THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE EPHESIANS
[Sidenote: The Author.]
The Pauline authorship of this Epistle is well attested by external
evidence. Before 150 we have proof of its wide use among both heretics
and Catholics; it is quoted probably by St. Clement and St. Polycarp,
and some of its characteristic ideas are to be found in a more
developed form in the _Shepherd_ of Hermas. There is one clear
reference to it in St. Ignatius, and two other possible references. We
trace an interesting connection between the thought of this Epistle and
that of the Revelation and the Gospel of St. John (_e.g._ ch. xvii.)
and the First Epistle of St. Peter. Perhaps we may account for it by
accepting Renan's suggestion that St. Peter, St. John, and St. Paul
were in Rome together. The strongest argument for the Pauline
authorship lies in the undesigned coincidences between Ephesians and
Romans. In both we notice the same courtesy of manner and sensitive
frankness, the same setting forth of God's method of salvation, the
same valuation of the relative position of Jews and Gentiles, and of
their union in Jesus Christ; the same thought of God's eternal and
unchanging purpose very gradually revealed, and extending in its
ultimate operation to all creation. It has been well said that the
Epistle to the Ephesians is required to give completeness to the
argument of Rom. xv. Though we do not find here the controversial
reasoning of the earlier Epistle, we have some of those characteristic
passages in which the {181} writer, carried away by emotion, leaves
statement for prayer or praise (cf. Rom. xi. 33 and Eph. iii. 20). We
have, indeed, in this Epistle evidence which points to a date later
than that of some of his Epistles. We miss the expectation of Christ's
immediate coming; the Gentiles are now quite secure in the Church;
there is proof of the growth of Christian hymns (v. 14, 19). But the
names of the ministers of the Church seem very primitive, the words
"presbyter" and _episkopos_ not being mentioned. And words such as
"worlds," "fulness," "generations," which were used in a special sense
by the Gnostics of the 2nd century, are here used in an earlier and
less technical meaning.
It has been argued that Ephesians is a forged imitation of Colossians,
because about half of its verses have parallels in Colossians. This
argument has broken down, since it has been shown that it is equally
easy to prove that Colossians is based upon Ephesians. And there is
nothing strange in the idea that St. Paul wrote two similar letters at
the same time to Churches in similar difficulties. The two Epistles
resemble one another just as two letters written by one man to two
different friends during the same week. The phrase "holy apostles"
(iii. 5) is also said to be a formula which St. Paul would not have
employed. But the word "holy" is used in his writings almost in the
sense of "Christian;" it signifies consecration rather than personal
perfection. There would, therefore, be no vanity in the apostle
applying such a title to himself. The attempt to make the style
furnish an argument against the genuineness of the Epistle has also
failed. There are thirty-two words used only in this Epistle, but
there are also eighteen which are found in Pauline Epistles and not
elsewhere in the New Testament. The assumption of some sceptical
writers that an apostle must have been too unintelligent to enrich his
vocabulary, scarcely deserves serious examination. No one would think
of applying the same rule to a Greek classical writer, and if he
attempted to do so, he would find that Xenophon varies his language as
much as St. Paul.
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The real reason why the authenticity of this Epistle has been attacked
is this. Ephesians teaches that the Church is a universal society,
visibly united by baptism and the ministry, embracing Jew and Gentile
on equal terms. But, according to Baur, this conception of the Church
is a product of the 2nd century. He assumed that St. Paul could not
include the twelve under the name of the "holy apostles," or teach a
Catholic doctrine of the Church.[1] The present school of rationalists
is inclining to admit that Ephesians is genuine. But it is hard to see
how they will be able to do this without also admitting that the
Epistle implies that the other "holy apostles" held, like St. Paul,
that Christ is divine.
[Sidenote: To whom written.]
It is almost certainly not primarily a letter to Ephesus, but a
circular letter to several Churches in Asia Minor.
In i. 1 we read the words "to the saints which are in Ephesus." But
the words "in Ephesus" are omitted in the two great MSS. K and B.
Origen also implies that these words were absent in some MSS., and St.
Basil definitely says so. And as the Epistle contains no salutation to
any individual, it is difficult to imagine that it was specially
addressed to Ephesus, where St. Paul's friends were numerous and dear
(see Acts xx. 17-38). In some passages St. Paul speaks as if he and
those to whom he writes knew each other only through third persons (i.
15; iii. 2). This suggests that the Epistle was written primarily to a
Church like that of Colossae which he had never visited.
