become a gentleman farmer at the time of the adoption of the
Constitution. He was overseeing his fields on horseback one day when
a messenger arrived from New York City informing him that his name
had appeared unanimously on the ballot of every elector, electing
him as the first President of the United States--"The Father of His
Country." The American people still remembered his great leadership
qualities during the Revolutionary War and during the Constitutional
Convention. Thus, Washington was faced with a most difficult task:
to make a new government work successfully though it was practically
only in outline form and even though there was opposition and
criticism awaiting the first President. Washington was also informed
that the new government was to begin operating on March 4, 1789
and that Congress desired that he arrive in New York City for his
inauguration on that date.
It took the Congressmen themselves longer to arrive from their
various states, however, than they had expected. John Adams, the
Vice-President, did not arrive until April 22 from Massachusetts
to take his oath of office. Washington had much farther to travel
than did John Adams and had many preparations to make before
leaving Mount Vernon. He visited Fredericksburg to bid his mother
farewell and traveled via stagecoach through Maryland, Delaware
and Pennsylvania to New York. Roads were in poor condition making
traveling very slow and Washington was such a prominent figure that
he was stopped along the way by his old friends, especially in New
Jersey. One significant incident was his welcome at Trenton, New
Jersey, part of which consisted of a presentation of flowers by
thirteen young ladies dressed in white, symbolic of the thirteen
stars of the flag of the United States and of the thirteen states
that had honored him by electing him to the Presidency. When he
arrived at the New York ferry, thirteen sailors in red, white and
blue uniforms were waiting to row him across the Hudson River to New
York City. On April 30, 1789, Washington took his official oath of
office in Federal Hall as the first President of the United States.
A marble statue stands today on the spot on Wall Street where this
event took place. New York became the first capital city of the
United States. Since the capital was changed to Philadelphia in the
following year, Washington was the only President of the United
States to be inaugurated in New York City.
_State and National Events (1789-1860)_
Since Washington was a strong believer in the Constitution of the
United States and had put forth much effort in getting it ratified,
he tried conscientiously to set up a government satisfactory to all
Americans. He wisely used his talent of recognizing individuals with
a particular skill when he selected his first cabinet to advise him:
Thomas Jefferson (Virginia), Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Alexander
Hamilton (New York), Secretary of the Treasury, and Henry Knox
(Massachusetts), Secretary of War. Edmund Randolph, a Virginian, was
appointed Attorney-General, but this office did not become a cabinet
post until 1814. The men holding these positions for the first time
had a heavy responsibility in deciding specifically the range of
duties each position should include and in properly carrying out
these duties.
The practice of "log-rolling," defined as the "joining together of
politicians to mutually further each other's plans of activities,"
was followed at this early time of our new government. The question
had arisen in Congress whether or not Congress should assume
the state debts, most of which had been accumulated during the
Revolutionary War. The Congressmen who favored such assumption
believed that such action would not only tend to strengthen security
and confidence of the American people in their new government but
would also make it easier for the United States to borrow money,
either at home or from a foreign country. Since Virginia and many
of the Southern States had already assumed and had paid most of
their debts, the Virginia legislature opposed this bill strongly
in 1790 and believed that it placed an unjust hardship upon the
State. This state legislative objection was the first official
action of a state against a federal bill. Since the Northern States
preferred a location in the north for the national capital, Hamilton
and Jefferson encouraged their friends to vote for each other's
proposals. Hamilton's friends in the north voted for locating the
capital along the Potomac in return for Jefferson's friends in the
south voting for the assumption of state debts by the national
government.
There had been discussion for a long time about changing the
location of the national capital from New York City to a more
central location along the Atlantic seaboard. When a site along the
Potomac River was finally agreed upon, Maryland and Virginia agreed
to cede part of its land for the establishment of a Federal District
to become the seat of government of the United States. On December
3, 1789, Virginia ceded thirty and three-quarters square miles of
land including the town of Alexandria and part of Fairfax County.
The stone locating the original southern corner boundary, officially
laid by Dr. Elisha Cullen Dick, may still be seen near Jones Point,
Alexandria.
Early efforts to commercialize waterways materialized in 1790.
One of the earliest commercial canals built in either Virginia
or in the United States as a whole was the James River Canal. It
was constructed by the James River Company, and, although it was
only seven miles in length, it connected Richmond with Westham and
was parallel to the James River. This marked the beginning of the
canal-building era in the United States.
An event which affected the United States and the State of Virginia
occurred in 1792 when Kentucky was admitted into the Union as the
fifteenth state (Vermont had entered as the fourteenth one in
1791). This action deprived the State of Virginia of approximately
75,000 inhabitants, of 40,395 square miles of territory and of nine
counties. Kentucky was originally part of Fincastle County, Virginia
and later had gained status as an independent county in Virginia,
called Kentucky County. Virginia gave the necessary consent for
the independence of Kentucky, required before statehood could be
granted. The boundaries of the State of Virginia thereafter remained
fixed from 1792 until 1861 when West Virginia became a separate
state.
