Each mental function is capable of some _The Science of Human Nature: A Psychology for Beginners

up to the limit of its possibilities. But recent experiments indicate

that such development is not very great in the case of the elementary,

fundamental functions. Training, however, has a much greater effect on

complex mental activities that involve several functions. Rote memory is

rather simple; it cannot be much affected by training. The memory for

ideas is more complex; it can be considerably affected by training. The

original and fundamental functions of the mind depend upon the nature of

the nervous system which is bequeathed to us by heredity. This cannot be

much changed. However, training has considerable effect on the

coördinations and combinations of mental functions. Therefore, the more

complex the mental activities which we are testing, the more likely they

are to have been affected by differences in experience and training.

If we should designate the logical memory capacity of one person by 10,

and that of another by 15, by practice we might bring the first up to 15

and the second to 22½, but we could not equalize them. We could never

make the memory of the one equal to that of the other. In an extreme

case, we might find one child whose experience had been such that his

logical memory was working up to the limit of its capacity, while the

other had had little practice in logical memory and was therefore far

below his real capacity. In such a case, a test would not show the

native difference, it would show only the present difference in

functioning capacity.

Fairly adequate tests for the most important mental functions have been

worked out. A series of group tests with directions and norms follow.

The members of the class can use these tests in studying the individual

differences in other people. The teacher will find other tests in the

author's _Examination of School Children_, and in Whipple's _Manual of

Mental and Physical Tests_.

=MENTAL TESTS=

GENERAL DIRECTIONS

The results of the mental tests in the school will be worse than useless

unless the tests are given with the greatest care and scientific

precision. Every test should be most carefully explained to the children

so that they will know _exactly_ what they are to do. The matter must be

so presented to them that they will put forth _all possible_ effort.

They must take the tests seriously. Great care must be taken to see that

there is no cheating. The work of each child should be his own work. In

those tests in which time is an important element, the time must be

_carefully kept_, with a stop watch if one is available. The papers

should be distributed for the tests and turned face downward on the

pupil's desk. The pupil, when all are ready to begin, should take the

paper in his hand and at the signal "begin" turn it over and begin work,

and when the signal "stop" is given, should quit work instantly and turn

the paper over. Before the work begins, the necessary information should

be placed on each paper. This information should be the pupil's name,

age, grade, sex, and school. This should be on every paper. When the

test is over the papers should be immediately collected.

LOGICAL MEMORY

=Object.= The purpose of this test is to determine the pupil's facility in

remembering and reproducing ideas. A pupil's standing in the test may

serve as an indication of his ability to remember the subject matter of

the school studies.

[Illustration: FIGURE VII--LOGICAL MEMORY "WILLIE JONES"]

=Method.= The procedure in this test is for the teacher to read slowly and

distinctly the story to be reproduced. Immediately after the reading the

pupils are to write down all of the story that they can recall. They

must not begin to write till _after_ the reading. Ten minutes should be

allowed for the reproduction. This is ample time, and each pupil should

be told to use the whole time in working on his reproduction. At the end

of ten minutes, collect the papers. Care should be taken to see that

each pupil does his own work, that there is no copying. Before reading

the story, the teacher should give the following instructions:

I shall read to you a story entitled "Willie Jones and His Dog" (or

"A Farmer's Son," or "A Costly Temper," as the case may be). After I

have read the story you are to write down all you can remember of

it. You are not to use the exact words that I read unless you wish.

You are to use your own words. Try to recall as much as possible and

write all you recall. Try to get all the details, not merely the

main facts.

=Material.= For grades three, four, and five, use "Willie Jones and His

Dog"; for grades six, seven, and eight, use "A Farmer's Son"; for the

high school, use "A Costly Temper." The norms for the latter are based

on eighth grade and high school pupils.

