decision which in effect outlawed racial segregation in the public
schools of the nation, Virginia faced a very serious problem because
the State Constitution has required separate public schools for
white and for Negro children in the Commonwealth. Governor Thomas B.
Stanley soon appointed a commission of thirty-two state legislators,
under the chairmanship of State Senator Garland Gray, to advise him
concerning a course of action to be taken by the Commonwealth. The
commission conducted a study and subsequently transmitted to the
Governor its report, known as the Gray Plan. The plan recommended
consideration of an amendment to the constitutional provision
requiring separate schools and suggested that local communities be
enabled through their school boards to assign students to schools
for a variety of reasons other than race. Subsequently, a special
session of the General Assembly authorized a referendum election on
the calling of a constitutional convention. The referendum question
was worded as follows: "Should a Constitutional Convention be called
with authority to revise Section 141 of the State Constitution so
as to permit the General Assembly to appropriate public funds to
further the education of Virginia students in non-sectarian private
schools as well as in public schools?" A majority of the voters
voted in the affirmative at the referendum election held in January
1956. In March 1956 a Constitutional Convention was held in Richmond
and these delegates rewrote Section 141; hence it became permissible
under the Constitution of the Commonwealth to use public funds for
tuition grants for pupils in private non-sectarian schools. Later,
at a special session of the General Assembly in September 1956,
a pupil placement program was adopted under which the Governor
appointed a pupil placement board whose chief function was to handle
all student assignments in the state; under the program, parents of
all children entering the public schools were required to fill out
assignment applications which, in turn, were ultimately processed
through the board.
In 1958, legislation provided for the automatic closing of any
school which might be policed by the federal government and
permitted the Governor to close any school in a locality in which
another school was already being so policed. The admission of
any Negro student to a public school for white students required
the Governor to close the school and assume full control.
Subsequently, federal court orders directed school boards in
Arlington, Charlottesville and Norfolk to admit students without
regard to race, effective September 1958; following state law, the
pupil placement board denied admission to Negro applicants in the
localities mentioned previously; the local school boards in these
areas and in Warren County initiated action to admit Negro students,
pursuant to federal court order. However, the Governor announced
the closing of the high school in Warren County, and similar action
was taken in Charlottesville and in Norfolk. During the Fall
semester of 1958, a total of nine schools (one in Warren County
and eight in Norfolk and Charlottesville) were closed to 13,000
students, many of whom transferred elsewhere. When court decisions
in January 1959 voided the school closing law, the law cutting off
state funds and the law providing tuition grants of public funds for
segregated private schooling, the Governor stated that he could take
no further action to prevent the opening of public schools on an
integrated basis. Some public schools in Arlington, Charlottesville
and Norfolk, as well as in Alexandria, began integrated classes
in the Spring semester of 1959. Since that time, the number of
integrated schools has increased. The implications of the United
States Supreme Court decision of May 17, 1954 upon the public school
system of Virginia have presented to the Commonwealth one of its
most difficult problems of the Twentieth Century.
As the population of Virginia cities and towns has grown during the
past two decades, persons have moved to the suburbs and surrounding
territory--sometimes at a faster rate than the increase in new
population in the urban centers. The 1960 census confirmed such
declines from the previous growth of cities in nearly all parts of
the nation. Attractions to persons who move from the urban centers
include larger amounts of available land, newer homes, shopping
centers with comparatively easy parking, and initial lower real
estate taxes. After these persons have lived in the suburbs or
surrounding territory for a while, various needs such as adequate
streets, police protection, schools, sewerage facilities, water and
building and zoning codes sometimes develop or become more apparent.
Often county governments are not equipped to provide for all of
these services; if county governments do establish such services,
the initial costs may be very high for the taxpayers.
To counterbalance the move to suburbs and nearby rural areas, urban
local units of government seek to annex surrounding land from
counties or nearby cities. In Virginia, annexation is determined
by a panel of three judges, only one of whom is a resident of the
county involved. No referendum is held to ascertain the wishes of
the residents of the area under consideration because of the belief
that annexation should be based on the need of the majority of the
people concerned. While annexation may be an answer to the urban
government's need for extending its tax base, county units lose
their prime tax property. Over a period of time, the continued
growth of the metropolitan area causes persons to locate outside of
the revised boundaries and the process of annexation starts over
again.
In addition to annexation, another method available whereby an urban
unit may extend its boundaries is consolidation of local units.
An example is the merger of a city government unit and a county
government unit into a revised city government unit. In Virginia,
consolidation statutes are relatively flexible: officials of both
units negotiate between themselves to reach an agreement on the
authority of the new local unit of government, in contrast to
annexation where the county government is often forced against its
will to give up valuable real estate.