Washington, during his Presidency, showed his ability to lead in
civilian affairs as well as in military affairs. His diplomatic
ability predominated in the torn loyalty toward England and toward
France when these nations fought each other in 1793: he issued
the Neutrality Proclamation whereby the United States would take
neither side in this conflict. Throughout his two terms, he created
precedents and made decisions of lasting value for the United
States. Such a precedent was his refusal to run for a third time as
President of the United States, a precedent which was not broken
until 1940 when Franklin D. Roosevelt accepted the nomination for
the Presidency.
While Washington was President, the population of Virginia continued
to grow. Six new counties were created during this period: Wythe
(formed from Montgomery County with later additions from Montgomery
and Grayson Counties and named in honor of George Wythe, a Virginia
signer of the Declaration of Independence, a famous lawyer and
the first Professor of Law in the United States), Mathews (formed
from Gloucester County and named for Major Thomas Mathews of the
Revolutionary War), Bath (formed from Augusta, Botetourt and
Greenbrier Counties and named because of the medicinal springs
located in the area), Grayson (formed from Wythe County and, later,
additions from Patrick County and named for Colonel William Grayson,
a United States Senator from Virginia), Lee (formed from Russell
County and, later, additions from Scott County and named for General
Henry Lee, Governor of Virginia, as well as an outstanding military
leader), and Madison (formed from Culpeper County and named for
James Madison, a state legislator and member of the United States
House of Representatives during this period).
After John Adams had been elected to the Presidency in 1796, the
Democratic-Republican Party began to use the typical political
method of attacking the party in power, namely the Federalists,
through newspaper articles and through written pamphlets. Since
many of the foreigners who had come to America at this time were
Democratic-Republican in their political beliefs, numerous articles
criticizing President John Adams and his administration were written
by them. In order to combat these political attacks, the Federalist
leaders were responsible for getting two most unusual laws passed:
the Alien and Sedition Laws. The Alien Act provided that the
residence time required of foreigners for naturalization (the
process whereby a foreigner becomes a citizen) was to be fourteen
years instead of five years and that the President was henceforth
authorized to imprison or deport without trial foreigners whom he
considered dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States
or to allow others to remain. The Sedition Act stated that any
person convicted of defaming, either by spoken or by written word,
the government of the United States or the President of the United
States or the Congress of the United States was subject to a fine of
not more than $2,000 and to imprisonment for not more than two years.
Several Federalists considered the passage of these laws unjust.
Thomas Jefferson, the Vice-President of the United States at the
time of their passage, decided to attract the attention of voters
to the passage of such laws. He drew up resolutions in 1789 which
stated that: (1) the Alien and Sedition Laws were unconstitutional
because the President of the United States had no power to imprison
or deport any person without a judicial trial and because Congress
did not have the right to limit the freedom of speech and of
press and (2) since the Union was a compact of states and since
the federal government had only the particular powers granted
to it by the states, each state had the right to decide the
constitutionality of Congressional laws. Because these resolutions
were first introduced into the Kentucky legislature, they were
later called the Kentucky Resolutions. At the same time, James
Madison drew up similar resolutions which were introduced into the
Virginia Assembly. The Virginia Resolutions are significant since
they explain the theory of "strict construction" (that the federal
government has only those powers specifically delegated to it) and
they illustrate the strong "states' rights" feeling which existed
in the State of Virginia. Virginia and Kentucky were the only two
states to openly protest the Alien and Sedition Acts. Many of the
northern states denied on this occasion the right of a state to
judge a federal law. They affirmed, on the contrary, the belief
that only the federal courts can decide the constitutionality of a
federal law.
On December 14, 1799, George Washington died at Mount Vernon where
he had retired after his Presidency. His military genius and
brilliant statesmanship are probably best summarized in the "Funeral
Oration upon President Washington" by Henry Lee in his now-famous
phrase: "First in War, First in Peace and First in the Hearts of His
Countrymen."
In 1800, Virginia was considered first among the sixteen states of
the Union (Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee having been admitted into
the Union before 1800) in wealth and in population: 447,800 whites
and 359,777 Negroes. The influence of Virginia in the political,
economic and social life of the country was a profound one. The
majority of residents now consisted of "average" individuals who
regarded the democratic ideas of Thomas Jefferson as a basic
philosophy for everyday living. The polite courtesy and hospitality
of the olden days still remained, but many of the traditional,
dignified ceremonies had become outmoded. The descendants of the
aristocratic planters of the early nineteenth century were usually
people of limited means and limited acreage because the war and
its aftermath had decreased much of their wealth. However, the
typical Virginian who could afford it still preferred to live in the
country, own horses, dogs and fine cattle, enjoy fox hunting and the
social gatherings of friends, celebrate traditional activities and
understand and cherish the rich heritage which was theirs.
