CONCLUSION.
The creatures described in the preceding pages range from very simple to
highly complicated forms, and in describing them some attention has been
paid to the general principles of classification. The step is a wide one
from the little masses of living jelly that constitute Amoebae to the
Rotifers, supplied with organs of sensation--eyes, feelers (calcars),
and the long cilia in the Floscularians, which seem to convey impression
like the whiskers of a cat--together with elaborate machinery for
catching, grinding up, and digesting their prey, and which are also well
furnished with respiratory and excretory apparatus, ovaries, &c. In the
polypi and polyzoa may be observed those resemblances in appearance
which induced early naturalists to group them together, and also the
wide difference of organization which marks the higher rank to which the
latter have attained. Amongst the ciliated infusoria important
gradations and differences will also be noticed, some having only one
sort of cilia, others two sorts, and others, again, supplied, in
addition to cilia, with hooks and styles. No perfectly satisfactory
classification of the infusoria has yet been devised, and the life
history of a great many is still very imperfectly known. On the whole,
the tendency of research is to place many of them higher than they used
to stand after Ehrenberg's supposition of their having a plurality of
distinct stomachs, &c., was given up. Balbiani and others have shown
numerous cases of their forming their eggs by a process analogous to
that of higher animals. Some really are, and others closely resemble,
the larval conditions of creatures higher in the scale, and the
contracted vesicle with its channel bears resemblance to what is called
the "water vascular system" of worms.
Zoological classification depends very much on morphology, that is, the
tracing of particular structures, or parts, through all their stages,
from the lowest to the highest forms in which they are exhibited. In
this way the swimming bladder of a fish is shown to be a rudimentary
lung, though it has no respiratory functions, and Mr. Kitchen Parker has
found in the imperfect skull of the tadpole a rudimentary appearance of
bones belonging to the human ear. The comparative anatomist, after a
wide survey of the objects before him, arranges them into groups. He
asks what are the characteristic things to be affirmed concerning all
the A's that cannot be said of all the B's; or of all the C's that marks
their difference from the A's or the D's. Careful investigation upon
these methods shows affinities where they were not previously
expected--birds and reptiles being close relations, for example, instead
of distant connections--and they lessen the value for purposes of
classification of peculiarities that might have been deemed of the
highest importance.
Professor Huxley divides the vertebrates into ITHYCOIDS, comprising
fishes and amphibia, which, besides other characteristics, have gills at
some period of their existence; SAUROIDS (reptiles and birds), which
have no gills, and possess certain developmental characteristics in
common; and, lastly, MAMMALS. The Insecta, Myriopoda, Arachnidae, and
Crustacea, he remarks, "without doubt present so many characters in
common as to form a very natural assemblage. All are provided with
articulated limbs attached to a segmented body skeleton, the latter,
like the skeleton of the limbs, being an 'exoskeleton,' or a bordering
of that layer which corresponds with the outer part of the vertebrates.
In others, at any rate in the embryonic condition, the nervous system is
composed of a double chain of ganglia, united by longitudinal
commissures, and the gullet passed between two of these commissures. No
one of the members of these four classes is known to possess vibratile
cilia. The great majority of these animals have a distinct heart,
provided with valvular apertures, which are in communication with a
peri-visceral cavity containing corpusculated blood." These four classes
have constituted the larger group or "province" of _Articulata_ or
_Arthropoda_. Professor Huxley thinks that, notwithstanding "the marked
differences" between the Annelida (worms) and the preceding Arthropods
(joint-foots), their resemblances outweighing them--"the characters of
the nervous system, and the frequently segmented body, with imperfect
lateral appendages of the Annelida, necessitates their assemblage with
the Arthropoda in one great division, or sub-kingdom, of ANNULOSA."
Tracing analogies between the Echinodermata (sea urchins, star-fish,
&c.) and the Scolecida (intestinal worms), he places them together as
_Annuloida_.
Cephalopoda, Pteropoda, Pulmo-gasteropoda, and Branchio-gasteropoda,
having resemblances of nervous system, and "all possessing that
remarkable buccal apparatus, the Odontophore," are placed together by
him as ODONTOPHORA. The Odontophores (tooth-bearers) are familiar to
microscopists as the so-called _palates_ of mollusca. Placing with the
above the lamellibranchial mollusks (mollusks with gills formed of
lamellae or little plates), Ascidioida (ascidians), Brachiopoda
(lamp-sheds), and Polyzoa, in spite of their differences, he forms
another great group, ANNULOIDA.