* * * * *

WILLIE JONES AND HIS DOG

which was only | a short | distance away. | Buster went with him, |

following behind. | As Buster was turning | at the corner, | a car |

struck him | and broke | one | hind | leg | and hurt | one | eye. |

A FARMER'S SON

clothes | were poor and his boots | often smelled | of the farmyard |

although he took great | care of them. | Since Will had not gone to

school | as much | as his classmates, | he was often | at a

disadvantage, | although his mind | was as good | as theirs,--| in fact,

class, | never lost an opportunity | to ridicule | Will's mistakes, |

by the sight. | He asked | the bully | to stop, | but when he would not,

would not | let James go | until he promised | not to tease | the

crippled | child | again. |

A COSTLY TEMPER

his stupidity. | One day | when this servant was more | stupid | than

"Now go | and pick that book up!" | ordered the master. | The servant |

had walked off | with the book. | The scientist | thereupon | began to

wonder | what book | he had thrown away, | and to his horror, |

But his troubles | were not over. | The weeks went by | and the man had

almost | forgotten his loss, | when, strolling | into a secondhand |

bookshop, | he saw, | to his great delight, | a copy of the book | he

had lost. | He asked the price. |

"Well," | said the dealer, | reflectively, | "I guess we can let you

sure | that I could get seventy-five | dollars for it | by holding on a

while." |

The man of science | pulled out his purse | and produced the money, |

delighted at the opportunity of replacing | his lost | treasure. | When

he reached home, | a card | dropped out | of the leaves. | The card was

his own, | and further | examination | showed that he had bought back |

his own property. |

"Forty dollars' | worth of temper," | exclaimed the man. | "I think I

that | the servant became worried, | thinking the man | must be ill. |

* * * * *

[Illustration: FIGURE VIII--LOGICAL MEMORY--"A FARMER'S SON"]

=The Results.= The material for the test is divided into units as

indicated by the vertical lines. The pupil's written reproduction should

be compared unit by unit with the story as printed, and given one credit

for each unit adequately reproduced. The norms for the three tests are

shown in the accompanying Figures VII, VIII, and IX. In these and all

the graphs which follow, the actual ages are shown in the first

horizontal column. The norms for girls appear in the second horizontal

column, the norms for boys in the column at the bottom. By the _norm_

for an age is meant the average performance of all the pupils of that

age examined. Age ten applies to those pupils who have passed their

tenth birthday and have not reached their eleventh birthday, and the

other ages are to be similarly interpreted. The vertical lines in the

graphs indicate birthdays and the scores written on these lines indicate

ability at these exact ages. The column marked ten, for example,

includes all the children that are over ten and not yet eleven. The

graphs show the development from age to age. In general, it will be

noticed, there is an improvement of memory with age, but in the high

school, in the "Costly Temper" test, there is a decline. This may not

indicate a real decline in ability to remember ideas, but a change in

attitude. The high school pupil probably acquires a habit of

remembering only significant facts. His memory is selective, while in

the earlier ages, the memory may be more parrot-like, one idea being

reproduced with about as much fidelity as another. This statement is

made not as a _fact_, but as a _probable_ explanation.

ROTE MEMORY

[Illustration: FIGURE IX--LOGICAL MEMORY--"A COSTLY TEMPER"]

=Object.= The object of the rote memory tests is to determine the pupil's

memory span for unrelated impressions--words that have no logical

relations with one another. Much school work makes demands upon this

ability. Therefore, the tests are of importance.

=Method.= There are two lists of words, _concrete_ and _abstract_, with

six groups in each list. The list of concrete words should be given

first, then the abstract. The procedure is to pronounce the first group,

_cat_, _tree_, _coat_, and then pause for the pupils to write these

three words. Then pronounce the next group, _mule_, _bird_, _cart_,

_glass_, and pause for the reproduction, and so on through the list.

[Illustration: FIGURE X--CONCRETE ROTE MEMORY]

Give the following instructions:

We wish to see how well you can remember words. I shall pronounce

first a group of three words. _After_ I have pronounced them, you

are to write them down. I shall then pronounce a group of four

words, then one of five words, and so continue with a longer group

each time. You must pay very close attention for I shall pronounce

a group but once. You are not required to write the words in their

order, but just as you recall them.