In 1800, Thomas Jefferson, a native of Shadwell, Virginia, was
elected third President of the United States. He was the first
President to be inaugurated at Washington, D. C. His ideas
concerning government were so numerous and thought-provoking that
his political philosophy has been termed "Jeffersonian Democracy."
He had strong faith in the ability of the common man, believed
in government economy and practiced this belief throughout his
administration. He exhibited his broadmindedness by allowing many
government officials of opposite political party beliefs to retain
their same positions after he became President and he was a strong
advocate of States' Rights. After Jefferson became President,
he appointed John Marshall of Germantown and Richmond as Chief
Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Marshall had
been a member of the state legislature, an outstanding lawyer, a
Congressman and had served as Secretary of State under President
John Adams. John Marshall remained Chief Justice for thirty-four
years and holds the record for length of service on the Supreme
Court of the United States. He was personally responsible for
creating a strong foundation for the Supreme Court. Although he
was the second Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, it was during
his judgeship that for the first time, a Congressional law was
declared unconstitutional in the case of Marbury versus Madison.
This decision greatly strengthened the theory of judicial review of
national legislation. It is interesting to note that John Marshall
was as strong a Federalist as his cousin, Thomas Jefferson, was a
strong "States' Rights" man.
While Jefferson as President was solving national problems, his home
state was solving problems, too. In August 1800, Virginia had its
first organized slave insurrection. Led by Gabriel, approximately
one thousand slaves in the area around Richmond decided to march on
Richmond and massacre the white inhabitants there. However, at the
scheduled time for the march to begin, a severe rainstorm delayed
the march. During the delay, Pharaoh, one of the Negroes, decided
to warn the Richmonders of their impending disaster. In spite of
the heavy rains and the fact that it became necessary for him to
swim certain swollen streams without being caught by one of his own
group, he continued to Richmond and warned the authorities in time.
He informed them of the proposed plan to kill the male inhabitants,
capture the women inhabitants, seize the public arms and create
a general slave insurrection. Consequently, the conspirators,
including Gabriel, were caught, convicted and executed. The
Virginia Assembly rewarded Pharaoh for his courageous act by giving
him complete freedom.
While the State of Virginia was increasing its counties, the
United States was beginning to expand beyond its original boundary
established after the Revolutionary War. President Jefferson had
heard rumors that Spain had ceded Louisiana back to France in secret
diplomatic relations. If true, such a condition could ruin American
trade along the Mississippi River and could suggest a possibility of
a French empire in America. Jefferson decided to have the government
of the United States purchase the Island of Orleans, near the mouth
of the Mississippi River. After the United States Ambassador to
France had been unable to purchase only the Island of Orleans,
Jefferson sent James Monroe, a native of Westmoreland County, to
assist the Ambassador. In 1803, the treaty making the purchase of
Louisiana, that vast area of land west of the Mississippi, official
was ratified by the United States. This purchase added 827,000
square miles to the area of the land under the jurisdiction of the
United States government at the cost of $15,000,000.
President Jefferson was also very much interested in the Oregon
Country. He had made frequent attempts to have this region explored
but all his attempts were unsuccessful. However, after the purchase
of Louisiana, he persuaded the federal government to finance, by
means of a $2500 appropriation, an official government expedition
to make the first overland route to the Pacific Ocean and to
explore the region which the United States had recently acquired.
He selected Captain Meriwether Lewis of Ivy, Virginia, to head this
expedition and Lieutenant William Clark, a very close Virginian
friend of Lewis' to accompany him. Their group left St. Louis in
the spring of 1804, traveled up the Missouri River, spent a rigid
winter in an area now located in North Dakota, continued traveling
up the Missouri in the spring of 1805, crossed the Rocky Mountains,
and built and paddled canoes until they reached the mouth of the
Columbia River in November, 1805. There they built a fort near the
present site of Astoria. They remained on the Pacific Coast during
the winter and returned to St. Louis in 1806. Lewis and Clark were
aided considerably in their travel route directions by an Indian
woman guide, Sacajawea. This expedition to the Northwest furnished
the best claim of the United States in later ownership disputes with
England.
Aaron Burr, long the political opponent of Alexander Hamilton,
lived in Petersburg. In 1807, Burr was accused of a conspiracy to
invade Mexico, to snatch it from Spanish control and to establish an
independent Mexican government with himself as the self-appointed
ruler. Furthermore, he was accused of having laid plans for setting
up a government in the western territory of the United States with
the objective of eventually organizing this area into a separate,
independent government with himself the self-appointed ruler.