The Actinozoa (anemonies, &c.) and the Hydrozoa (polyps) constitute the
COELENTERA of Frey and Leuckart. "In all these animals," says
Professor Huxley, "the substance of the body is differentiated into
those histological elements which have been termed cells, and the latter
are previously disposed in two layers, one external and one internal,
constituting the ectoderm and endoderm. Among animals which possess this
histological structure the Coelenterata stand alone in having an
alimentary canal, which is open at its inner end and communicates freely
by this aperture with the general cavity of the body," and "all (unless
the Ctenophora should prove a partial exception to the rule) are
provided with very remarkable organs of offence or defence, called
thread-cells or nematocysts." In describing the Polyps we have given
illustrations of these weapons.
The remaining classes, which have been roughly associated as _Protozoa_,
must evidently be rearranged. Sponges, Rhizopods (Amoebae, &c.), and
Gregarines, have strong resemblances, but recent researches may place
the former higher. The Infusoria comprehend creatures too various to
remain under one head, and very many of them too highly organized to be
called "protozoons," or first life-forms.
Those who wish to pursue this subject further may consult Professor
Huxley's 'Elements of Comparative Anatomy,' from which the preceding
quotations have been taken.
A system of classification founded upon anatomical and developmental
considerations frequently differs considerably from one we might arrive
at if all the creatures were arranged according to the perfection of
their faculties and the extent and accuracy of their relations to the
external world. Such a classification would not in any way supersede the
former, but it would prove very instructive and offer many valuable
suggestions. Some years since, Professor Owen proposed to divide the
Vertebrates according to the perfection of their brains, but other
anatomists did not find his divisions sufficiently coincident with
facts. Very little has been done towards an exact science of human
phrenology. The difficulties remain pretty much as they were many years
ago, and our comparative phrenology, if we may use such a term, is in a
very imperfect state. When we come to the lower animals we do not know
what peculiarities of the brain of an ant make it the recipient of a
higher instinct, or give its possessor greater capacities for dealing
with new and unexpected difficulties than are possessed by most other
insects, and if any reader has a marine aquarium, and will make a few
experiments in taming prawns, and watching their proceedings, he will
discover symptoms of intelligence beyond what the structure of the
creature would have led him to expect.
Animals usually possess some one leading characteristic to which their
general structure is subordinated. Man stands alone in having the whole
of his organization conformed to the demands of a thinking, ruling
brain. To pass at once to the other extreme, we observe in the lower
infusoria a restless locomotion, probably subservient to respiration,
but utterly inconsistent with a well developed life of relation, or with
manifestations of thought. The life of an animalcule may be summed up as
a brief and restricted, but vigorous organic energy, and if the amount
of change which a single creature can make in the external world, is
inconceivably small, the labours of the entire race alter the conditions
of a prodigious amount of matter. Microscopic vegetable life is an
important agent in purifying water from the taint of decomposing
organisms. By evolving oxygen it brings putrescent particles under the
influence of a species of combustion, which, though slow, is as
effectual as that which a furnace could accomplish. In this way minute
moulds burn up decaying wood.
Microscopic animal life helps the regenerative process, and, together
with the minute vegetable life, restores to the organic system myriads
of tons of matter, which death and decay would have handed over to the
inorganic world. In a very small pond or tank the quantity of this kind
of work is soon appreciable, and if we reflect on the amazing amount of
water all over the globe, including seas and oceans, which swarm with
infusoria, the total effect produced in a single year must seem
considerable, even when compared with that portion of the earth's crust
that is subject to alteration from all other causes put together. If we
add to the labour of the Infusoria those of other creatures whose
organization can only be discovered by the microscope, and take in the
foraminifera, polyps, polyzoa, &c., we shall have to record still larger
obligations to minute forms of living things. The coral polyp builds
reefs that constitute the chief characteristic of certain regions in the
Pacific; foraminifera are forming or helping to form strata of
considerable extent, while diatoms are making deposits many feet in
thickness, composed of myriads of their silicious shells, or adding
their contributions of silex, very large in the aggregate, to all
sedimentary rocks. Testimony of this kind of work is found by the
navigator who examines the ice in arctic seas, and it comes up with
soundings from the ocean depths.