=Material.= The words for the test are given in the following lists:

_Concrete_ _Abstract_

1. cat, tree, coat 1. good, black, fast

2. mule, bird, cart, glass 2. clean, tall, round, hot

3. star, horse, dress, fence, man 3. long, wet, fierce, white, cold

4. fish, sun, head, door, shoe, 4. deep, soft, quick, dark, great,

block dead

5. train, mill, box, desk, oil, 5. sad, strong, hard, bright,

pup, bill fine, glad, plain

6. floor, car, pipe, bridge, hand, 6. sharp, late, sour, wide, rough,

dirt, cow, crank thick, red, tight

[Illustration: FIGURE XI--ABSTRACT ROTE MEMORY]

=Results.= The papers are graded by determining the number of concrete

words and the number of abstract words that are reproduced. No account

is taken of whether the words are in the right position or not. A

perfect score in each test would therefore be thirty-three. The norms

are shown in Figures X and XI.

THE SUBSTITUTION TEST

=Object.= This test determines one's ability to build up new associations.

It is a test of quickness of learning.

=Method.= The substitution test-sheets are distributed to the pupils and

turned face down on the desks. The teacher gives the following

instructions:

We wish to see how fast you can learn. At the top of the sheet which

has been distributed to you there is a key. In nine circles are

written the nine digits and for each digit there is written a letter

which is to be used instead of the digit. Below the key are two

columns of numbers; each number contains five digits. In the five

squares which follow the number you are to write the letters which

correspond to the digits. Work as fast as you can and fill as many

of the squares as you can without making mistakes. When I say

"stop," quit work instantly and turn the paper over.

Before beginning the test the teacher should explain on the blackboard

the exact nature of the test. This can be done by using other letters

instead of those used in the key. Make sure that the pupils understand

what they are to do. Allow _eight_ minutes in grades three, four, and

five, and _five_ minutes above the fifth grade.

=Material.= For material, use the substitution test-sheets. This and the

other test material can be obtained from the University of Missouri,

Extension Division.

=Results.= In grading the work, count each square correctly filled in as

one point, and reduce the score to speed per minute by dividing by eight

in grades three, four, and five, and by five in the grades above.

The norms are shown in Figure XII.

[Illustration: FIGURE XII--SUBSTITUTION TEST]

FREE ASSOCIATION

=Object.= This test determines the speed of the free flow of ideas. The

result of the test is a criterion of the quickness of the flow of ideas

when no restriction or limitation is put on this flow.

=Method.= The procedure in this test is to give the pupils a word, and

tell them to write this word down and all the other words that come into

their minds. Make it clear to them that they are to write whatever word

comes to mind, whether it has any relation to the word that is given

them or not. Start them with the word "cloud." Give the following

instructions:

I wish to see how many words you can think of and write down in

three minutes. I shall name a word, you may write it down and then

all the other words that come into your minds. Do not write

sentences, merely the words that come into your minds. Work as fast

as you can.

[Illustration: FIGURE XIII--FREE ASSOCIATION TEST]

=Results.= Score the work by counting the number of words that have been

written. The norms are shown in Figure XIII.

OPPOSITES

=Object.= This is a test of controlled association. It tests one aspect of

the association of ideas. All thinking is a matter of association of

ideas. Reasoning is controlled association. The test may therefore be

taken as a measure of speed in reasoning.

[Illustration: FIGURE XIV--OPPOSITES TEST--LISTS I AND II]

=Method.= Distribute the lists of opposites to the pupils and turn them

face down on the desks. Use List One in grades three, four, and five,

and List Two in grades above. Allow two minutes in grades three, four,

and five and one minute in grades above. Give the following

instructions:

On the sheets that have been distributed to you are fifty words.

After each word you are to write a word that has the opposite

meaning. For example, if one word were "far," you could write

"near." Work as fast as you can, and when I say "stop" quit work

instantly and turn your paper over.

