For a long time the ancient languages fo_The School System of Norway

learning, while in the primary schools only the rudiments of a few

subjects were attempted. Social tendencies soon required an increase in

the number of branches to be taught, and also laid added weight upon the

importance of such study as would be of benefit in vocational

activities. Accordingly, mathematics, history, geography, and nature

study became more prominent features in all schools. One of the best

characteristics of the work throughout is that the mother-tongue has

been at all times a dominating factor through every grade of their

schools. Later in the process a demand for the modern foreign languages

was responded to favorably and they took places in the curriculum of the

higher school. These changes bring us down through the last century to

the recent forms in courses of study and we shall introduce the reader

immediately into the present situation.

Besides the institutions for higher learning there are now three

distinct sections in the school system of Norway, viz.: Primary School,

Middle School, and Gymnasium. The primary school is designed to provide

education of an elementary type for every citizen of the country. By

vital cooperation and the exercise of great care in organization,

distribution, supervision, and inspection of these schools, the people

have overcome illiteracy and have reduced truancy to a minimum--almost

to a negligible factor. They are unitedly converted to the belief that

an enlightened populace is a necessity to the continuity of desirable

institutions, to the development of resources, and to the maintenance of

worthy traditions. To secure for all the essentials of good and

intelligent citizenship, an attempt has been made to have the curriculum

for the primary schools include the branches of study which have meaning

in every walk of life, and which enhance the efficiency of each citizen

in his individual activities. In short, it is the intent that all the

people shall have the more abundant life which comes with a thorough,

general, elementary education; and, at the same time, that they shall

be prepared for the higher schools which build on the broad foundation

of the common school.

Following the primary schools are the middle schools which lead still

farther in the pathway of intellectual development those whose situation

in life enables them to proceed with school work. Besides carrying

forward the lines of study begun in the lower school with added vigor

and exactitude, they include a large amount of work in foreign modern

languages. Thus we see that this second section in the great institution

of learning fills in the elementary framework, enriches the fund of

information, adds a considerable amount of culture, and paves the way

for the more liberal training to follow in the next section.

The Gymnasium succeeds and builds directly upon the work of the middle

school. Its function is to provide a liberal culture and education

suited to the needs and desires of those who become in large part the

leaders in all phases of political, professional, or other social

careers.

Thus we note that the succeeding steps taken in the educational ladder

are in harmony with and dependent upon preceding work. While only a

correspondingly small number pass to the summit, all the people enjoy

the advantages of the broad fundamentals and generalizations which lie

at the base of their educational system and equip very well for the

common walks and vocations of life. In our discussion we shall separate

the work of the three sections and consider them one at a time. It seems

advisable to handle them in this way, and we believe that a more

adequate conception of the work as a whole will be obtained by offering

first the part affecting all the people and dealing with the primary

schools.

II. THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS

The primary schools are of two kinds,--those specially designed for the

rural sections of the country and others provided for the towns and

cities, the latter being somewhat richer in curricula, more complete in

organization, and more thorough in operation than the former.

Considering the fact that such uniformity characterizes the courses of

study in the various schools, it will be necessary to present but one

outline for each class of schools. An effort has been made to select

courses that are representative and which clearly set forth typical

conditions. Table VIII gives the program of work offered in one of the

rural communes, and shows the number of hours per week devoted to each

branch of study for the seven years in the course. Just after the

legislative act of 1889, the Department sent out a "normal plan" which

served as a guide in arranging the time-tables for rural municipalities.

As a result great uniformity exists.

TABLE VIII

Table Showing the Number of Hours per Week for Each Branch of

Instruction in the Course of Study in Fredrikvaern Commune.[21]

Year I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Total

Religion 7 7 5 6 6 6 6 43

Norwegian 10 8 8 8 8 6 6 54

Mathematics 6 5 4 6 4 6 6 37

Geography 2 2 3 3 3 13

History 2 2 3 3 3 13

Nature Study 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 14

Writing 5 5 4 4 2 2 2 24

Drawing 1 2 2 2 2 9

Vocal Music 2 1 2 2 2 2 11

Manual Training 2 2 4 6 6 20

Gymnastics 2 2 2 2 8

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- ---

Total 30 30 30 38 38 40 40 246

The program just above is normal and typical in every respect. The

schools are very uniform in their work and, as previously stated, no

further tables are necessary in order to give a concise idea of the work

generally presented in the rural districts of the entire country.

The second program selected is the one used in the primary schools of

Christiania.[22] The schools of this city are among the best and are

taken as models for a number in other cities and towns.

TABLE IX

Course of study showing weekly hours in Christiania Primary Schools.

Division First Second Third

Year I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Total

Sex[A] B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G

--------------------------------------------------------------------------

Religion 6-2 6-2 6-2 6-2 6-2 6-2 4 3 4 3 4 4 3 3 24 22

Norwegian 12 11 10 8 8 7 5 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 50 44

Mathematics 5 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 26 23

Geography 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 8

History 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 8 8

Nature Study 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 7 7

Writing 4 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 16 14

Drawing 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 8 6

Vocal Music 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 5

Manual Training 2 4 4 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 6 26

Gymnastics 2-2 0 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 9 5

Total 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 168 168

[Note: Year 1910-1911.]

[Note A: _B_ refers to boys, _G_ to girls.]

The comparative table on page 106 clearly evidences the similarities

already referred to and, at the same time, serves to indicate all

variations. However, in the making of comparisons, difference in the

number and distribution of hours is more a matter of method or

correlation between branches than an indication of actual difference in

accomplishment. For example, a large number of hours for writing _may_

mean exclusively work in practice writing, but it is very probable that

it will include a considerable amount of work in the mother-tongue or a

definite correlation with nature study, history, or religion. The

fundamental standard by which work is judged or measured is whether it

prepares the pupil fully for work in the middle school.

TABLE X

Comparative table of Courses of Study in ten cities.

Religion

| Norwegian

| | Mathematics

| | | Geography

| | | | History

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

City Sex(A) B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Christiania 24 22 50 44 26 23 9 8 8 8 7 7 16 14 8 6 5 5 6 26 9 5 168 168

Bergen 21 21 55 53 29 28 8 8 9 9 8 7 10 8 9 8 5 5 8 24 10 7 172 178

Trondhjem 23 22 57 51 31 27 12 11 11 11 8 8 18 15 7 4 4 5 8 29 9 7 188 190

Stavanger 22 22 63 57 30 30 8 8 11 11 7 7 12 10 4 4 5 5 10 23 8 5 180 182

Drammen 24 24 52 47 29 25 8 8 8 8 6 5 17 13 5 3 5 5 6 25 8 5 168 168

Kristiansand 22 22 49 49 25 25 10 10 11 11 8 7 13 13 5 5 5 5 6 8 8 6 162 161

Aalesund 27 27 46 44 26 22 6 6 11 11 6 5 16 15 4 3 5 5 6 21 9 5 162 164

Fredrikshald 21 22 52 44 25 23 10 9 9 7 5 6 14 11 5 6 6 6 8 24 7 4 162 162

Skien 21 21 47 44 25 24 10 8 9 8 7 5 16 14 4 4 5 5 10 24 8 5 162 162

Kristiansund 24 24 50 47 27 26 8 8 9 8 8 7 18 15 3 3 5 5 6 20 10 5 168 168

[Note A: _B_ refers to boys, _G_ to girls.]

RELIGION READING RECKONING RITING

The four R's in Norway's educational system form the center of their

educational endeavors. Only a superficial glance at the tables presented

is necessary in order to notice their prominence throughout the course

of study. While the amount of time devoted to them is in itself a

sufficiently strong indication of their predominance, we must also carry

in mind an allowance for closest possible correlation between them as

constant and additional factors along the same line. Bearing these

things in mind we enter at once upon the discussion of the course of

study or school plan. Though the programs presented and digest of plans

following or accompanying are taken from particular schools, the

discussion throughout will be general unless otherwise specified. For

varied reasons, but chiefly because they are typical, specific, and

concrete, the courses of study used in Christiania--primary and

secondary--are chosen as illustrations. The following is not a verbatim

translation of Christiania's plan of instruction but an abbreviated

statement of the work as outlined in their published school plan

(_Skoleplan_). I have endeavored to select the more vital points

throughout and to represent them as exactly as a condensed version

renders possible. Where inaccuracies or omissions occur they are due to

a demand for economy--the things omitted not being regarded as absolute

essentials to a correct representation of the intent and spirit of the

work as carried on.

OUTLINE OF SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION

_Religion_

_Aim._ The aims of instruction in religion are to develop the religious

instincts of the children and to instill in them a recognition of

Christianity, out of which may grow a healthy Christian life and a clear

conception of the church.

To attain these, an effort is made to impart the following fund of

information:

Definite acquaintance with the more important parts of Bible history,

with the chief events in church history, and with the catechism

according to the Evangelical Lutheran creed.

_First Division_

_Class I._ (Six half hour periods weekly.) Instruction during the

beginning weeks consists in simple stories, songs, hymns, prayers, and

conversations designed to impart a knowledge of Christianity, ethics,

and morals; to effect definite connections with previous home training;

and to awaken and develop religious and moral attitudes in the children

preparatory to the more direct instruction to follow.

The real instruction in Christianity or religion begins with Bible

stories selected from the Old and New Testaments and specially adapted

to the understanding of the children and their ability to master the

same. The following stories are among the ones used: The Story of

Joseph, Samuel and Hannah, David and Goliath, The Birth of Jesus, The

Three Wise Men, Jesus in the Temple, Jesus Feeding the Five Thousand,

Jesus Raising the Widow's Son, Jesus Blessing the Children, Jesus

Teaching the Disciples How to Pray. The stories are presented orally and

explained and elucidated in such a way that the children may receive

clear and vivid pictures of the persons and events referred to,

appreciate their connections with the Holy Scriptures, and be able to

rehearse the narratives in an intelligent manner. Whenever possible the

religious or moral content of the conversation should be brought to a

climax in a simple passage of Scripture, a response from the catechism,

or a verse of some hymn, which should be memorized.

_Class II._ (Six half hour periods weekly.) Bible stories from Old and

New Testaments taken mainly from the time of the patriarchs and Moses.

Among them are the following:

_From Old Testament_: The Creation and Eden, The Fall, Cain and Abel,

The Flood, The Call of Abraham, Abraham and Lot, The Birth and Offering

of Isaac, The Marriage of Isaac, Esau and Jacob, Isaac Blessing His

Sons, Jacob's Flight, The Birth and Rearing of Moses, The Call of Moses,

Moses Before Pharaoh, The Exodus from Egypt.

_From New Testament_: The Birth of Jesus, Jesus' Entry into Jerusalem,

Jesus Suffering in the Garden of Gethsemane, Jesus' Death on the Cross,

The Burial of Jesus, The Resurrection of Jesus, The Outpouring of the

Holy Ghost. Instruction is exclusively oral. Historical references are

disregarded. Historical situations are frequently clarified by

references to the history of civilization and geography. New phases of

God's dealings with men and their attitudes toward Him are singled out

and presented for consideration. Passages of Scripture and others from

the catechism or hymns are treated in connection with the Bible stories

as they are told.