On the surface of the earth the amount of change produced is equally
remarkable, although it leaves less permanent traces behind. As a rule
no decomposition of organized matter takes place, no death of plants or
animals, without infusorial life making its appearance, and disposing of
no small portion of the spoil. Even in our climate the mass of matter
thus annually affected is very large; but what must it not be in moist
tropical lands, where every particle seems alive, and the race of life
and death goes on at a speed, and to an extent scarcely conceivable by
those who have not witnessed it.
Thus, if we look at the world of minute forms which the microscope
reveals, there opens before us a spectacle of boundless extent. We see
life manifested by the specks of jelly containing particles not
aggregated into structure, and we see it gradually ascending in
complexities of organization. In creatures whose habits and appearance
seem most remote from our own, we find the elementary developments of
the organs and powers that constitute our glory, and give us our power.
Such studies assist us to conceive of the universe as a Cosmos, or
Beautifully Organized Whole; and, although we cannot tell the object for
which a single portion received its precise form, we trace everywhere
relations of structure to means of existence and enjoyment, and are led
to the conviction that all the actions and arrangements of the organic
or inorganic worlds are due to a definite direction and co-ordination of
a few simple forces, which implicitly and unerringly obey the dictates
of an Omniscient Mind.
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11. THE GRAMMATICAL REMEMBRANCER; or, Aids for correct
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FIELD FLOWERS A HANDY BOOK FOR THE RAMBLING BOTANIST, SUGGESTING WHAT TO
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THE FERN GARDEN HOW TO MAKE, KEEP, AND ENJOY IT OR, FERN CULTURE MADE
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BY SHIRLEY HIBBERD, F.R.H.S.
CONTENTS.
FERNS IN GENERAL
FERN COLLECTING
HOW TO FORM AN OUTDOOR FERNERY
CULTIVATION OF ROCK FERNS
CULTIVATION OF MARSH FERNS
FERNS IN POTS
THE FERN HOUSE
THE FERNERY AT THE FIRESIDE
MANAGEMENT OF FERN CASES
THE ART OF MULTIPLYING FERNS
BRITISH FERNS
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STOVE FERNS
SELECT GREENHOUSE FERNS
SELECT STOVE FERNS
TREE FERNS
FERN ALLIES
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THE CANARY
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BY THE REV. FRANCIS SMITH.
CONTENTS.
A PLEA FOR THE CANARY
ORIGIN OF OUR OWN CANARIA
THE WILD CANARY
OUR LIZARDS
OUR YORKSHIRE SPANGLES
OUR NORWICH YELLOWS
OUR LONDON FANCY BIRDS
OUR BELGIANS
OUR GREEN BIRDS
OUR CINNAMONS
OUR TURNCRESTS
THE DOMINIE AND THE GERMANS
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NEST BOXES AND NESTS
OUR FIRST BIRDS
OUR MISFORTUNES
OUR INFIRMARY
ON CAGES
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THE FAMILIES OF WILD ROSES
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SUMMER ROSES
FORMING THE ROSARIUM
CULTURE OF ROSES IN THE OPEN GROUND
AUTUMN PLANTING
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PRUNING, DISBUDDING, AND SEASONAL MANAGEMENT
CLIMBING ROSES
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SELECT LISTS OF ROSES
REMINDERS OF MONTHLY WORK IN ROSE GARDEN
HINTS TO BEGINNERS
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NESTS AND EGGS OF FAMILIAR BIRDS.
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BEAUTIFUL SHELLS THEIR NATURE, STRUCTURE, AND USES FAMILIARLY EXPLAINED.
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NEW EDITION OF THE WORKS OF ANNA LISLE.
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SELF AND SELF-SACRIFICE OR, NELLY'S STORY.
BY ANNA LISLE.
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We claim for Anna Lisle a place amongst the most distinguished
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QUICKSANDS A TALE.
BY ANNA LISLE.
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