The probable solution is that it was written to the Christians of
Laodicea in the first instance. Tertullian says that Marcion had
copies with "Ad Laodicenos" as the title. Now, in this case Marcion
had nothing to gain by fraud, and we may therefore suppose that he had
honest grounds for using this title. The same title gains some support
from Col. ii. 1; iv. 13, 16. The last verse suggests that it was to be
passed on from Laodicea. Perhaps several copies of the letter were
written at {183} Laodicea, and a blank space left in them for the
insertion of the various addresses. No doubt the letter would be
forwarded to Ephesus in time.
Laodicea, at present called Eski-Hissar (the "old fortress"), is now
utterly deserted. It was probably founded about B.C. 250 by Antiochus
II. Theos, and named after his wife Laodike. It was distant eleven
miles from Colossae. The population included some Syrians and Jews.
It rose to great wealth under the Roman power, and was so rich that
when it was destroyed by an earthquake in A.D. 60 it scorned to seek
pecuniary aid from the emperor. It was in a central position on the
great trade route from the east, and was famous for its banking
business, its manufacture of fine garments of black wool, and its
"Phrygian powder" for weak eyes. In Rev. iii. 18 there appears to be a
veiled allusion to each of these three sources of prosperity. Timothy,
Mark, and Epaphras (Col. i. 7) were instrumental in spreading
Christianity in this region. Laodicea was the leading bishopric of
Phrygia throughout the Christian period.
Ephesus was the capital of the Roman province of Asia. With Antioch in
Syria and Alexandria in Egypt, it ranked as one of the greatest cities
of the East Mediterranean lands. Planted amid the hills near the mouth
of the river Cayster, it was excellently fitted to become a great mart,
and was the commercial centre for the whole country on the Roman side
of Mount Taurus. The substratum of the population was Asiatic, but the
progress and enterprise of the city belonged to the Greeks. There, as
in the Florence of the Medici, we find commercial astuteness joined
with intense delight in graceful culture. Some of the best work of the
greatest Greek sculptors and painters was treasured at Ephesus. A
splendid but sensuous worship centred round the gross figure of the
goddess Artemis, whose temple was one of the greatest triumphs of
ancient art. In the British Museum are preserved some fragments of the
old temple built by Croesus, King of Lydia, in B.C. 550. The vast
{184} temple which replaced this older structure was built about B.C.
350, with the help of contributions from the whole of Asia. The wealth
of the city was increased by the crowds which attended the festivals,
and many trades were mainly dependent upon the pilgrims, who required
food, victims, images, and shrines. In St. Paul's time the city
contained one temple devoted to the worship of a Roman emperor.
Ephesus was also a home of magical arts, and was famous for the
production of magical formulae known as "Ephesian letters." The actual
foundation of the Christian Church in Ephesus may be ascribed to
Priscilla and Aquila, whom St. Paul left there on his first visit (Acts
xviii. 19), On his return to Ephesus he stayed there for two years
(Acts xix. 1, 10), and the opposition of the tradesmen to a creed which
affected the vested interests of idolatry was the cause of the riot so
vigorously described by St. Luke. Even after the riot the
superstitions of the mob were a serious danger to St. Paul (1 Cor. xv.
32; xvi. 9; 2 Cor. i. 8-10). At a later period Ephesus became the
residence of St. John.
[Sidenote: Where and when written.]
St. Paul wrote this Epistle during his imprisonment at Rome, which
began in A.D. 59 (see iii. 1, 13; iv. 1, vi. 22). Rome is not
mentioned in the Epistle, but the connection between Ephesians,
Colossians, Philemon, and Philippians points to the high probability
that they were all written from the same place. This place is much
more likely to have been Rome than Caesarea, the only other possible
locality. Ephesians was apparently written later than Colossians, for
it shows an emphasis on new points of doctrine--the continuity of the
Church, the work of the Holy Spirit, the analogy between family life
and the Church, and the simile of the spiritual armour.
[Sidenote: Character and Contents.]
The Epistle is of the nature of a sermon, full of closely interlaced
doctrinal arguments on the greatness of that _one_ Gospel and that
_one_ Church by which all distinctions in mankind are bridged over and
salvation is made sure. The writer {185} fears that there will be some
lack of unity in the Church, and that the moral tone of his converts
will sink. He wishes for a Christianity both Catholic and deep. So he
presents his readers with the portrait of a Church predestined before
all ages, appointed to last through all ages, in which all men will be
united in holiness and love. If Galatians and Corinthians are more
vivid, Romans more rich, and Philippians more affectionate, Ephesians
gives us St. Paul's most mature and complete picture of Christianity.