_Class III._ (Six half hour periods weekly.) Biblical history up to and

including the time of Solomon, characteristic stories from the prophetic

period, and selections of Scripture from the New Testament designated

officially for study in reference to certain church holidays. Among the

topics included we find: The Tower of Babel, God's Covenant with

Abraham, The Visit of the Three Men, The Lord Visits Sodom and Gomorrah,

Jacob Serving Laban, Jacob's Return, The Travel to Sinai, The Giving of

the Law, The Unfaithfulness of the People, The Travels from Sinai to

Jordan, The Death of Moses, Joshua Leading the People into Canaan,

Gideon, Ruth, Samuel, Saul Becomes King, Saul Rejected, God Chooses

David to be King, David and Jonathan, Saul Pursuing David, The Death of

Saul, David Chosen to be King by the People, The Fall and Restitution of

David, Absalom, The Last Days of David's Life, Solomon, Elias, Jonah,

Daniel. The matter covered in Classes I and II is again taken up, to

which the above is added in historical connection. To this material

Biblical geography and cultural history are added as needed, while

hymns, passages of Scripture, or selections from the catechism are

continually used. Through constant reviews the moral and religious

contents from the various sources are connected into successive groups,

each group centering around the life of some prominent Biblical

character. Instruction is chiefly oral, though some reading from text is

a privilege which may be indulged in as an aid. A certain amount of

catechismal work may be assigned as home lessons.

_Second Division_

_Class IV._ (Boys four hours, girls three hours, weekly.) New Testament

history centering in the stories of Jesus' childhood, His miracles, and

His easier parables. New stories taken up: The Birth of John the Baptist

Foretold, The Birth of Jesus Foretold, The Birth of John the Baptist,

Jesus Presented in the Temple, The Flight into Egypt, Appearance of John

the Baptist, The Baptism of Jesus, Jesus is Tempted, The First Disciples

Come to Jesus, The Marriage in Cana, Jesus Visits Nazareth, Jesus

Choosing the Twelve Apostles, Jesus Heals the Centurion's Servant, The

Death of John the Baptist, Jesus Healing the Palsied, Jesus Raising

Jairus' Daughter, The Woman of Canaan, Parable of the Unmerciful

Servant, The Good Samaritan, Jesus at the House of Martha and Mary,

Parables of the Lost Sheep and the Lost Coin, Parable of the Prodigal

Son, Dives and Lazarus, Healing of the Ten Lepers, Parable of the

Publican and Pharisee, Parable of the Marriage of the King's Son,

Easter, Pentecost. The extent to which details of stories, Biblical

geography, cultural history, and passages of Scripture or catechism are

included is governed by the maturity and education of the children. In

this class considerable attention is given to the reading of hymns and

New Testament Scriptures from the four Gospels (elucidating obscure

passages and difficult sentences), to connections between Bible stories

and history, and to chronological sequence.

_Class V._ (Boys four hours, girls three hours, weekly.) Continued

instruction in New Testament history, especially the parables of Jesus

and the story of his passion and resurrection. To this is added the

account of the founding of the first Christian church and its spread by

the efforts of the chief apostles. The work includes the following new

stories: Jesus and Nichodemus, Jesus and the Samaritan Woman, Jesus

Commences to Speak in Parables, The Transfiguration of Jesus, Peter's

Confession, The Man Born Blind, Jesus the Good Shepherd, The Raising of

Lazarus, Jesus in the House of Zacchaeus, Jesus in Bethany, Parable of

the Labourers in the Vineyard, Parable of the Ten Virgins, Washing of

Feet, The Lord's Supper, Jesus in Gethsemane, Jesus Before the High

Priest and the Sanhedrin, Jesus Before Pilate and Herod, Crucifixion of

Jesus, Christ's Burial, The Resurrection, Jesus Appears to the Two

Disciples on the Way to Emmaus, He Appears to the Disciples in

Jerusalem, He Appears at the Sea of Tiberias, The Great Commission to

the Disciples, His Ascension, The Outpouring of the Holy Ghost on

Pentecost, The First Miracle and First Persecution, Stephen, The

Ethiopian Eunuch, Saul, Cornelius, Paul Preaching the Gospel to the

Gentiles.

Bible reading, the catechism, Bible history, and hymns are studied as in

former classes, but more intensively. Besides the catechism, passages of

Scripture, containing great Christian and moral truths are to be

impressed and memorized verbatim. Continuous reviews through the years

enable the children to connect several stories into groups, and to

acquire complete information regarding the life and work of Christ. A

small instruction book is used. First part and Article I of the second

part are studied.

_Third Division_

_Class VI._ (Four hours weekly.) Bible history and Old Testament taken

up simultaneously--Bible reading and ecclesiastical history alternating.

A deeper knowledge of sacred history is sought. Striking illustrations

of God's plan of salvation operating among the Jews are given, designed

to enable the children to appreciate the redemptive meaning of Old

Testament history. Emphasis is placed on the period just preceding the

time of Christ. New stories introduced: The Division of the Kingdom,

Elisha, The Downfall of the Kingdom of Israel, Isaiah, Jeremiah, The

Fall of the Kingdom of Judah, The Jews under Babylonian Captivity, Their

Return from Captivity, The Last Four Hundred Years.

Familiarity with Old Testament Scriptures and history, Biblical

geography, and cultural history is to be gained. Articles II and III of

the second part, and the third, fourth, and fifth parts of the

instruction book are taken up.

_Class VII._ (Three hours weekly.) One Gospel--Matthew--is read

connectedly and followed by a treatment of selected parts from the Acts

of the Apostles in connection with the work of Biblical history in the

fourth and fifth grades. All materials previously gathered from the

various sources are again taken up, applied, and centered.

Narratives relating to important periods of the church. Among them:--The

Persecutions (under Nero, Polycarpus), The Victory of Christianity

(Constantine), The Christian Ceremonies, Augustine, Hermits and Monks,

The Spread of Christianity, The Popes, The Crusades, The Preparation for

the Reformation, The Lutheran Reformation (Luther, the Jesuits, the

Catholic Mission), The Lutheran Church in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth

Centuries, in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, The Mission,

Bible Societies.

The aim in this division is to give information regarding the

development of the church in general, and of the Lutheran church in

particular. Narratives are grouped around great central

characters--Christian personages. A realization of the lofty aims of

Christianity on the part of the children together with an appreciation

of their duties and responsibilities as members of the Christian church

is the intent. By means of an instruction book the main divisions of

church history, general history, and the history of Norway are

correlated. Information contained in the hymn book acquaints the

children with the ceremonial order of the ecclesiastical year as well as

with the contents and order of the book itself. The study of previously

memorized hymns and verses is emphasized and enlarged upon.

It is to be remembered that in Norway church and state are united.

Religious and scholastic interests are under the direction of the

Department of Ecclesiastical and Educational affairs. The minister of

this department of State is one of the King's cabinet. Here we find one

of the numerous attempts at the solution of the vexing question of moral

instruction, or, to be more exact, religious instruction in the public

schools. While the provisions for this teaching are not faultless, and

though their course of instruction could not be adopted for use in

America with its medley of religious prejudices, yet we must acknowledge

that they are well adapted to the needs and desires of the people

served. The citizenship of the country is homogenous religiously, almost

universally Lutheran, and their traditions militate against any change

in religious creed. The teaching of religion in the schools has been the

practice for generations, the instruction is taken as a matter of

course, and it exerts its beneficient influences upon all.

There are a number of important features of this moral instruction which

press their claims for special mention, but we cannot discuss them all.

A few, however, demand some attention. The statement of the proverb,

that as the twig is bent so will the tree be inclined, has been borne

out in practice times without number. Here, it seems to me, is one more

illustration. Throughout their whole school life--that receptive,

appropriating, formative period--the children have constantly before

them ideals that are elevating, examples that are inspiring, and

admonitions that tend to create and develop within them an ambition to

excel in beauty of character. That the morals of society are not kept

more nearly pure by this procedure seems a psychological impossibility.

Again a rather successful attempt is made to have the home and school

cooperate along the lines of personal purity. In fact the home, the

school, and the church join hands and supplement each other in all

efforts in religious and moral training. True it is that striking

examples of nobility of character, high ideals, and moral worth abound

in profane history as well as in sacred, in secular life as well as in

religious, in living characters as truly as in those of past ages, but

the school system of Norway provides ample opportunity for presenting

all of these things in connection with their regular instruction in the

various subjects taught, and, in addition, furnishes particularized

instruction which makes a specialty of moral and religious development.

It seems imperative that, when these ennobling lessons are thus vividly

presented, the powers of imitation and habit should combine in the

creation of stronger and nobler characters.

Nevertheless, when religious instruction is made a requirement, it too

frequently becomes formal and literal rather than spiritual and

lifegiving. That this great misfortune is the case in some of the

secondary schools of Norway is an indictment which cannot be denied.

However, in the primary schools the instruction is fruitful and

important. As a consequence of these conditions the statement is common

among many that in looking back over the years of religious instruction

they recall numerous happy instances of earnest, heartfelt prayer and

Bible stories accompanied by intense feeling on the part of the teacher.

Other experiences reveal the fact that some of the teaching profession

had not the sincerity and feeling back of their instruction required in

order to give vitality and meaning to the lessons presented.

The entire question of instruction in morals in our public schools is

one of pressing importance. It is being agitated in many lands today and

a solution is sorely needed. Were all classes of society united as to

what should be included in this instruction the matter would adjust

itself very readily. However, social conditions in a single nation are

more or less diverse, and between different nations still greater breaks

are to be found. In fact the ideals and conceptions of society are so

varied that no one present system would suffice for all. Could a code of

ethics be formulated which would meet universal approval then its

adoption and use might be hoped for. Until then each nation must

necessarily follow the plan which seems best adapted to its social

requirements. As already stated, the people of Norway are nearly all

adherents to the Lutheran creed so there are very few dissenters from

the common rule. Provision is made in the law that those who do not

adhere to the state church and object to receiving instruction in this

particular line may, upon request of parent or guardian, be excused from

such instruction.[23]

_Norwegian_

_Aim._ It is the aim of the instruction in Norwegian to further the

mental development of children, especially their linguistic ability. In

this course of activity they should acquire:

(1) Efficiency in apprehending and assimilating what they hear or read,

confident readiness in reading, plain articulation, and correct and

natural accentuation.

(2) Efficiency in expressing themselves orally and in writing without

making any serious errors in the common usage of language or the rules

of composition.

(3) Efficiency in the use of the grammar of the mother-tongue which is

necessary for the above measure of attainments.

_First Division_

_Class I._ (Boys twelve hours, girls eleven hours, weekly.) A suitable

number (twelve or fifteen) of interesting children's stories are told

and utilized for the special purposes of widening the circle of the

children's imagination and developing in them ability in observation,

conception, and expression. An effort is made to render the general

contents of the stories lucid through explanations, while the features

arousing special interest in the minds of the pupils are made the

objects of more detailed conversation. An effort is made to train the

children in correct, free, and easy expression in connected sentences,

and to develop in them the ability to rehearse their stories freely and

connectedly.