=Results.= The score is the number of opposites correctly written. The

norms are shown in Figure XIV.

OPPOSITES--LIST NO. 1

1. good 18. up 35. before

2. big 19. thick 36. winter

3. rich 20. quick 37. ripe

4. out 21. pretty 38. night

5. sick 22. heavy 39. open

6. hot 23. late 40. first

7. long 24. wrong 41. over

8. wet 25. smooth 42. love

9. yes 26. strong 43. come

10. high 27. dark 44. east

11. hard 28. dead 45. top

12. sweet 29. wide 46. wise

13. clean 30. empty 47. front

14. sharp 31. above 48. girl

15. fast 32. north 49. sad

16. black 33. laugh 50. fat

17. old 34. man

OPPOSITES--LIST NO. 2

1. strong 18. strange 35. fine

2. deep 19. wrong 36. plain

3. lazy 20. quickly 37. sharp

4. seldom 21. black 38. late

5. thin 22. good 39. sour

6. soft 23. fast 40. wide

7. many 24. clean 41. drunk

8. valuable 25. tall 42. tight

9. gloomy 26. hot 43. empty

10. rude 27. long 44. sick

11. dark 28. wet 45. friend

12. rough 29. fierce 46. above

13. pretty 30. great 47. loud

14. high 31. dead 48. war

15. foolish 32. cloudy 49. in

16. present 33. hard 50. yes

17. glad 34. bright

THE WORD-BUILDING TEST

=Object.= This is a test of a certain type of inventiveness, namely

linguistic invention. Specifically, it tests the pupil's ability to

construct words using certain prescribed letters.

[Illustration: FIGURE XV--WORD-BUILDING TEST]

=Method.= The pupils are given the letters, _a_, _e_, _o_, _m_, _n_, _r_,

and told to make as many words as possible using only these letters.

Give the following instructions:

I wish to see how many words you can make in five minutes, using

only the letters which I give you. The words must be real English

words. You must use only the letters which I give you and must not

use the same letter more than once in the same word. You do not, of

course, have to use all the letters in the same word. A word may

contain one or more letters up to six.

=Material.= The pupils need only sheets of blank paper.

=Results.= The score is the number of words that do not violate the rules

of the test as given in the instructions. The norms are shown in Figure XV.

THE COMPLETION TEST

=Object.= This is, to some extent, a test of reasoning capacity. Of

course, it is only one particular aspect of reasoning. The pupil is

given a story that has certain words omitted. He must read the story,

see what it is trying to say, and determine what words, put into the

blanks, will make the correct sense. The meaning of the word written in

a particular blank must not only make the sentence read sensibly but

must fit into the story _as a whole_. Filling in the blanks in this way

demands considerable thought.

=Method.= Distribute the test-sheets and turn them face down on the desks.

Allow ten minutes in all the tests. Give the following instructions:

On the sheets which have been distributed is printed a story which

has certain words omitted. You are to put in the blanks the words

that are omitted. The words which you write in must give the proper

meaning so that the story reads correctly. Each word filled in must

not only give the proper meaning to the sentence but to the story as

a whole.

=Material.= Use the completion test-sheets, "Joe and the Fourth of July,"

for grades three, four, and five; "The Trout" for grades, six, seven,

and eight; and "Dr. Goldsmith's Medicine" for the high school.

=Results.= In scoring the papers, allow one credit for each blank

correctly filled. The norms are shown in Figures XVI, XVII, and XVIII.

It will be noticed that the boys excel in the "Trout" story. This is

doubtless because the story is better suited to them on the ground of

their experience and interest.