The growth of metropolitan areas has raised a serious challenge
to the ability of local units of government to provide adequate
government services to their residents at reasonable costs. Unless
further understanding is developed among the citizenry involved,
the impact of metropolitanism will continue to result in serious
inequities among individual local units of government.
S U M M A R Y
By April 1861, the Commonwealth of Virginia had furnished one-third
of all the Presidents of the United States, had had numerous other
Virginian leaders in high federal positions, had been responsible
for the calling of a "Peace Conference" in the nation's capital
and had been most reluctant to vote for secession from the Union.
However, the inhabitants of Virginia believed in the doctrine of
"States' Rights," in non-interference of slavery by the federal
government and in not coercing neighboring seceded states back
into the Union via invasion. Consequently, Virginia joined the
Confederacy, and Richmond soon became the Confederate capital and
the State of Virginia a huge battlefield.
The brilliant military tactics of General Robert E. Lee, Thomas
Jonathan Jackson and "J.E.B." Stuart will always be worthy of
military study. Virginia helped the Confederacy, economically
as well as militarily, especially with the food products of the
Saltville area and of the Shenandoah Valley and the manufactured
arms equipment of the Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond. When West
Virginia became an independent state without the consent of
Virginia, it reduced the area and population of the Commonwealth
considerably. The ending of the War between the States, like that
of the American Revolutionary War, took place in Virginia. The
magnificent courage and fervor of the Virginians as members of
the Confederacy will always be cherished by posterity. When one
is well-informed of the deeds, hardships and activities which
occurred during the War between the States in Virginia and in other
southern states, one can easily understand the ever-present pride
which the Confederate Flag does, and always will, inspire. This era
of American history, although one of the darkest periods in our
national history when even brother sometimes fought brother on the
battlefield, will forever remain one of the most dynamic and heroic
periods in human civilization.
After enduring a harsh Reconstruction Program enforced by a radical
United States Congress and by "Carpetbagger" and "Scalawag"
governments, Virginia officially returned to the Union on January
26, 1870. Then the Commonwealth began settling some of its local
problems: the extremely high state debt, the educational program,
the joint boundary line between Virginia and West Virginia and the
"Readjuster" Movement. The newest county in Virginia--Dickenson
County--was created in 1880. By 1900, Virginia ranked seventeenth
in United States state population and seemed prepared to meet the
challenging events of the Twentieth Century with renewed confidence.
A new state constitution, still in effect today, was "proclaimed"
in 1902. It provided for a poll tax and an "understanding clause"
provision as a voting requirement; later, the latter was changed to
an intelligence test requirement. The unusual political status of a
city, completely independent of county jurisdiction, was originated
at this time also. Racial segregation in the public schools of
Virginia was provided for in the Constitution of 1902.
Other events and activities concerning Virginia and Virginians
during the Twentieth Century include the payment to Virginia by West
Virginia of the state debt which West Virginia had accumulated while
she was part of Virginia, the operation of the first City-Manager
form of local government at Staunton, outstanding participation
in two World Wars and in the Korean conflict, the "Restoration
of Williamsburg" Project, a reorganization of state governmental
departments, the comparatively small economic dislocation during
the "Great Depression," the establishment of the Shenandoah
National Park, the opportunity afforded service men and women on
active duty to vote without payment of a poll tax, the constant
increase in the growth of industry, the victory for the Virginia
delegates at the 1952 Democratic National Nominating Convention,
Republican Presidential victories in Virginia in 1928, 1952, 1956
and 1960, developments in education including the problems of
school integration and the expansion of school facilities and the
continuing growth of metropolitanism.
As our nation's history unfolds, issues of state, national and
international scope will continue to face the Commonwealth. The
history of Virginia has furnished Virginians with a proud heritage,
an appreciation for the noble deeds of the past and an understanding
of the courage and wisdom required to solve successfully current and
future problems. Virginia--a vital area of the United States--will
undoubtedly play a major role in the fulfillment of the destiny of
the United States.
5
Economic Life
_The Work Force_
A variety of geographical resources and of human resources results
in diversity in the economic life of the state. The proportion of
the population engaged in gainful occupation at the present time is
significant. Approximately 38% of the total population in Virginia
is included in the work force. The group outside the work force
includes individuals who are thirteen years of age or younger,
homemakers, students age fourteen and over, the physically and
mentally handicapped who are unable to work, and persons who are
retired.
Census enumerations since 1890 indicate that total employment in
Virginia has expanded continuously. During the seventy year period
1890-1960, the work force increased from approximately 552,000 to
approximately 1,473,000. This represents an increase of 176%, or an
average annual increase of 13,137 workers.