_Reading._ The aim is ability to read the primer (_ABC-en_) with

assurance and in a clear tone, properly articulating and accenting each

word and syllable.

_Written exercises._ The object of the written work is to teach the

children to write words and simple sentences which have just been read

orally or have been seen in the primer or on the blackboard.

_Class II._ (Boys ten hours, girls eight hours, weekly.) Twenty or

thirty of the most interesting and valuable selections (prose and

poetry) contained in the reader are made the objects of special and

thorough treatment. Comments, questions, elucidating explanations, and

conversations are means employed in securing a vivid appreciation of the

contents and in developing ability in their easy rehearsal. The other

pieces are treated in a more cursory manner, only the larger views and

the more general understanding of them being attempted.

Special attention is given to having all readings slow with loud, plain,

and correct articulation and proper accentuation. Habitual mistakes are

carefully eliminated. Story telling is also a feature of the year's

work.

_Written exercises_, made up of sentences and short parts of readings,

conversations, or stories are given frequently and for short periods.

Here the names of letters and spelling are attended to with great care.

_Class III._ (Boys eight hours, girls seven hours, weekly.) Twenty or

thirty paragraphs from the reader are given special attention--the

remainder cursory. The plan of work is about the same as for Class II.

Considerable attention is given to the rehearsing of the reading lesson

by the pupils. Some reproductions are to be quite detailed and exact

though they are not to be given in the exact words of the text. Still

other selections receive more general treatment. A few of the most

pleasing poems should be memorized. Greater readiness in slow and even

reading with loud and clear expression and proper natural accentuation

should be sought.

_Written exercises._ Selections from the language work giving special

and rather extended attention to spelling, punctuation, and grammatical

constructions and forms. The teacher sets examples of correct

punctuation, etc.

_Second Division_

_Class IV._ (Five hours weekly.) A select number (20-30) of pieces from

the reader treated as in the former classes, though more exhaustively;

and, in addition, quite a wide range of selections chosen for more

cursory reading. A considerable amount of information regarding the

topics treated and explanations of literary expressions should form

important parts of the instruction in this class. Here, as in both

preceding and succeeding classes, it should be the aim to have the

children make their meanings plain when conversing upon the selections

read, at least to the degree of their ability and development. Parts of

former conversations on various topics should also be recalled and woven

into their discussions.

_Written exercises._ These shall include features previously studied,

and introduce more detailed and finer discriminations in grammatical

usages and forms.

_Class V._ (Boys four hours, girls five hours, weekly.) Exhaustive study

of a few selections and cursory reading in large quantities as before.

Careful and abundant training in oral expression. Specific and detailed

rehearsal of topics discussed in which an increasing amount of knowledge

gained through study, experience, and thought is utilized. Short stories

are read. Poems are memorized. Progress in clear and distinct

articulation and easy and natural emphasis in harmony with refined

speech is continuously a requirement.

_Written exercises._ A continuation of former exercises and a

considerable amount of copying, or the writing of abstracts of lesson

content, especially during the second half year. Orthographic,

grammatical, and rhetorical forms are entered into more exhaustively and

their niceties urged. Through continued practice in preparing and

writing compositions, extra work in copying, and special study of

orthography and punctuation, the children, by the close of this their

fifth year of schooling, should be quite capable in punctuation as well

as spelling, though they should not be expected to spell and punctuate

independently with accuracy.

_Third Division_

_Class VI._ (Boys five hours, girls six hours, weekly.) Reading from a

selected portion of the reader. Conversations, information,

explanations, and linguistic elucidations are to be entered into

according to necessity. Increasing stress is here laid on the work of

drawing out the thoughts, ideas, and knowledge of the pupils, and of

inciting them to more independent, intellectual effort.

_Written exercises._ Continued as previously though introducing larger

amounts of independently selected forms of expression and insisting on

greater accuracy in punctuation. Letter writing is added.

_Class VII._ (Five hours weekly.) Selections from the reader and

supplementary reading from recommended books calculated to awaken,

develop, and educate. Special attention given to the most important

authors.

_Written exercises._ Compositions on topics of interest, letter writing,

business correspondence including applications, invoices,

advertisements, and telegrams.

The methods employed in presenting the mother-tongue are quite plainly

set forth in the foregoing outline. Though the content is not so

specifically defined, the general lines are indicated in such a way as

to give very adequate insight thereinto. Some of the methods of

presentation seem somewhat cumbersome and rather antiquated. This

impression is due chiefly to terminology. The actual work in the

schoolrooms is flexible, free, and, as a rule, attractive. The latitude

granted to the teachers in all their work admits of almost unlimited

individual initiative. Many of their teachers are quite expert in the

most modern methods.

The utilitarian idea which pervades every phase of their school work is

especially noticeable in the teaching of their own language. In harmony

with this idea, let me call attention to the fact that, from the first,

constant use is made of every attainment in both oral and written form.

The oral work embraces the reading of the text, reading from the

blackboard, and conversational exercises on the special topics being

considered. Written work on the same lessons include copying of certain

selections or parts of them and original expressions in regard to the

contents of lessons read. In the advanced grades these written exercises

become more and more extended and complicated until they amount to

complete essays. Special attention is given to correct forms of

expression and to the acquirement of habits of clear and distinct

enunciation. The child, who from his earliest school days becomes

habituated to exact pronunciations, is very liable--almost sure--to

spell correctly; and, when constant use is made of the language in

written exercises, the accepted and approved forms of expression become

the fixed usages.

Now their treatment of the mother-tongue is a combination of our

reading, spelling, language lessons, grammar, rhetoric, and literature,

all taught in their natural order as they arise through actual use.

Incidentally, vast amounts of biography, history, geography, and natural

science as well as writing are included. The richness of content and

thoroughness of treatment deserve careful consideration in the writing

of courses and still more in their application. Specialization in phases

of a single subject in lower schools nearly always means waste of

energy, scattering of forces, and disappointment in the end. On the

contrary, unification and close correlation result in economy of time

and effort, and issue in more worthy attainments. The several fields of

thought are already too much isolated from each other, and unless some

guards are erected the individual fields also will be broken up and

their distinctive phases so divorced from one another that their

cooperative tendencies and values will become void and their

relationships will be lost sight of. Norwegian is easily the

preponderant study in Norway's schools, but, since it is so inclusive,

it probably deserves the large amount of time devoted to it.

The long lists of supplementary readings now provided in our American

schools exert a wholesome influence. Their constant revision and

extension furnish materials which in the hands of skilled teachers,

guarantee to the pupils sure knowledge and ability in the use of the

mother-tongue. The limitless resources in English literature, America's

lavish provision for higher education and professional training, and the

freedom granted to our teaching profession leave the teachers of our

language without excuse. The pupils studying English in America have a

right to expect the best. One condition which frequently militates

against first class work in this line is that school boards all too

frequently fail to realize that being a teacher of English means more

than merely hearing lessons so many times a week. A very large part of

the most important work must be done aside from class exercises. If

there be any teacher justified in asking a reduction in hours of

instruction it is the teacher of the mother-tongue.

_Mathematics_

_Aim._ Readiness in the four mathematical operations in whole numbers,

decimal numbers, and simple fractions, written and oral. Ability to

independently solve various examples in the forms in which they

generally appear in practical life, also examples in proportion and

examples in percentage, together with problems of planes and solids.

Course and mode of its execution as given in a text--Instruction in

Mathematics (_Regneundervisningen_)--followed in all essentials.

_First Division_

_Class I._ (Boys five hours, girls four hours, weekly.) Through constant

use of illustrative material (objects about the room, wooden pins,

cubes, the children's fingers, etc.) the children are taught to

gradually become acquainted with the numbers to ten, twenty, thirty, and

on up to one hundred; and they are afforded continuous practice in

reading, writing, and explaining the numbers, as well as in performing

simple solutions in the four arithmetical operations. At the close of

the year the children should be able to count to one hundred forward and

backward. They must know how to manipulate the numbers from one to ten

in adding to or subtracting from any number less than one hundred, and

be able, by the assistance of the tables, to answer questions in

multiplication (two's to five's). and some questions in division. Chief

importance attaches to the ability of the children to use the numbers

from one to thirty.

_Class II._ (Four hours weekly.) Acquaintance with and ability to read

and write any number up to one million.

_Mental arithmetic._ Continuation of operations begun in Class I. When

proficient in adding and subtracting units to and from one hundred, tens

and units are taken up in the same way. Examples in easy multiplication,

with occasional use of division, carried on throughout the year.

_Tablet work._ Addition and subtraction of numbers up to one million. In

the operations coin, measure, and weight denominations are used, and are

illustrated by coins, measures, and weights.

_Class III._ (Boys four hours, girls three hours, weekly.) Acquaintance

with the numeral system up to and including millions. Continuous

practice in reading, writing, and using numbers.

_Mental operations._ Addition and subtraction of numbers up to one

hundred continued. Thereafter extend the numbers as far as the children

can use them with certainty and rapidity. Multiplication of numbers up

to one hundred by units.

_Tablet work._ More work in addition and subtraction going farther than

to numbers with six ciphers. Multiplication of numbers with many ciphers

by multipliers having one or more ciphers.

_Second Division_

_Class IV._ (Boys four hours, girls three hours, weekly.) Division with

divisors having one or more ciphers. Separation of numbers into their

individual factors. Finding of the least common multiple. After this a

thorough drill in the four arithmetical operations with whole

numbers--old and new exercises.

_Mental and tablet exercises_ in closest relation to each other. In all

mental operations, here or later, rapid and positive use should be made

of the easier examples before the harder ones are fumbled or handled

with uncertainty.

_Class V._ (Two hours weekly.) After the necessary preparation, practice

in the three operations with decimal numbers. In connection with the

consideration of plane surfaces the children should be given practice in

measuring parallelograms, triangles, irregular quadrangles and

many-sided surfaces--triangles should predominate.

_Mental and tablet exercises_ parallel each other and are in intimate

relation.

_Third Division_

_Class VI._ (Three hours weekly.) Preparatory practice in common

fractions together with addition and subtraction of fractions having a

common denominator and others which can easily be reduced to a common

denominator. Multiplication and division using or including fractions.

Further development with mental operations growing out of and in

connection with tablet work.

_Class VII._ (Three hours weekly.) Percentage including interest,

rebate, and discount. The calculating of cubes, prisms, pyramids,

circles, cylinders, cones; also shortened pyramids, cones, and

cylinders.

After this a general review so far as time admits.