Burr was officially tried on a charge of treason at the State
Capitol Building in Richmond. Chief Justice John Marshall was the
presiding judge. Jefferson, who had disliked Burr for political
reasons for a long time and who believed that Burr was guilty of the
aforementioned treasonous actions, wanted Burr convicted. Although
the trial involved many political entanglements, Burr was finally
acquitted.
During the same year, Virginia made national headlines again when
the "Leopard-Chesapeake" Affair took place. France and Britain had
been having personnel problems with their navy crews, each accusing
the other of trying to encourage desertions. Britain had sent a
fleet over to Norfolk in an attempt to intercept some French ships
harbored in the Chesapeake Bay. One of the British ships had its
entire crew desert, and it was believed that they had dashed to
Norfolk and would be hiring out soon on a French or American ship.
The British captain of the fleet had been informed that these crew
members supposedly had enlisted on the "Chesapeake," a new American
naval vessel. A British vessel, the "Leopard," was ordered to search
the "Chesapeake" outside the jurisdiction of the United States.
Consequently, the "Leopard" followed the "Chesapeake" out beyond
Cape Henry and then demanded that the "Chesapeake" be searched
by British officers. When the "Chesapeake," under the command of
Commodore James Barron, denied having any deserters and refused
the right to search, the "Leopard" approached very closely the
"Chesapeake" and fired at it broadside. Three Americans were killed,
seventeen others wounded and four deserters were surprisingly found
aboard the "Chesapeake." Although many Americans clamored for
war as a result of this incident, Jefferson, who still preferred
peace, retaliated by having Congress pass the Embargo Act whereby
no American ship could depart for any foreign port. Jefferson
believed the lack of American exports would cause the countries of
Europe to cease the practice of impressment of American seamen. The
Americans, however, suffered more from this act than did the French
and the British; eventually, it was repealed and a law was passed
allowing American vessels to trade with any country except England
and France. By the end of Jefferson's administration, nevertheless,
the American people were very restless, and in some sections of
the country war was believed to be inevitable with England or with
France.
On March 4, 1809, Virginia had another one of her sons, James
Madison, inaugurated as President of the United States. He was born
in Port Conway, Virginia, and, after graduating from Princeton, he
had fought in the Revolutionary War. He had served in the state
legislature, had been a member of the Second Continental Congress,
had been a member of the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia
where he had earned the title "Father of the Constitution of the
United States" and had contributed to the "Federalist" papers
encouraging the adoption of the Constitution. After serving in the
United States House of Representatives, he had retired from national
politics and had centered his interest upon state government
functions. He had written the "Virginia Resolutions" and had served
as United States Secretary of State at the request of President
Jefferson. Therefore, he came to the Presidency well prepared to
assume presidential duties.
In contrast with his desire for peace, Madison held the office of
President of the United States during the War of 1812 with England.
Only a few battles were fought near Virginia in this war. The
British had as one of their objectives the capture of the City of
Norfolk. George Cockburn, a British Admiral, entered Chesapeake Bay
with a fleet of approximately 1800 men, and they plundered many
plantations along the coast of Maryland and Virginia. An American
ship, the "U. S. S. Dolphin," was captured by the British ship, "St.
Domingo," in the Rappahannock River. A sea battle was later fought
at Craney Island, located at the entrance of Norfolk Harbor where
American sailors, marines and militia men were defending the small
island. As the British rowed toward the island shore on barges,
heavy artillery fire sank many of the boats causing hundreds of the
Britishers to drown. The British subsequently withdrew and Norfolk
escaped serious damage. The British soon desired to attack Hampton.
They successfully pillaged the town and proceeded to the Carolinas.
Several Virginians participated in the War of 1812 and the students
of Hampden-Sydney College, as in the Revolutionary War, volunteered
as an entire student body to fight for their country.
Virginia became a famous place of refuge during the War of 1812.
When the British invaded Washington in August 1814, President
Madison and his wife, Dolly Madison, fled from the White House on
August 24 to Salona, a house located in Falls Church. It is believed
that Dolly Madison crossed the Chain Bridge over the Potomac River
and traveled rapidly over the secondary roads until she finally
reached the house of Reverend and Mrs. William Maffitt. Dolly
Madison carried with her the Declaration of Independence and the
famous portrait of George Washington painted by Gilbert Stuart. Mrs.
Maffitt quickly admitted Dolly Madison, and the President himself
and some of his cabinet members arrived later with Reverend Maffitt.
They could see the burning White House from the Maffitt residence.
Although the President had to depart shortly afterwards, Dolly
Madison stayed there for the duration of the war.
After his Presidency had ended, James Madison returned to
Montpelier, the family homestead near Orange, where he lived until
his death in 1836.