexander to marry Berenice, and reign jointly with her. This
he did, but in nineteen days afterwards caused her to be murdered. He,
however, continued on the throne, and reigned fifteen years in a manner
which might be expected from the atrocity of the commencement. At length
the people, worn out by his exactions and goaded to desperation by his
cruelties, rose with common consent, and drove him from the throne. He
made some fruitless efforts to induce Pompey to aid him to recover his
crown, but died a few months after his expulsion, in banishment at Tyre.
PTOLEMY AULETES; CLEOPATRA AND THE END
The Egyptians, having driven out this tyrant, selected a natural son
of Ptolemy Lathyrus to fill the vacant throne. This prince, by a gift
of six thousand talents (£1,200,000 or $6,000,000) to Julius Cæsar and
Pompey, was recognised as king of Egypt in alliance with Rome. He was
named Ptolemy Auletes, “the Flute-player”; but took on himself the title
of Neus Dionysus, “the new Bacchus.” He was a fit representative of the
fallen condition of the Egyptian state. More effeminate than any of his
predecessors, priding himself on dancing in a female dress in religious
processions, he was at the same time equal to his grandfather Physcon
in the violence and viciousness of his conduct. After some time he was,
like his predecessor, expelled from the throne. He succeeded, however,
by immense gifts, in inducing Gabinius, the Roman governor of Syria, to
attempt his restoration, which was at length accomplished; Archelaus,
who had been invested with the government, having been defeated and
slain by the Romans. Auletes was thus restored to the throne, and died
in peaceable possession of his dignity about four years after his
restoration.
Auletes on his restoration had put to death his daughter Berenice; and
at his demise left two daughters, Cleopatra and Arsinoe, and two sons.
The first of these, Ptolemy the elder, otherwise called Dionysus II,
was, according to his father’s will, married to his eldest sister, then
about seventeen years old; and the juvenile couple were invested with
the sovereignty of Egypt, under the protection of the Roman republic. It
appears that this most celebrated Egyptian princess evinced considerable
vigour and talent, even at that early age. So clever, indeed, was she,
that the ministers who had been placed in charge of the national affairs
were very anxious to get rid of her, and at length deprived her of her
share in the sovereignty, and expelled her from the kingdom. Cleopatra,
however, had a spirit equal to the occasion. She retired into Syria,
raised an army, and in a short time marched upon Pelusium, prepared to
dispute with her brother the sovereignty of the nation. It was while the
hostile armies of the brother and sister lay within sight of each other,
that Pompey, after the loss of the battle of Pharsalia, reached Egypt,
expecting protection and support, but was put to death by the ministers
of Ptolemy. Soon after this event, Julius Cæsar arrived in pursuit of his
rival, and was presented with Pompey’s head and his ring.
[Sidenote: [48-30 B.C.]]
Cleopatra, whose licentiousness was quite equal to her talent and energy,
caused herself to be secretly conveyed to Cæsar’s quarters, where
she succeeded in captivating that mighty conqueror, and commenced an
intimacy which resulted in the birth of a son, called, after his father,
Neocæsar. The scandal of this conduct enabled Ptolemy and his ministers
to rouse the public spirit of the Alexandrians, and of Lower Egypt
generally, against the mighty Roman, to such an extent that he was placed
in most imminent peril. Cæsar, however, disposed the handful of soldiers
which he had with him in such a manner as to keep the Egyptians in check,
until the arrival of Mithridates with large reinforcements, when he
defeated the Egyptian forces with great slaughter. In the course of this
conflict Ptolemy was drowned in the Nile.
Cæsar soon adjusted the affairs of Egypt to his own mind, placing
Cleopatra on the throne. But as the Egyptians had a great antipathy to
female sovereignty, he compelled Cleopatra to submit to the farce of
marrying her younger brother, a lad eleven years old. She, however,
held the power in her own hand until he reached the age of fourteen,
when by the laws of the country he was entitled to enter upon the
joint administration of affairs. She then caused him to be poisoned.
Arsinoe, who had been carried to Rome by Julius Cæsar, and compelled to
walk, bound in chains of gold, before his triumphal chariot, was also
assassinated at the instigation of Cleopatra.
The death of Cæsar convulsed the whole empire of Rome and all its
dependencies, and swept away the last feeble figment of Egyptian
monarchy and independence. On this occasion Cleopatra instantly decided
to support the triumvirs against the murderers of Julius. On a charge
of being unfaithful to this purpose, she was summoned to appear before
Antony at Tarsus. Confident in the power of her charms, she obeyed,
and effectually seduced that great captain. In fact, so besotted was
he by this intercourse, that he neglected his affairs, and at length
was so completely ruined that, having inflicted on himself a mortal
wound, he died in the arms of his wanton mistress. Cleopatra had two
sons by Antony, and soon after his decease she shared the fate which
she had brought on him. To avoid being made a spectacle at the triumph
of Augustus, as he was proof against her seductive charms, she procured
her own death in some unknown way; tradition says by the bite of an asp.
Egypt then became a province of the Roman empire, and continued in this
state until the birth of Christ, and long afterwards.[d]
[Illustration]
[Illustration]