Simple arithmetical operations occupy the entire field during the

earlier years. The elementary algebraic forms and methods of solution

are introduced relatively early, and minor geometric relations and

operations are presented during the last (seventh) year of the lower

schools. These latter features are radically different from our general

procedure in the United States. We are in the habit of presenting the

various mathematical subjects one at a time, completing one before

another is considered to any extent whatever. For example, arithmetic is

taken up and gone through, while parts of geometry and algebra which

would be great aids in some of the arithmetical solutions are studiously

avoided or excluded until the formal study of that particular subject is

finally begun. The people of Norway, on the contrary, enter the larger

field of mathematics and, in a more rational manner--a more

psychological way--utilize available processes and forms at every

opportunity. The phases of mathematics are not specialized into

isolation but coordinated into a working unity. Instead of studying one

subject throughout its intricacies and side issues before admitting

consideration of other phases of mathematics, they make it the rule to

utilize the elemental factors of the various mathematical subjects in

every way possible. They give recognition to the simpler and more

fundamental principles and operations regardless of the special phase of

the subject to which they belong, and use the entire product as

groundwork for succeeding steps in the science. In this way parts of

algebra and geometry become valuable contributing preliminaries to

higher arithmetical operations.

The texts used by the pupils are little more than a series of exercises.

All teaching is done by the teacher and the texts are arranged in such a

way that the children may have opportunity to become skilled in the

principles evolved in class through application of them in the long

lists of problems in their texts. Very little blackboard is provided for

the pupils' use, hence but little blackboard work is accomplished. Each

room has a small board on which the teacher of a pupil may go through

solutions. Never have I seen more than one at a time working at the

blackboard. While the limited use of blackboards generally calls for an

increased amount of dependence upon intellectual activity and consequent

increase in mental alertness, the free use of blackboards relieves the

mind of unnecessary burdens which may as well be borne by crayon, and

thus provides for the higher centers a freer activity in pushing on the

quest for the unknown.

_Geography_

_Aim._ To obtain (1) A somewhat complete acquaintance with the

fatherland; its conditions, commerce, manner of life. (2) Acquaintance

with the geography of Europe, especially the countries to the north and

the other longer civilized countries. (3) A view of the different

continents and a closer acquaintance with lands and places which are of

greatest importance to the fatherland. (4) Knowledge of the most

important features of physical and mathematical geography.

_First Division_

_Class II._ (Boys three hours, girls two hours, weekly.) With continuous

reference to local geography and places known to the children, the

pupils are brought to understand geographical forms and relations in

general. Special attention is given to charts and maps. Instruction

begins with drawings (on blackboard and tablets) of the schoolroom; then

extends to schoolgrounds, to the immediate surroundings with streets and

some of the more important buildings; and then to the entire city with

its environs, etc., etc. The children should become acquainted with the

more important features of topography, soil, valleys, plains, ridges,

mountains, seas, fjords, rivers, brooks, seasons, day and night, rising

and setting of planets (sun, moon, and stars), flora and fauna,

altitude, sea level, etc. From familiarity with the city and its

surroundings the work extends to the entire fatherland which is

considered in an elementary fashion. Herein are included elementary

studies of coast line, principal systems of valleys, and location and

size of cities.

Map drawing of small localities.

_Class III._ (Two hours weekly.) The map of Europe. Beginning with the

fatherland, including its location with reference to other lands and

seas as well as its relations thereto, enter into a study of other

European countries in the order in which they would naturally be entered

if touring from the fatherland. Subdivisions of the sea and land, also

cities, railways, canals, rivers, and mountains are to be studied.

Pictures are to be used in illustration. By the use of globes and other

illustrative material, the discussion may be extended to other parts of

the world. Each of the several divisions of the earth is to be treated

in an elementary manner. Everything is to be outlined or indicated on

the maps and charts--first by the teacher and later by the pupils.

_Second Division_

_Class IV._ (One hour weekly.) On the foundation of what was done in

Class III the work shall be extended to the outlying divisions of

Europe--Norway, Sweden, Denmark, The British Isles, France, Spain,

Portugal, Italy, Russia. The study of maps is emphasized both for review

and new work. Every land is considered with reference to the fatherland,

other known lands, the equator, and the poles. Attention confined to

typical aspects: description of a typical city, a manufacturing center,

etc., special variations in climate, flora and fauna, chief natural

scenery, commercial activities, products and conditions of the citizens.

Readings on geographical topics are correlated with picture

illustrations. Details and illustrations utilized as in Class III.

_Class V._ (One hour weekly.) Holland, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland,

Austria, Hungary, and the Balkan peninsula are considered after the

plan used in Class IV. After these European countries, foreign countries

are discussed. Study and instruction in this class is in accord with the

outlines of work in previous classes though more exhaustive and minute.

India, China, the large islands in the Pacific Ocean, North Africa with

its Sahara, Central Africa, The United States of America, Australia,

etc., are also considered.

_Third Division_

_Class VI._ (One hour weekly.) The geography of the fatherland is gone

through thoroughly with the aim of imparting to the children a rather

complete knowledge of their country's nature, commerce, and life in its

various localities. The chief points considered are: coast line,

surface, water channels, climate--east and west--boundaries,

inhabitants, life of the people, political divisions. This is to be

constantly correlated with what has been learned previously of other

European countries. Map drawing in detail. Review of former work.

_Class VII._ (One hour weekly.) The more important features of

mathematical and physical geography are presented, being continuously

illustrated by charts, maps, globes, astronomical plates, etc. The

horizon, earth formations, zones, yearly and daily rotations,

geographical breadth and length; the moon, its phases; the planets,

etc., are important topics for study. Others are positions of continents

and oceans with reference to each other, climate and physical features

of the earth, the air, winds, changes in temperature, movements of the

sea, the more important ocean streams (Gulf and Polar streams), etc.

Throughout the study constant connections should be made between what is

known in geography, natural history, and nature study.

The outline indicates both thoroughness and a close correlation with

related fields of work. Beginning with the well-known in geography they

gradually widen their horizon and establish connections with the more

remote parts of the earth until the children obtain a moderately

accurate appreciation and knowledge of this branch of study and get a

view of its intricate relations with life and human activity. While the

work of the course is generally characterized by thoroughness, their

study of localities outside of Europe is simply a skimming over or a

skipping glance.

To be sure time is insufficient to enable them to exhaust all

opportunities; but, it would seem more consistent with their general

idea of concentrating on matters which directly concern the fatherland

and its subjects, did they bring the young into a more intimate

acquaintance with America and a fuller appreciation of what America

really means to Norway and Norwegians. Very few Norsemen are without

vital interests here. Nearly all, it seems, have immediate relatives or

very dear friends who have migrated from the native land and have

established homes in the United States. It appears that it would be

important for them to follow the path of their migrating brethren and

acquaint themselves more fully with the geography of America. Its life,

topography, commerce, and other distinctive features would add to their

geography a chapter of unsurpassed values.

The work which is done is commendable for many reasons. The many-sided

views obtained by varied methods of attack are rich and meaningful.

Every pupil is ready with a full discussion in response to a question

relating to their own country. Furthermore, they are informed with

reference to the relationships existing between each country studied and

the fatherland. These have been clearly pointed out. The perspective

obtained through the study of physical and mathematical geography

affords richer meaning to every day of life as well as to all the

phenomena of nature.

_History_

_Aim._ The chief aim of instruction in history is to inspire the

children's historic instincts and love for their country and people. In

an effort to obtain this the following information is imparted: (1) A

somewhat connected knowledge of the history of the fatherland together

with the fundamental tendencies of the social order. (2) Acquaintance

with the most significant incidents in general history.

_First Division_

_Class III._ (Two hours weekly.) Selected narratives from the history of

the fatherland. The collection of stories includes the following: Harald

the Fair Haired, Haakon the Good, Haakon Jarl, Olaf Trygveson, Olaf the

Holy, Sverre Sigurdson, Haaken the Aged, Margaret and Albert, Christian

the Second, Christian the Fourth, Tordenskjold, The Years 1807-1814, The

Time of Pirates, Kristian August, Norway in 1814, Kristian Fredrik,

Eidsvold, 17th of May, Norway's decennial celebration.

The stories are presented orally and are so detailed that the children

get clear pictures of persons and incidents. The material of instruction

is centered about particular and important persons and incidents in

order to give them greater fixity. The pupils rehearse the stories they

have been taught. Historic poems and songs of the fatherland which refer

especially to people or incidents are studied in connection with the

history. The material received through instruction in geography during

the former year is utilized as groundwork in building up and enriching

the historical ideas of the fatherland. The more important phases of

social institutions are presented in a way suited to the capacity of the

pupils. As the stories proceed, an attempt is made to awaken a degree of

appreciation of their historical sequence.

_Second Division_

_Class IV._ (Two hours weekly.) Stories and descriptions regarding

general history centering about the following points or topics: Ancient

world kingdoms, Greeks, Romans, Germans, Norse, Papacy, great

discoveries and inventions. Treatment here is similar to that given in

Class III. Stories, anecdotes and pictures add life to regular routine.

Stories of the fatherland are presented in very brief form and are given

in order to effect connection with general events in world history. Here

again geography is made the groundwork of history.

_Class V._ (One hour weekly.) Work carried on as previously. Narratives

of events chiefly during the time from the Reformation to the French

Revolution.

Central features studied: Luther and the time of the Reformation

(Luther's childhood and youth, Karl V., extension of the Reformation,

and the Thirty Years' War), the period of absolute monarchy, the time

preceding the Revolution, science and discovery. Presentation of topics

the same as previously given. Here is included also a considerable

amount of culture history, descriptions from which are given in such a

way that life among the higher classes, as well as among the oppressed,

may be presented and appreciated.

_Third Division_

_Class VI._ (One hour weekly.) Work continued as heretofore. Stories

from the time of the Revolution down to modern times. Among the

materials used are the following topics: time of the Revolution,

1789-1800; Napoleon, 1800-1815; July and February Revolutions, Napoleon

III., Germany's consolidation, discoveries and inventions, delineations

of the history of civilization, and the advance of modern times in

industries and means for communication.

_Class VII._ (Two hours weekly.) The history of the fatherland gone

through in great detail and in a definitely connected manner. All work

based upon what has been learned in former classes. The following are

among the more important points considered: Norway in ancient times,

Norway organized into a Christian kingdom, Norway's time of prosperity,

Norway under internal wars, Norway under later kings of Swedish family

and descent, Norway in union with Sweden and Denmark, Norway united to

Denmark until 1661, time of absolute monarchy (1661-1814), Norway in

1814, Norway since 1814. In addition, the chief features of social

institutions, the condition of the state, rights and obligations of

citizens, state administration, communal affairs, and similar topics are

discussed at some length.

By the assistance of a suitable text the presentation should impart to

the pupils a moderately connected knowledge of the historical

development of the fatherland up to the present time. The children

should obtain clear insight into the inner historic situations; persons,

events, and specific dates standing as contributors in the background.

Historic sagas and related selections are used in connection. While

attention centers in the history of the fatherland, important

contemporary events in general history are kept constantly before the

eyes, frequent reference being made to the studies in Classes IV-VI.

The stated aims, enumerated means, and outlined methods of presentation

afford a fairly good idea of the work done in the study of history

throughout the primary schools. It has been observed, perhaps by many,

that instruction in history has been preceded by one year's study of

geography, that the geography of the several countries precedes the

history of the peoples inhabiting them, and that geographical

appreciation is utilized as a foundation for instruction in history.