Three phases in the trend of employment are observable: from 1890
to 1910, 1910 to 1940 and 1940 to 1960. The first phase coincides
with the Industrial Revolution in the United States; the increase
in employment in Virginia during this time was 44%. In the second
phase, from 1910 to 1940, the rate of increase slackened although
the total number in the work force grew; the increase amounted to
14% during this period. The third phase of employment began in 1940
as needs of World War II became clear; unprecedented peacetime
demands started in 1945 and have continued to the decade of the
1960's; in this phase, for the first time, Virginia outpaced the
United States as a whole in growth of employment, with an increase
of 63%.
_Types of Employment_
Government Employment--Government employees make up the largest
number of workers in any particular type of occupation in the state.
The term "government employees" includes all civilians working
directly for federal, state and local governments plus military
personnel stationed in Virginia. Nearly one-fourth of the total
Virginia employment is found in this group. Government employment is
the greatest single source of personal income in the state.
Approximately 65% of the government employment in Virginia, as
defined above, is engaged in activities of the federal government.
The number of military personnel in the state is slightly more than
twice the number of federal civilian employees. Although federal
employment is scattered throughout the state--every community has
postal employees, for example--there is a concentration of federal
employees in two areas of the state, namely, Northern Virginia
(Arlington and Fairfax Counties and the cities of Alexandria and
Falls Church) and the Hampton Roads area. Within the federal
civilian group, approximately 70% are employed by the Department
of Defense. Following the Department of Defense, the next largest
numbers of federal civilian employees work for the Post Office
Department and for the Veterans Administration. In addition to the
federal employees working in the state, a substantial number of
persons who live in Northern Virginia commute daily to the District
of Columbia and nearby Maryland for federal employment.
Approximately 35% of the government employees in Virginia work
for the state (11%) and for local (24%) governments. Since more
than half of the government employment in the United States is
found in state and local governments, the number of such employees
in Virginia is relatively smaller. The state and local group in
Virginia is nearly equally divided between school and non-school
personnel. Although the number of state and local employees in
Virginia has grown during the past decade, the percentage of
increase has not been as great as that for the United States as a
whole.
Employment in Manufacturing--Excluding military personnel from
the total government group, employees engaged in manufacturing
rank first in number. However, when civilian government and
military personnel are combined, government employment surpasses
manufacturing employment. Approximately 20% of the total work
force is engaged in manufacturing. During the decade of the 1940's
manufacturing in Virginia surpassed agriculture for the first time,
and the growth of manufacturing continued progressively through the
decade of the 1950's. Manufacturing as a whole is diversified.
Expenditure for new manufacturing plant and equipment exceeded
one billion dollars in one recent seven-year period. Additional
millions of dollars have been spent recently for expanding existing
facilities. Fabricated metals (example, swimming-pool type atomic
reactors) and machinery and electrical equipment (examples, motors,
calculators) groups of industries have grown substantially within
the past few years. The four manufacturing industries having the
largest number of employees are textile, chemical and chemical
products, food and kindred products, and lumber and wood products.
The employees in these four industries constitute nearly 50% of all
workers engaged in manufacturing.
Textile employment leads all other manufacturing employment. The
textile industry in Virginia includes the spinning and processing
of yarn and the weaving and finishing of material. Cotton and
rayon broad-woven fabrics are the major ones. Approximately 60% of
Virginia's textile employment is found in this category. The cities
of Danville, Fieldale and Roanoke are especially noted for their
textiles. Knitting mills constitute the second type of textile
activity, and approximately two-thirds of employment in the knitting
mills is engaged in making full-fashioned and seamless hosiery.
Lynchburg is a key center of knitting mills for men's and ladies'
hosiery.
The second largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing
in Virginia is the chemical industry. Approximately two-thirds of
such chemical employees are found in the synthetic fiber field. In
1917, the first large rayon plant was established. This industry
has developed rapidly, and Virginia now plays an important part
nationally in this production. Virginia now has approximately 30%
of the total employees in the United States engaged in synthetic
fibers. There are at present large synthetic fiber plants in
Richmond, Martinsville, Roanoke, Waynesboro, Narrows and Front
Royal. Virginia has been regarded as the geographical center of this
industry in the United States. Another type of chemical production
involves industrial inorganic chemicals including alkalies--soda
ash, bicarbonate of soda, caustic soda--and chlorine (Saltville
and Hopewell), sulfuric acid (Norfolk and Richmond) and ammonia
(Hopewell). The manufacturing of fertilizer is also important in
the state because of the agricultural need for it in the South and
because Virginia is conveniently located with respect to the raw
materials necessary for making fertilizer (namely, potash, nitrogen
and phosphate rock). Hopewell and Norfolk are two cities which have
large plants for the manufacture of fertilizers. Both Fredericksburg
and Richmond have a large cellophane company and certain medicinal
drugs such as streptomycin and thiamine hydrochloride are
manufactured at Elkton. In addition, dyes, wood turpentine, dry ice
and various insecticides are produced in Virginia.