St. Paul explains how his Gentile readers came to their present
position in the Church. They are not to regard it as a matter of
chance. They were called to Christ as the result of an eternal counsel
of God. God intended from eternity to adopt them in union with His
Son. This intention was now made known, to sum up all things again in
Christ (i. 10). The apostle prays for his readers that they may
receive enlightenment, and grow in knowledge, particularly concerning
the power of God shown in the resurrection and ascension of Christ and
his consequent relation _to the Church_.[2]
The unity of all things in the Son of God is explained in Colossians as
having been involved in His creation of them. In Ephesians St. Paul
assumes this relation, and shows that it is largely in abeyance through
_sin_. Estrangement has come between man and his God, involving man in
death and in the wrath of God (ii. 3-5). A wall of division has also
been made between Jew and Gentile (ii. 14). This division was visibly
embodied in the Jewish ordinances. But Jew and {186} Gentile alike
have now been reconciled to God, and in being reunited with God are
reunited with each other. This momentous change was effected by the
shedding of Christ's blood on the cross. The readers are to remember
that they are being built into God's own habitation, of which Christ is
the Corner-Stone (ii. 20).
To the end that they may be filled in their degree with God's
attributes, the writer bows his knees (iii. 14) unto the Father. He
prays for their strengthening because he has a special charge over the
Gentiles. This charge involves the stewardship of a secret (iii. 3),
viz. the inclusion of the Gentiles in the promise of God. He, the
least of all saints, has been allowed to proclaim this secret, a work
which shows to the heavenly powers the wisdom of God corresponding with
His eternal purpose (iii. 10, 11). This bounty of God will ever be
praised in the Church, which is the monument of that bounty (iii. 21).
Chapters iv.-vi. are largely practical. They set out rules of conduct.
But even here doctrine is brought in to enforce practical advice. The
readers are to "walk worthily" of their calling. To do this, they must
realize unity. The principles of unity are magnificently summed up
(iv. 4-6). Then the apostle mentions some means which God has
appointed for the maintenance of unity. Christians have various gifts
from the ascended Christ (iv. 7-8), and some are specially gifted for
ecclesiastical offices (iv. 9-13). These gifts make for the
completeness of the Church, of which Christ is the Head and the Life.
To "walk worthily" also means that everything connected with heathen
habits must be sedulously renounced. The old self must be changed for
the new. A basis for social life must be found in truthfulness,
uprightness, and kindliness (iv. 25-32). Purity must specially be
preserved, impurity being contrasted with love. Light and darkness are
then contrasted, and the sober gaiety of the Christian with heathen
folly and excess (v. 1-21).
St. Paul passes on to speak of the Christian household--the {187}
duties of husband, wife, children, slaves. He seems to pronounce a
great benediction over family life as he compares the union of marriage
to the association of Christ with His Church. Just as in calling
Christ the Head of which the Church is the body, he suggests the entire
dependence of the Church upon Christ, so now in describing the Church
as the spouse of Christ, he suggests that this dependence must imply a
voluntary and conscious submission. The final exhortation vividly
describes the Christian's conflict with evil: to fight victoriously he
will need to be well armoured with the whole panoply of God (vi.
10-20). There is a short personal conclusion in which St. Paul
describes himself as Christ's "ambassador in chains."
ANALYSIS
Salutation (i. 1, 2).
Exposition of God's purpose in adopting the Gentiles as His sons,
chosen by the Father, redeemed by the Son, sealed by the Spirit. A
prayer for the readers (i.).
Their new state as saved by grace through faith; reconciliation of Jews
and Gentiles in Christ (ii.). Paul was made a minister to dispense the
grace of God to the Gentiles. He prays for their spiritual progress
(iii.).
The unity of Christians in the Church combined with diversity of gifts
and offices, a warning against heathen vices, and advice as to duty
towards one's neighbour (iv.). Christian love, heathen uncleanness,
light and darkness, walking circumspectly, sobriety and song (v. 1-21).
The union of husbands and wives like that of Christ and His Church (v.
22, 23). Duties of children and parents, servants and masters (vi.
1-9).
Wrestling against evil powers with the whole armour of God (vi. 10-18).
Personal conclusion and benediction (vi. 19-24).
[1] See Baur's _Paul_, vol. ii. p. 177 (English translation).
[2] Eph. i. 23. The Church is said to be "the fulness of Him that
filleth all in all." The word "fulness" is derived from philosophy,
and means that the Church is, or rather is the realization of, the sum
of the sacred attributes of Christ, who fills the whole universe with
all kinds of gifts. Some commentators translate "fulness" as if it
meant the receptacle of Christ's attributes, and others as if it meant
the completion of Christ. But the word is used in a philosophical and
not in a literal sense. See Lightfoot, _Colossians_, p. 259.
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