The main purposes of instruction in history are: development of

patriotic and loyal citizens, intellectual training, and cultural

information. The prized traits of citizenship are read, sung, and

drilled into the daily life of every child in the entire country, and

these impressions are fixed so definitely that they live through

generations, even when the subjects are transplanted to foreign soils.

Story telling in the beginnings of history instruction affords an

immediate appeal both to the children's interest in personal activities

and to their liking for that form of instruction. The characters whose

biographies are delineated are the men around whom national activities

have centered. The bits of history related are of epoch-making incidents

from the earliest times down to the present. Being presented through

biography they have a personal touch and flavor which secure vital and

immediate responses from the children.

There are still other features worthy of consideration. Incidents of

historic interest are not only pointed out and studied but the scenes of

these are actually visited. Here again we see the definite way in which

history and geography are correlated. Too, since Norway has been

favored by the gift of many literary geniuses, most historic characters

and events have found place in literary classics. All along the way,

songs, poems, and dramas having relation to national history are brought

into the instruction in a living, real way. The children are given

abundant opportunity to attain proficiency in relating historic events

with information gained from the fields of geography, language, and

literature.

_Nature Study_

_Aim._ Instruction in nature study attempts to awaken the children's

interest in and regard for nature in all its expressions, and to

exercise their thought powers and judgment so as to enable them to find

or make connections between cause and effect. In order that their

attention be centered upon the suitability to purpose, conformity to

law, harmony and beauty, the children should have their thought directed

to nature's creation and maintenance. Finally, the children through this

instruction should obtain a conception of how mankind attempts to

control nature and to utilize its strength in the promotion of human

welfare.

_Materials for instruction._ Our bodily structure in the large or whole,

as necessary to an understanding of the general conditions in man's

physical life and as fundamental to instruction in health. The more

important native and foreign animals and plants; their growth and life,

together with their importance in nature's economy. The natural forces

which have greatest significance for organic life and for man's

efficiency.

_Methods of instruction._ Natural objects or representations of them in

model or drawing, and operations of natural forces illustrated by

experiments observed and written up. The accuracy of observations are

tested by the pupil's oral or written accounts of what they see.

Conditions and things familiar to the children in common life are the

ones to be used above all others.

_Class IV._ (One hour weekly.) Short synopsis over our bodily structure

(four hours). Present by oral instruction and through illustrative

materials the skeleton, muscles, digestive organs, skin, circulation,

respiratory organs. The same points may also be studied as they appear

in the lower animals.

_Mammals._ (Twenty hours.) Horse, ass, cow, sheep, goat, reindeer, deer,

elk, camel, cat, wild-cat, lion, tiger, dog, wolf, fox, marten, bear,

swine, elephant, seal, whale, hare, rabbit, squirrel, rat, beaver,

anteater, bat, monkey.

_Fowls._ (Ten hours.) Tame chickens, woodcock, sparrow, yellow hammer,

bullfinch, lark, swallow, starling, dove, cuckoo, parrot, hawk, falcon,

eagle, owl, heron, stork, duck, goose, swan, gull, ostrich, and others.

Instruction begins with typical animal forms which are illustrated by

charts or drawings when the stuffed or mounted specimens are not at

hand. The children are required to depend upon themselves as much as

possible in finding out individual characteristics in the bodily

structures of the chosen forms. Then bodily structure and habits are

related, as are also their homes, food, color, and environment. Finally,

the animal's meaning in the economy of nature and its value to man are

the points studied. Along with the careful study of a typical form,

related animals are examined in a more general and cursory manner. The

children are taught to remember that while they have dominion over the

animals they are at the same time under obligations to them. Disregard

of these duties is looked upon as rudeness. Animal stories form a part

of the instruction. After studying the chosen types a review takes

notice of common characters and separates animals into classes.

Instruction is based on a text.

_Class V._ (Two hours weekly.) _Plants._ (Forty hours.) _Dicotyledonous

plants._ Bluebells, buttercups, strawberry, apple trees, pea, clover,

beans, cherry, plum, dandelion, blueberry, heather, potato, tobacco,

willow, birch, hazel, and others, studied under their regular headings

or in their special families.

_Monocotyledonous plants._ Rye, barley, wheat, oats, timothy, lily of

the valley, pine, fir, juniper, in connection with respective families.

_Flowerless plants._ Ferns, moss, mushrooms.

_Foreign useful plants._ Coffee, tea, cotton, sugar cane, rice, maize,

orange, palms, spices. All plants are studied carefully under their

respective subdivisions. As in the consideration of animals, the growth,

vital organs, habitat, and use of plants are studied, as are also their

grouping, fruit, etc. About fifty plants are studied carefully and

others are related to them. The children are taught not to injure plants

or trees.

_Animals._ (Twenty hours.) Adder, lizard, crocodile, turtle, frog, toad,

mackerel, pike, salmon, trout, herring, haddock, flounder, eel, shark,

cabbage butterfly, silk worm, moth, bee, bumble-bee, wasp, ant, fly,

gnat, grasshopper, spider, lobster, crab, angleworm, leech, trichina,

snail, mussel, star-fish, sea urchin, coral, sponge, etc. Instruction

along same line as in Class IV.

_Physics._ (Sixteen hours.) Based on a text. Instruction to be

accompanied by experiments whenever possible--otherwise illustrated by

drawings and models.

_Solids._ Resistance to change in form: hardness, elasticity. Resistance

to change of extensity: compressibility, porosity, adhesion, cohesion.

_Liquids._ No fixed form, apparent unchangeability of extensity,

adhesion to solids, solution of solids, mixing of liquids, endosmose.

_Gases._ No definite form, attraction, diffusion, absorption.

_Gravitation._ Weight, units of weight, weighing, relation between

weight and size, force of weight as a cause of movement, hindrances to

movement, forces in equilibrium.

_The lever._ Balance, hand presses, on the principle of the lever.

_Class VI._ (Two hours weekly.) _Liquids._ (Eight hours.) Distribution

of pressure, Archimedes' law, specific gravity, communicating shaft.

_Properties of air._ (Eight hours.) Archimedes' law, the atmosphere and

its pressure, barometer, pumps and lifters, Mariotte's law.

_Heat._ (Twelve hours.) Different temperatures, effects of heat,

expansion of bodies, the thermometer, maximum density of water, melting

and freezing, evaporation and condensation, boiling, degree of pressure

at the boiling point.

Transmission of heat by radiation and by conduction, good and poor

conductors, temperature and humidity of the air, downward pressure,

circulation of water, atmospheric currents, sources of heat, heat as

force, steam pressure.

_Sound._ (Eight hours.) Origin of sound, its transmission, rate of

transmission, the ear, tones, reflection of sound.

_Light._ (Ten hours.) Self-illuminating and dark bodies, transparent and

opaque, straight path of light, shade, rate of transmission, reflection,

refraction, diffusion of color, convex and concave lenses, microscope,

telescope, camera, the eye, spectacles.

_Magnetism._ (Five hours.) The magnet and its poles, their reciprocal

relations, magnetizing, difference magnetically in iron and steel,

horseshoe magnet, compass.

_Electricity._ (Fifteen hours.) Electricity of friction, two kinds of

electrical condition, conductors and insulators, communicating and

distributing, electrical machines, lightning and thunder, lightning

rods, electrical current, battery, electric light, electro-magnetism,

telegraph, telephone, electricity which generates power.

_Equilibrium and Motion._ (Ten hours.) Motion with uniform, increasing,

or decreasing rapidity; combination of motion and force (the

parallelogram of power, center of gravity, the three conditions of

balance, the beam, the inclined plane); work and vital force;

experiment with the pendulum.

_Class VII._ (Two hours weekly.) _Physics._ (Sixteen hours.) Machines,

block, tackle, windlass, the curved pivot, various driving forces (water

wheel, steam engines, dynamos), application of machinery in the

industries, railways and steamboats.

_Chemistry._ (Sixteen hours.) Ingredients of water and air, coal,

carbonic acid, burning and oxidation. Fundamental elements as material

in all bodies. Examples of elements: oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon,

chlorine, sulphur, phosphorus, aluminum, iron, silver, and gold.

Examples for combinations: water, ammonia, sulphuric acid, rust, soda,

cooking salt, lime, chalk, clay, quartz, ores. Examples of organic

matter: starch, sugar, albumen, alchohol, fats. Instruction in chemistry

consists in illustrations and descriptions of materials and experiments.

_Structure and life of the human body. Study of health._ (Thirty hours.)

Based on text. Study of skeleton, muscles, nervous system, work and

rest, sense organs and their use, digestive organs and processes, use of

teeth, blood and circulation, breathing pure and impure air, kidneys,

meaning of bodily exercise, structure and use of the skin, bathing,

clothing, dwellings, foods and pleasures (under this intoxicating

drinks, tobacco, etc.) Something regarding contagious diseases and help

in times of accidents. Inject instruction on health when convenient in

connection with the study of the organs of the body. Illustrate by

experiment when possible. General review, especially the points

concerning the nourishment and respiration of plants and animals.

The outline in nature study impresses one with the inclusiveness of the

course. The elementary phases of animal life, plant life, physics,

chemistry, and human physiology and health are made the objects of

careful consideration. True this study in some cases is stiff, formal,

meaningless, and without spirit because of not being connected with the

vital interests of the pupils, but on the whole the work is brought very

close home to their daily life. Through it the children are able to see

the contributions to life and human welfare made by the innumerable

things in man's environment.

Throughout the primary grades the work is mostly devoted to descriptive

studies. Considerable attention is given also to the intrinsic value to

man of animals, plants, and natural forces, and the means he has found

for utilizing them in his struggle forward. The nature lessons

throughout the grades are enriched and enlivened by the use of well

selected and carefully prepared appliances and models for demonstration.

Whenever possible the living animals and plants in their natural

habitat, forces as applied in the machinery of neighboring institutions,

and minerals in their successive processes of development and refinement

are studied at first hand. Every school where the financial stringency

is not too keen is provided with a liberal amount of apparatus for

demonstrational purposes (_anskuelsesmidler_). As an instance, every

primary school in the city of Christiania has at least one room of

considerable size devoted exclusively to the storing of this material.

Maps, charts, mounted specimens, plates, preserved articles, and

accessory materials are there in abundance, and provide minute

representations for most any point one might wish to make typical for

illustration or study. The more genuine phases of laboratory work are

not provided, though a considerable amount of crude experimentation is

done in the grades.

The teacher presenting this course must be capable for he is the

authority and guide back of all work done. Text books (good ones though

condensed) play a part, but a much smaller part than would be the case

in our American schools were similar instruction approached in a formal

way. In other words, their teachers furnish the course and _teach_ the

subject, while too many of ours merely present the course provided in

the adopted text book.

Writing, drawing, vocal music, manual training, and gymnastics are also

in the curriculum and each receives careful attention. Perhaps extended

outlining of these courses and long discussions concerning them are

unnecessary. Their importance and value are recognized. Their

presentation in the schools of Norway is commendable, but some things

must be passed without exhaustive treatment. Only general statements

will be given.