The third largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing
is the food and kindred products industry. This industry may be
conveniently divided into two groups based upon the factors which
determine their location:
1) those food industries whose products originate and are marketed
in a population center--for example, bakery products (Richmond,
Norfolk and Roanoke), beverages (Norfolk and Richmond), meat
products (Richmond and Smithfield), dairy products (Richmond,
Roanoke, Alexandria and Fredericksburg) and manufactured ice
(Richmond and Alexandria);
2) those food industries which find it desirable to locate close
to the source of supply--usually a perishable commodity--for
example, seafood canneries (Norfolk, Hampton and Reedville),
vegetable canneries (Walkerton and Urbanna), poultry dressing
plants (Broadway, Harrisonburg and Winchester), fruit processing
plants (Berryville, Mount Jackson, Winchester and Front Royal),
confectionery plants (Suffolk and Norfolk), meatpacking companies
(Suffolk and Smithfield) and frozen foods (seafood--Norfolk;
poultry--Broadway; fruits and vegetables--Exmore).
* * * * *
The fourth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing
is the lumber and lumber products industry. In the latter part
of the Nineteenth Century and the early Twentieth Century, this
industry had the greatest number of employees in the manufacturing
field. Gradually its importance declined until the 1930's when it
increased rapidly as the demand for lumber production increased
until, at present, it has reached fourth place. Approximately
77% of Virginia's total lumber industry employees is found in
the sawmills and planing mills, especially in mills located in
Franklin, Petersburg, Norfolk and Richmond. Whereas the synthetic
fibers mentioned previously are manufactured primarily in seven
large plants with numerous employees per plant, the lumber industry
in Virginia consists of approximately 1700 establishments--only
approximately 200 of which employ at least twenty employees. Veneer
mills, excelsior mills, mill-work plants, plywood plants and
companies which make fruit and vegetable baskets, boxes and crates
also furnish diverse types of wood products for the Virginia lumber
industry.
The fifth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is
the apparel industry. Approximately one-half of all such employees
are engaged in making men's and boys' clothing: suits, coats and
overcoats are made in large quantities in Richmond, Staunton and
Norfolk; shirts, pajamas and underwear at Danville, Radford,
Lynchburg and Marion; trousers, overalls and sports jackets at
Martinsville, Richmond and Staunton. Women's and misses' dresses
are manufactured at Roanoke, maids' and nurses' uniforms and sports
jackets at Lynchburg, lingerie at Staunton and Roanoke, gloves at
Lynchburg, children's and infants' dresses and play clothes at
Newport News and Shenandoah. Supplementary textile products include
sheets and pillow cases (Danville), towels (Fieldale), hassocks,
canvas awnings and automobile seat covers (Richmond).
The sixth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is
the transportation equipment industry. Most of this employment
is found in shipbuilding at the Hampton Roads area where
aircraft carriers, atomic submarines, ocean liners--such as the
"Constitution" and the "United States"--and numerous smaller vessels
are constructed. Other employees of this industry work in numerous
truck and bus body companies scattered throughout the state, in
railroad equipment companies--for example, brake shoes (Roanoke);
railroad bearings (Petersburg) and in a wagon company (Lynchburg).
Furniture-making ranks seventh in number of employees engaged in
manufacturing. Most of Virginia's furniture workers are engaged
in the manufacture of unupholstered wooden house furniture. Such
furniture includes bedroom, living room and dining room suites
(Bassett, Martinsville, Staunton, Marion, Stanleytown, Roanoke
and Pulaski), cedar chests (Alta Vista) and radio and television
cabinets (Bristol). Living room upholstered furniture including
chairs, sofa beds, studio couches and furniture frames are
manufactured at Salem, Christiansburg, Norfolk, Roanoke and Galax.
Chrome dinettes and plastic furniture are manufactured in plants
located at Marion. Office equipment including floor cabinets and
metal filing cabinets is made at Crozet. There is also an extensive
fixture industry--bank, office and store fixtures--plus such
items as literary bookstacks, metal partitions, doors and movable
partitions primarily at Orange, Norfolk and Richmond.