[Illustration: FIGURE XVI--COMPLETION TEST--"JOE AND THE FOURTH OF

JULY"]

* * * * *

JOE AND THE FOURTH OF JULY

Joe {ran}[6] errands for {his} mother and {took} care of the {baby}

until by the Fourth of July his penny {grew} to be a dime. The day

before the Fourth, he {went} down town all by {himself} to get his fire

{works}. There were so {many} kinds he hardly knew which to {buy}. The

clerk knew that it takes a {long} time to decide, for he had been a

{boy} himself not very {long} ago. So he helped Joe to {select} the very

best kinds. "When are you going to {fire} them off?" asked the clerk. "I

will fire {them} very {early} to-morrow," said the boy. So that night

Joe set the {alarm} clock, and the next {morning} got up {early} to fire

his firecrackers.

[6] The italicized words and letters are left blank in the test sheets.

THE TROUT

The trout is a fine fish. Once a big trout {lived} in a pool {close} by

a spring. He used to {stay} under the bank with {only} his head showing.

His wide-open {eyes} shone like jewels. I tried to {catch} him. I would

{creep} up to the {edge} of the pool {where} I could see his {bright}

eyes looking up.

I {caught} a grasshopper and {threw} it over {to} him. Then there was a

{splash} in the water and the grasshopper {was gone}. I {did} this {two}

or three times. Each time I {saw} the rush and splash and saw the bait

had been {taken}.

So I put the sa{me} bait on my {hook} and {threw} it over into the

{water}. But {all} was silent. The fish was an {old} one and had {grown}

very wise. I did this {day} after day with the same luck. The trout

{knew} there was a {hook} hidden in the bait.

[Illustration: FIGURE XVII--COMPLETION TEST--"THE TROUT"]

DOCTOR GOLDSMITH'S MEDICINE

This {is} a story of good medicine. Most medicine is {bad} to {take},

but this was so good {that} the sick man {wished} for more.

{One} day a poor woman {went} to Doctor Goldsmith and {asked} him to

{go} to see her {sick} husband. "He {is} very sick," she said, "and I

{can} not {get} him to eat anything."

{So} Doctor Goldsmith {went} to {see} him. The doctor {saw} at once that

the {reason} why the man {could} not eat was {because} he was {so} poor

that he had {not} been {able} to buy good food.

Then he {said} to the woman, "{Come} to my house this evening and I will

{give you} some {medicine} for your {husband}."

The woman {went} in the evening and the {doctor} gave {her} a small

paper box tied {up} tight. "{It} is very heavy," {she} said. "May I

{see} what it looks {like}?" "{No}," said the doctor, "{wait} until you

get {home}." When she {got} home, and she and {her} husband {opened} the

box so that he {could} take the first {dose} of medicine,--what do you

think they {saw}? The box was {filled} with silver {money}. {This} was

the {good} doctor's medicine.

* * * * *

=Importance of Mental Differences.= (1) _In school work._ One of the

important results that come from a knowledge of the mental differences

in children is that we are able to classify them better. When a child

enters school he should be allowed to proceed through the course as fast

as his development warrants. Some children can do an eight-year course

in six years; others require ten years; still others can never do it.

The great majority, of course, can do it in eight years.

[Illustration: FIGURE XVIII--COMPLETION TEST--"DR. GOLDSMITH'S

MEDICINE"]

Norms for adults, as obtained from university students, are:

TEST MEN WOMEN

Substitution Test 29.1 32.2

Rote Memory, Concrete 28.5 28.6

Rote Memory, Abstract 28.4 27.9

Free Association 51.5 49.3

Completion, _Dr. Goldsmith's Medicine_ 48.1 49.0

Word Building 20.5 20.1

Logical Memory, _Costly Temper_ 64.0 69.6

[Illustration: FIGURE XIX--FREQUENCY SURFACES--COMPARING FOURTH GRADE

WITH HIGH SCHOOL

The numbers along the base represent mental age; those at the left, the

number of pupils of the respective ages.]

It may be thought that a child's success in school branches is a

sufficient measure of his ability and that no special mental

measurements are needed. This is a mistake. Many factors contribute to

success in school work. Ability is only one of these factors, and should

be specially and independently determined by suitable tests. Children

may fail in school branches because of being poorly started or started

at the wrong time, because of poor teaching, sickness, moving from one

school to another, etc. On the other hand, children of poor ability may

succeed at school because of much help at home. Therefore special mental

tests will help in determining to what extent original mental ability

is a factor in the success or failure of the different pupils.