The results in some lines--writing and drawing in particular--do not

justify the amount of time devoted to them. The writing is mechanical

throughout, and in the lower grade the requirements are altogether too

exacting. Drawing is required of all alike. Those who have ability in

this line of work perhaps receive too little instruction; others,

without talent or liking for it, regard it as a drudgery and, in the

minds of some of their teachers, hinder the progress of the gifted. The

finer coordinations required in both writing and drawing are frequently

in advance of the development of the pupils and work injury rather than

benefit.

Vocal music is required of all and injures none. Probably each one reaps

considerable benefit from the instruction. The class of music used in

their teaching is very different from what is in vogue in our American

schools. The church has exercised a great deal of influence in this

respect. Since church and state are united the music of the church forms

a predominating portion of the music of the state schools. Psalms,

chants, and songs of stately dignity constitute the bulk of their

selections, while those of lighter strain are interspersed at intervals

not too close together. In America our children's songs are more

attractive from the "jingle" point of view. Our children like them

better and are more anxious to sing them. The little Norwegians, too,

are delighted when permitted to swing into the lighter strains of music.

They love to sing. Their faces fairly glow as their mellow voices swell

out whether they sing in a jingle or in the rich harmonies of their

psalms. Common use of the better quality of music cultivates their

ability to appreciate and to render works of higher order than one

usually finds in the schools of our own country.

Manual and industrial training has had an important place in their

schools for many years. Every hour spent at the bench is a delight to

the boys, while the girls enjoy equally well the privilege of sewing or

cooking. These activities are certainly valuable in the training of the

young, and their influences extend into the homes of all the pupils.

Gymnastics is the regular order for all pupils. A Swedish system of

exercises is used which requires little apparatus but yields large

returns. Abundant well-directed exercises of various kinds are provided

for every pupil at stated periods and are entered into with zest. The

regularity with which the gymnastic exercises are given doubtless has

much to do in preserving the health of the children. As a class they are

not only free from weaknesses but are vigorous and robust. Another part

of their gymnastic work is the outdoor exercise which is required of all

the pupils between the class periods. This doubtless adds much life and

animation to the entire school program.

The course as a whole includes the fundamentals and chief essentials to

educational activity. Those who pass through the primary schools obtain

an intelligent appreciation of life and its meanings. They are able to

meet common needs successfully and to attend to general affairs in an

approved manner. The masses feel the necessity of the fuller life thus

provided and in turn the school is admirably fitted to the task of

developing loyal and capable citizens. Furthermore, those who are so

favorably situated that they may continue in school longer than seven

years and desire fitness for entrance upon the work of higher education

find in the primary schools every opportunity to gratify their desires.

The connection between the lower and higher schools was not at all

satisfactory until 1896, when the Storthing readjusted the system. Since

then pupils may pass regularly from the fifth grade of the primary

school into the four year middle school, or after the completion of the

seven grades of the primary school they may enter either a three or a

four year middle school and finish in three years. Since the number

desiring entrance to the middle school from the fifth grade is larger

than can be accommodated, those of highest ranking educationally are

admitted. While the secondary school men claim perfect right to choose

the fittest for entrance into their schools, the primary school men feel

that their work in the sixth and seventh grades suffers injustice as a

result of this selective process. The connection between the schools is

not yet perfect and some unrest is evidenced in reference to the matter.

The chief need seems to be an increase in the number of middle schools.

III. THE MIDDLE SCHOOL

The Storthing, in 1896, passed a law defining the limits and work of the

middle school. According to the enactment this school builds upon the

foundation laid in the primary school and secures to the pupils a

thorough general education suited to the needs and receptivity of

childhood. The course of study offered may be of varied length, but in

no case shall it exceed four years in duration. The four year course

aims at a very natural connection with the work done during the first

five years in the common school. Where the connection can be made with

the work of later grades in the primary school, the course of the middle

school may be correspondingly shorter. The aim and methods are in

general similar to those in the lower school; though, of course, higher,

more thorough and inclusive, and such as give deeper insight into all

subjects of instruction. It is required that instruction be given in

religion, Norwegian, German, English, history, geography, natural

science, mathematics, writing, drawing, manual training, and vocal

music. Instruction in domestic economy may be provided for the girls.

Formerly all of these schools charged tuition; but, as the conditions in

the commune gradually improved, provisions were made in some of them for

the issuance of a certain number of free scholarships. These were

usually governed in such a way that those most in need were the first to

receive the benefits. From time to time scholarship funds were increased

until now some communes provide free scholarships to all resident

children. The city of Christiania has a three-year middle school

building upon the foundation of seven years of primary work and charging

no tuition whatsoever. This provision together with the building up of

scholarship funds are forerunners of free entrance, probably, to all of

the state's middle schools. As already stated, the work of the middle

school overlaps in part that of the primary school. The course of study

for Classes I and II is in a large measure a duplication of that

provided for Classes VI and VII in the lower school. However, to

present the work of the middle school adequately, it is essential that

the course for the entire four years be here included. The state adopts

a curriculum which is used in all of its secondary schools. Minor

details such as texts vary in the different schools. The following is an

outline of the curriculum used in the Christiania Cathedral School.

_Religion_

_Class I._ (Two hours.) Vogt's Bible History to the fall of the Kingdom

of Judah. J. Sverdrup's Commentary to Article 2. Verses of hymns once

each week.

_Class II._ (Two hours.) Vogt's Bible History from "The Exile" to "The

Story of the Passion." Commentary from Article 2 to "The Sacraments."

Verses from hymns.

_Class III._ (Two hours.) Bible History and Commentary completed and

reviewed. Verses from hymns. Bible reading.

_Class IV._ (One hour.) Y. Brun and Th. Caspari's Church History gone

through and reviewed. Cursory study of the ecclesiastical year and the

order of divine service.

Here we note the beginnings of a more formal consideration of religion.

A large part of the work is historical. Texts and lectures covering

practically identical grounds form the basis of the work in this branch

of study. The change to the more formal study of religion strikes the

writer as a distinctive turn or transfer from moderately successful to

useless endeavor. The personal touch and human flavor attending the

informal telling of Bible stories afford some genuine inspiration. Life

touches life. When character is exemplified in a living person or is

shown through story once to have had expression in a fellow mortal,

interest is awakened and the child instinctively imitates the vision

before him. He transforms it into life. He enters into the spirit of the

theme and the spirit giveth life.

On the other hand, when religion is presented in a formal way, when an

abstract view is taken, when the core of the subject is in the cold

pages of texts,--then the letter killeth. Through force of habit the

children retain some respect for the wishes of the teacher and do go

through the motions of study and recitation, but the life of the subject

is very soon extinguished and even respect for it vanishes in large

measure. However, in rare instances good results are obtained through

the efforts of teachers who are especially well qualified for this work.

_The Mother-Tongue and Old Norse_

_Class I._ (Five hours.) Pauss and Lassen's Reader II. 2. Some of the

Songs of the Fatherland learned by heart. Oral and written analysis.

Hofgaard's Norwegian School Grammar, Paragraphs 1-31, 34-38, 41, 45,

48-59, 61, 65, 76-79. The more important part of Hougen's Rules for

Correct Writing. Written work (dictation and composition) each week.

_Class II._ (Four hours.) Pauss and Lassen's Reader II. 3. Poems--among

them some of the Songs of the Fatherland learned by heart. Hofgaard's

Grammar continued, also analyses. One written exercise each week

(dictation and easy composition.)

_Class III._ (Alternately three and four hours.) Pauss and Lassen's

Reader III. Poems learned by heart--partly from Lassen's Poems for

Middle Schools, partly from Songs of the Fatherland. Certain parts of

the grammar reviewed. Analyses now and then. About twenty written

exercises, among them some dictations.

_Class IV._ (alternating three and four hours.) Pauss and Lassen's

Reader III. That portion from which the examination is taken, gone

through and partly reviewed. Several poems committed to memory. Fourteen

written exercises. Among the topics used the following are typical: The

summer vacation, the location of our city, Denmark, past and present

lighting systems, animal life in our forests, reminiscences from my

earlier school days, birds and why we protect them, the Norsemen as

seamen, Christiania in winter garb, Europe's natural conditions in

preference to those of other continents.

In harmony with the indications of the plan of instruction, the early

part of the work in the study of the mother-tongue is devoted to reading

from selected texts. Simultaneously, grammar and rhetoric are carried

along and put into use in written compositions which are frequent. Here,

as in the primary schools, exact spelling, correct grammatical and

rhetorical forms, and approved literary style are constant

requirements. The child is expected not only to read intelligently, but

to express himself orally and in writing in a comprehensive manner and

in such form as to appeal to the intelligence of others. Thus both in

oral speech and through written composition the pupil is privileged to

put his attainments into continuous use. They acquire the tools of

thought and skill in handling them.

_German_

_Class I._ (Six hours.) Knudsen and Kristiansen's Reader from the

beginning to the "Subjunctive." Written exercises.

_Class II._ (Five hours.) Knudsen and Kristiansen's Reader from

"Subjunctive" to close of book. Voss' Reader in section A, seventy-six

pages, in section B, fifty pages; one-half of these shall be learned by

heart. Hofgaard's Short German Grammar the most important forms. Written

exercises. Rehearsals. Retroversions.

_Class III._ (Five hours.) Voss' Reader, in section A, seventy-five

pages, in section B, fifty-eight. Hofgaard's Short German Grammar,

inflections. In section B besides the above, paragraphs 140-148, 156,

169, 179-181. In addition section B shall have thirty-six pages of O.

Kristiansen's oral exercises and thirty-two compositions according to O.

Kristiansen's exercises in written work. In section A, written

exercises, partly according to Kristiansen's outlines for written work

and partly reviews of the lessons in the reading book.

_Class IV._ (Five hours.) Voss' Reader in section A, twenty pages, in

section B, seventy-five. Repetition of the portion designated for

minutest study. The grammar reviewed. One or two written exercises each

week according to Kristiansen's outlines.

The instruction in German proceeds in a very natural manner. The earlier

lessons are devoted very largely to oral instruction in which the

teacher takes the lead. Words, phrases, and sentences are given by the

teacher for translation and concert repetition. Repetition and concert

work are prominent in many places in the schools, but nowhere stressed

to the same extent as in their language instruction. Concert work seems

to stimulate to freedom in pronunciation, while repetition affords the

drill which is necessary to the required accuracy. Having had at least

five years of thorough instruction in the mother-tongue the children are

able to appreciate in a measure the meaning and importance of verb forms

and other features of inflection so that they are ready to do consistent

work in this phase of their study. In addition to the translations

referred to, conversational exercises are soon introduced, and at the

end of the second year some facility in easy conversation is evidenced.

Toward the close of the middle school the children are able to read the

language with ease and to converse in it quite fluently.

_English_

_Class II._ (Five hours.) Brekke's Elementary Reader to page

seventy-four, studied and reviewed, besides the grammar in the back of

the book. Conversational exercises and written work on the blackboard.

During the last half year an occasional written exercise in a book.

_Class III._ (Five hours.) Brekke's Reader for the Middle School,

sixty-five pages read and reviewed. Knap's Grammar. One narrative per

week.

_Class IV._ (Five hours.) Brekke's Reader for the Middle School.

Required portion read and reviewed, while the remainder of the book is

gone through and in part read _ex tempore_. One narrative each week.

The study of English proceeds along lines parallel to those followed in

the German. The learning of the language is accomplished chiefly through

its use. Explanations are made by using the more familiar words of the

tongue studied, by circumlocutions, and by other similar practices.

Grammar is resorted to as a means rather than an end. It is used only in

facilitating the acquisition of the language, not as an end in itself.

However, at the close of the course each pupil has become quite

proficient in the grammar as well as in reading the language and in

conversing in it.

_History_

_Class I._ (Three hours.) Nissen's History of the World by Sehjoth, from

the beginning until "Scandinavia in the Middle Ages."

_Class II._ (Two hours.) Text as in Class I. From "Scandinavia in the

Middle Ages" to "Modern Times."

_Class III._ (Three hours.) Same Text. From "Charles V" to "The February

Revolution." Review.

_Class IV._ (Three hours.) Same Text. Reviewed in its entirety.

The course in history is very rich and its study is entered into with

animation. The teacher is usually a master in the subject and he makes

the work of great profit. A considerable amount of the class period is

devoted to a vivid and analytic introduction of the work to be done at

the next meeting of the class, preparation for which shall be made in

the meantime. Problems are presented and purposes are indicated so that

the preparatory study may be done with some definite end in view.

All facts of history are placed in appropriate settings and perspective,

correlated into a unity, and given vital meaning. Maps, charts, and

pictorial illustrations are provided in abundance and used constantly.

Frequently historic scenes near at hand or known to the pupils are

pointed out, minutely described, and visited.

Teachers appeal to the sentiment of pupils with the aim of begetting

loyalty for the fatherland in the hearts and minds of the young. I have

heard instructors grow eloquent as they warmed up on phases of Norway's

history, and have noted the flushed cheeks and snapping eyes of the

children that bespoke the national pride of the young hearts as familiar

words, slogans, and songs of their heroes were quoted.

When given an opportunity--a common occurrence--the pupils enter into

the rehearsal of historic events with enthusiasm. Every mind in the room

is active. They are awake to the situations and are familiar with the

scenes and literature connected with the several stages of development.

Replies given in response to questions from the teacher are nearly

always in the form of narratives, sometimes occupying ten or fifteen

minutes.

General history or history of any foreign country is entered into in a

spirit similar to that characterizing the consideration of their own. On

one occasion I listened to a review on American history. Among the

characters taken up were Grant, Lee, Harriet Beecher Stowe, and Lincoln.

The pupils discussed Uncle Tom's Cabin with familiarity, Lee was

considered as "The Napoleon of America," but Lincoln was the one to whom

most of the class period was devoted. At the close of the hour the

teacher announced a lecture on "Abraham Lincoln" for the following

Sunday evening in the Working-Men's College (_Arbeiderakademi_)[24] of

which he was the director. This incident illustrates the way in which

they correlate the work of different educational organizations, and

shows their interest in the important events connected with the history

of other nations.

_Geography_

_Class I._ (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. Norway and Sweden. Review.

_Class II._ (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. From "The Central European

Mountains and Rivers" to "Asia." Studied and reviewed.

_Class III._ (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. The foreign continents.

Studied and reviewed.

_Class IV._ (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. Repeated or reviewed in its

entirety.

Two books are used in the study of this subject. One is made up entirely

of well designed, carefully drawn, and thoroughly reliable maps, printed

on a good quality of paper. The other is a text giving a good logical

statement of what the course is calculated to include. The teacher must

provide the major portion of the information by his own initiative

and through cooperation of pupils. Illustrative material

(_Anskuelsesmidler_) is provided in great abundance and in diversified

variety.

An effort is made to impart to the pupils a satisfactory appreciation of

the conditions prevailing in the countries considered. Their

colonization, commerce, products, topography, political subdivisions,

cities, population, river and mountain systems, climate, etc., are all

carefully studied. The course begins with the geography of Norway. Next

foreign lands and conditions are taken up and compared to situations at

home. When the various countries on the globe have been kept for a time

before the eyes, a thorough review is given which occupies the greater

portion of the last year in the middle school course.

_Mathematics_

_Class I._ (Five hours.) Numbers resolved into factors. Fractions. Some

Proportion.

_Class II._ (Five hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and Eliassen's text. From

beginning to division. Geometry: Bonnevie and Eliassen's text. From

beginning to right lines divided into equal parts. Arithmetic:

Proportion and percentage.

_Class III._ (Five hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and Eliassen's text. From

division to equations with two unknowns. Geometry: Bonnevie's text. From

parallelograms to Book IV. Drill in percentage and interest.

_Class IV._ (Five hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and Eliassen's text. From

equations with two unknowns to close of book. Geometry: Bonnevie's text.

From Book IV to close of text. Review of entire text. Drill in computing

solids and other miscellaneous problems. A few hours devoted to

bookkeeping.

One of the most favorable features of their instruction in mathematics

is the intimate connection they make between the several phases of the

subject. Arithmetic, algebra, and geometry are never wholly separated

from each other. They are in reality interwoven and so definitely

correlated that each contributes to the others. By constant use the

several processes become familiar tools in the mental activities of the

pupils. Mastery of the principles of the science and ability in their

use are the ends to be attained. The outline of the course indicates the

extent of the field receiving attention. It is sufficient to say that

the topics are all made to appear plain, definite, and vital; and that

they are assimilated, and do become parts of the growing life.

_Nature Study (Natural Science)_

_Class I._ (Three hours.) Botany: Sorensen's text. Written descriptions

of about twenty-five plant forms. Zoology: Vertebrates according to

Sorensen's text.

_Class II._ (Two hours.) Botany: Sorensen's text. From "The Sunflower

Family" to "Plant Structure." Plant analysis. Zoology: Sorensen's text.

"Invertebrates." Review from treatise on insects to close of book.

_Class III._ (Two hours.) Zoology and botany reviewed. Plant analysis.

Henrichsen's Physics. From beginning to "Properties of Air."

_Class IV._ (Three hours.) Henrichsen's Physics studied through and

reviewed with related laboratory work. Knudsen and Falch's The Human

Body I studied and reviewed.

The plan of work, as noted, includes botany, zoology, physics, and human

physiology. Each subject is taken up and pursued in a consistent manner.

In botany plant analysis and structure form the important part of the

work. A herbarium is made by each pupil. The study is brought very

definitely into the daily lives of the children with the intent of

opening their eyes to the conditions in nature about them and of

developing in them an appreciation of the almost unlimited provision

made for man's welfare. Zoology and physiology are treated in a similar

way. They are calculated to enrich the life of the individual by

bringing him into more sympathetic relations with all living forms. In

physics the child does some experimental work and thereby gets first

hand experience to accompany, clarify, and assist in evaluating the

elaborated instruction of the teacher regarding forces, phenomena, and

laws.

It was interesting to note in a recitation chiefly devoted to

experimental work that the language used in conversation was carefully

scrutinized and that errors were corrected. Throughout the curriculum a

very definite effort is made to utilize every phase of information

possessed by the pupils.

IV. GYMNASIUM

_Religion_

_Class I._ (One hour.) Selected hymns, and chapters from the prophet

Isaiah.

_Class II._ (One hour.) Short survey of church history. Brandrud's text

used by some of the pupils.

_Class III._ (Two hours.) Short presentation of the Christian faith and

ethics, without text. Survey of designated portions of John's Gospel,

the Epistle to the Romans, and Revelations.

The instruction in religion is commonly given by the city pastors. While

all of these men are highly educated, many of them lack the ability to

awaken the minds of the pupils to an active interest in the subject. No

examination in religion is required in the gymnasium. As a result of the

formality in this teaching and the lack of incentives generally, the

members of the classes are listless and inattentive. I insert a note

that I made in reference to one class in which I was a visitor. "Most of

the class was listless all of the time and all of them most of the

time." I have on a few occasions heard short and irrelevant remarks made

by pupils in response to direct questions by the instructor, and among

the pupils it is accounted no reflection whatever if any of their number

states that he knows nothing regarding the situation under discussion.

The work appears altogether void of interest and without profit.

It seems almost pathetic that a subject of such importance should have

its richness of content dissipated and wasted through lack of incentives

or by reason of unsuccessful methods of presentation. My observation of

the work from the beginning of the primary school through all the

classes up to the completion of the gymnasium convinces me that the

personal and concrete presentations in the lower grades are very

successful but that the formal, authoritative work in the secondary

schools is little more than failure.

_Norwegian_

_Class I._ A and B (Four hours.) Pauss and Lassen's Reader IV. 1.

Njael's saga. Holberg's The Busybodies and Peter Paars. Part of

Ohlenschlager's Aladdin. Baggesen's Noureddin to Aladdin. Hertz's Svend

Dyring's House. Also in A, Ibsen's Vikings at Helgeland; in B, Ibsen's

The Feast at Solhaug; Bjornson's Synnove Solbakken.

Landsmaal. Garborg and Mortensen's Reader for Higher Schools. About

forty pages from Aasen, Janson, Sivle, etc.

Fourteen compositions in each class. Assigned exercises: Impressions

from the summer vacations; what do we learn from Njaal's saga regarding

life and customs in Iceland about the year one thousand; a

characteristic of the "Busybodies" by Holberg; Christiania as a city of

manufacture and industry; a comparison between the east and west of

Norway with references to nature and commerce; a painting I like; Norway

as a tourist land; do not put off until tomorrow what you can do today;

why could not the Persians conquer the Greeks; the dark sides of city

life; what circumstances have combined in giving the Norsemen high

ranking as seamen?

_Class II._ R. G. (Five hours.) History of Literature through the

literature of the North, folk songs, a collection of Danish and

Norwegian ballads, selections from Asbjornsen, Moe, and Holberg. Romance

poetry, some read minutely and the rest cursorily. Consideration of

Aasen and the Landsmaal movement. Sixty pages of Garborg and Mortenson's

Landsmaal. About twenty pages of Old Norse from Nygaard's beginner's

book.

Written exercises, frequently on topics of interest. Besides all this

each pupil must give a discussion on a self-selected theme before the

class.

_Class II._ L-H. (Six and five hours.) Holberg's Erasmus Montanus.

Wessel's _Kjaerlighed uden Stromper_ (Love without Stockings.) History

of literature to about one thousand, eight hundred. Shakespeare's Julius

Caesar. In the Landsmaal selections from Garborg and Mortenson's Reader

(excepting folk songs.) Old Norse: Nygaard's beginner's book. Some pages

from Thor to Utgard. Twelve written exercises on important literary,

historical, and industrial subjects.

_Class III._ R. G. (Four hours.) History of literature from Holberg down

to the present. Read scrutinizingly selected writings of Holberg,

Ohlenschlager, Wergeland, Welhaven, Asbjornsen and Ibsen. In the

Landsmaal read from Garborg and Mortenson's Reader and the writings of

Vinje. In the Old Norse read the remainder of Nygaard's beginner's book.

History of language and history of literature. Many written exercises,

largely literary and historical topics.

_Class III._ L-H. (Five and four hours.) Special study of selections

specified as examination material including the writings of Holberg,

Wergeland, and Welhaven. Landsmaal from Garborg and Mortenson's Reader.

History of Literature. History of Language. Twelve written compositions

on important topics.

The work in literature throughout the gymnasium deals with the

masterpieces of the language in an analytic and critical way. The aims

are to familiarize the pupils with the best productions in the language,

to acquaint them with the lives and historical relations of their

authors, and to develop literary appreciation and style. Accordingly

many writers are included, translations of world classics are utilized,

history of literature in its connections with general history receives

attention, and ability in composition is encouraged and required.

Eddas, sagas, and the more important productions from successive periods

are studied in minute detail. The Landsmaal is not neglected. When any

piece of literature is under discussion, related historical events;

references to other literary productions, characters, myths, etc.; the

life of the author; and many other important points are considered

exhaustively. The intricacies of the language are sought out in patience

and made familiar. Every known device for completing the literary

background is utilized. Since the literature of the country is a part of

the life of its citizens, no effort is required to secure intense

interest in the work.

In the linguistic-historical course more time is devoted to this branch

of instruction than is given to it in the _real_ and Latin courses. The

quality or class of work is essentially the same though the quantity is

necessarily less in the two latter courses. A definite effort is made to

place each pupil in possession of the culture represented in the

national literature.

_German_

_Class I._ A and B (Three hours.) Gundersen's German for the Gymnasiums.

A, sixty-seven pages, B, seventy-five pages, consisting of the following

titles: _Die Sanger_, _Die Burgschaft_, _Der Ring des Polykrates_ _Der

Handschuh_, _Die Sonne Bringt es an den Tag_, _Die Goldene Repetieruhr_,

_Wie der Meisenseppe Gestorben ist_, _Umzingelt_, _Der Stumme Ratsherr_,

_Zur Geschichte des 30-jahrigen Krieges_, _Landsknecht and Soldat_. In B

review the more important features of syntax in O. Kristiansen's

Grammatical Exercises.

Once every week a written review of a lesson read.

_Class II._ (Three hours.) Gundersen's German for Gymnasiums, about one

hundred pages. Fifteen written exercises, partly reproductions of new

matter and partly write-ups of what has been studied. In _real_

gymnasium some supplementary assignments in addition (_Das

Schneeschuhlaufen_, _Die Lage Kristianias_, etc.)

_Class III._ (Alternating three and four hours.) Gundersen's German for

Gymnasiums. Reading finished and the greater part of it reviewed. Every

second week a written review covering two consecutive hours.

German is recognized as the language of a great neighbor nation and is

assiduously studied. Much time has been spent in the middle school in

acquiring the language and now three years are used in introducing the

pupils into the thought-life and culture of the nation through the inner

contact of its literature. Some of Germany's more important authors are

studied rather exhaustively. An endeavor is also put forth to become

familiar with the most remarkable events in the history of that Empire.

Through this advanced treatment they perfect their knowledge of the

language as such, and further their ability to converse in the foreign

tongue.

_French_

_Class I._ A (Four hours.) After the more important parts of phonology,

Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader in French for the Gymnasium I. pp.

18-108. The most essential parts of the grammar, together with many

exercises in translation. While reviewing, special emphasis is placed

upon reading exercises.

_Class I._ B (Four hours.) Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader I pp. 1-55

read and reviewed, together with the corresponding translations from

Norwegian p. 109 ff. In addition pages 98-108 are read and reviewed and

most of the remaining exercises are gone through cursorily. Wallem's

Vocabulary Part I. 1 and Part V. 6-9 are studied.

_Class II._ R. G. (Two hours.) Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader II pp.

1-31 and 104-112. Grammar drill by references to synopses of grammar in

the beginner's book. Wallem's Vocabulary Part I. 1 and V. 6-10 studied

and reviewed.

_Class II._ Lang. (With Latin five hours, without Latin four hours.)

Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader. Division without Latin about eighty

pages, consisting of Part I., the last section and Part II selections

for A, I-VI for B, III, IV, VII, XI. Division with Latin, the same

amount excepting B, VII and XI. Wallem's Vocabulary, review V. 6-9.

_Class III._ R. G. (Two hours.) Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader, about

eighty pages.

_Class III._ Lang. (Three hours.) Hermanstorff and Wallem's Reader I,

the last section and II for A, I-X and for B, I-XIII with the exception

of a few selections such as X in A which is read only cursorily. As

exercise in _ex tempore_ translation use Duruy's History of France.

About the same amount of French is taken in the Latin as in the _real_

course of study though it is carried but for two years in the former and

three in the latter.[25] More time is provided for it in the

linguistic-historical course then in either of the others. Reference to

the table on page 171 will indicate exactly the amount of time used and

its distribution throughout the years.

The French language is not as closely related to the Norwegian as are

the German and English. Greater variations are noted both in

pronunciation and in vocabulary. Almost universally the Norwegians

regard it as the most difficult of the three foreign languages to

acquire.

The study of French is not begun until the pupils enter the gymnasium

when they are fourteen or fifteen years old. English and German are

begun three and four years before French. The teachers believe that a

mistake is made in not beginning the study of French earlier. It is

worthy of note that the Norwegian pedagogues who have tried beginning

instruction in the languages at different times in the school course are

definitely of the opinion that to begin the study of a foreign language

early is a distinct advantage. It seems to the writer that American

schools might profit by this experience and introduce the study of

languages in the lower grades.

TABLE XI

Course of study showing weekly hours in Christiania Cathedral School

(1910-1911).

GYMNASIUM

Courses _Real_ Language-History Latin Middle School

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Classes 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 IV. III. II. I.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Religion 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2

Norwegian 4 5 4 5 6 4 4 5 4 3-1/2 3-1/2 4 5

German 3-1/2 3 3 3-1/2 3 3 3-1/2 3 3 5 5 5 6

French 2 2 4 3 4 4 0 5 4

English 2 2 4 7 7 4 2 2 4 5 5 5

Latin 11 7

History 3 3 3 5 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3

Geography 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 2

Mathematics 6 6 4 2 2 4 2 2 4 5 5 5 5

Natural Science 5 5 4 1 1 4 1 1 4 3 2 2 3

Writing 1/2 1/2 1 2

Drawing 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Vocal Music 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Gymnastics 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3

Manual Training 2 2 2 2

------ -- -- ------ -- -- ------ -- -- -- -- -- --

Total 35-1/2 35 35 35-1/2 35 35 35-1/2 35 35 36 36 36 36

_English_

_Class I._ (Four hours.) Brekke and Western's Selections from English

Authors for the First Gymnasium. The regulation sixty pages (matter from

which examination is taken) is read and reviewed. Forty pages _ex

tempore_. One synopsis or reproduction each second week. Knudsen's

English Prepositions and Synonyms.

_Class II._ R. G. and Latin (Two hours.) Brekke and Western's Selections

for Second and Third Classes in the _Real_ Gymnasium. Sixty-seven pages

read and reviewed in part. _Ex tempore_: Called Back of Conwoy.

_Class II._ L-H. (Seven hours.) Brekke and Western's Selections from

English Authors for Second and Third Linguistic-Historical Classes, one

hundred and sixty pages. Merchant of Venice, Act I. Most of Brigadier

Gerard by Conan Doyle. Western's English Institutions gone through. Otto

Anderssen's History of Literature to "Bacon." Written exercises each

week.

_Class III._ R. G. (Two hours.) Anderssen and Eitrem's Selection of

English Classics, thirty-three pages. The portion from which selections

are taken for the final examination (_Artium Examen_) reviewed in its

entirety. _Ex tempore_: Called Back of Conwoy.

_Class III._ L-H. (Seven hours.) Brekke and Western's Reader.

Obligatory, Selections 3, 4, 16, 17, 11, 19. From Otto Anderssen's

English Literature the required amount: Swift, Byron, Thackeray,

Merchant of Venice. O. Anderssen's History of English Literature.

Western's English Institutions. Written work each week.

_Class III._ Latin (Two hours.) Anderssen and Eitrem's Selection of

English Classics, forty-five pages. Review of selections from which

examinations are taken.

The connections the Norwegians sustain with the English speaking world

are, perhaps, stronger than those binding them to any other people.

Norway has close commercial associations with both England and America,

and rarely does one find a family in Norway without near relatives in

one or both countries. As a consequence, more than usual interest

attaches to the study of English. Strenuous efforts are now being made

to introduce it into the curriculum of the elementary school, and such

change will probably be effected at an early date.

According to the present plan those who graduate from the gymnasium have

studied English six or seven years and have gained a fairly definite

knowledge of it. They are able to read fluently and converse with ease.

They have become familiar also with much of the best English literature,

and through it have been brought into close touch with the life and

culture of the English speaking peoples.

_Latin_

_Class II._ Latin (Seven hours.) Schreiner's Short Grammar. Inflection

and some of the rules of syntax. Ording's elementary book. Ording's

Latin Reading Selections, pp. 1-36. Written exercises each week.

_Class III._ Latin (Eleven hours.) Schreiner's Latin Reading Selections,

pp. 30-67 and 73-88. Livy XXII., chapters 4, 9-15, 16-18, 19-28, 42-55.

Cicero in Verrem IV., sections 1-14, 60-70, 72-81, 105-115. Schreiner's

Short Grammar: Syntax. Forty written translations.

Latin is included in the curricula of only about one-half of the

gymnasia of Norway.[26] It is taught by competent teachers who appeal to

the interests of the pupils through related history and literature, and

through promise of linguistic excellence. The work is gone into

thoroughly, drill is constant, and readiness in response is demanded.

Despite the excellent quality of instruction there is a general feeling

among the Norwegians that the study of Latin does not yield the

immediate and substantial returns coming from other kinds of study.

While they recognize that for advanced work in certain lines Latin is a

prerequisite, they are convinced that, outside of those special lines of

learning, contemporary tongues, history, biology, industrial chemistry,

and other scientific subjects are more beneficial. As a consequence this

branch of study is on the decline.

_History_

_Class I._ (Three hours.) Ancient history as treated in Raeder's text.

History of the middle ages up to the second division from Schjoth and

Lange's General History.

_Class II._ R. G. and Latin (Three hours.) Schjoth and Lange's General

History. History of the Middle Ages and of Modern times until the Vienna

Congress. History of Scandinavia until 1720. Survey of its more

important portions--oral or written.

_Class II._ L-H. (Five hours.) History of the Middle ages down to the

French Revolution from Schjoth and Lange's General History. History of

Scandinavia to 1720. In addition use two hours per week in historical

readings including such topics as the feudal system, medieval poetry,

the university, Venice, craftsmen and merchants in the middle ages,

Fredrik II., Hanseatics and aristocracy in the north, William Pitt.

_Class III._ L-H. (Five hours.) Schjoth and Lange's General History

finished. Scandinavian history in the nineteenth century. Review of all

requirements. Taranger's Social Conditions or Civics. Historical

readings including introduction to the French Revolution, state rights

in Norway, general culture and political development in our time, Norway

in 1814, historical events.

For a long time the ancient languages formed the bulk of higher