As far as possible, the children of the same grade should have about the

same ability; but such is seldom the case. In a recent psychological

study of a school system, the author found wide differences in ability

in the same grade. The distribution of abilities found in the fourth

grade and in the high school are shown in Figure XIX. It will be seen

that in the fourth grade pupils are found with ability equal to that of

some in the high school. Of course to some extent such a condition is

unavoidable, for a pupil must establish certain habits and acquire

certain knowledge before passing from one grade to another. However,

much of the wide variation in ability now found in the same grade of a

school could be avoided if the teacher had accurate knowledge of the

pupils' abilities. When a teacher learns that a child who is doing

poorly in school really has ability, she is often able to get from that

pupil the work of which he is capable. It has been demonstrated by

experience that accurate measures of children's abilities are a great

help in gradation and classification.

A knowledge of mental differences is also an aid in the actual teaching

of the children. The instance mentioned at the close of the last

paragraph is an example. A knowledge of the differences among the mental

functions of the same pupil is especially helpful. It has been pointed

out that the different mental functions in the same pupil are sometimes

unequally developed. Sometimes considerable differences exist in the

same pupil with respect to learning capacity, the different aspects of

memory, association, imagination, and attention. When a teacher knows of

these differences, she can better direct the work of the pupils.

For example, if a pupil have a very poor memory, the teacher can help

him by aiding him to secure the advantage that comes from close and

concentrated attention, frequent repetitions, logical organization, etc.

On the other hand, she can help the brilliant student by preventing him

from being satisfied with hastily secured, superficial knowledge, and by

encouraging him to make proper use of his unusual powers in going deeper

and more extensively into the school subjects than is possible for the

ordinary student. In many ways a teacher can be helpful to her pupils if

she has an accurate knowledge of their mental abilities.

(2) _In life occupations._ Extreme variations in ability should

certainly be considered in choosing one's life work. Only persons of the

highest ability should go into science, law, medicine, or teaching. Many

occupations demand special kinds of ability, special types of reaction,

of attention, imagination, etc. For example, the operation of a

telephone exchange demands a person of quick and steady reaction. The

work of a motorman on a street car demands a person having the broad

type of attention, the type of attention that enables one to keep in

mind many details at the same time. Scientific work demands the type of

concentrated attention. As far as it is possible, occupations demanding

special types of ability should be filled by people possessing these

abilities. It is best for all concerned if each person is doing what he

can do best. It is true that many occupations do not call for special

types of ability. And therefore, as far as ability is concerned, a

person could do as well in one of these occupations as in another. The

time will sometime come when we shall know the special abilities

demanded by the different occupations and professions, and by suitable

tests shall be able to determine what people possess the required

qualifications.

The schools should always be on the lookout for unusual ability.

Children that are far superior to others of the same age should be

allowed to advance as fast as their superior ability makes possible, and

should be held up to a high order of work. Such superior people should

be, as far as possible, in the same classes, so that they can the more

easily be given the kind and amount of work that they need. The schools

should find the children of unusual special ability, such as ability in

drawing, painting, singing, playing musical instruments, mechanical

invention, etc. Some provision should be made for the proper development

and training of these unusual abilities. Society cannot afford to lose

any spark of genius wherever found. Moreover, the individual will be

happier if developed and trained along the line of his special ability.

=Subnormal Children.= A small percentage of children are of such low

mentality that they cannot do the ordinary school work. As soon as such

children can be picked out with certainty, they should be taken out of

the regular classes and put into special classes. It is a mistake to try

to get them to do the regular school work. They cannot do it, and they

only waste the teacher's time and usually give her much trouble.

Besides, they waste their own time; for while they cannot do the

ordinary school work, they can do other things, perhaps work of a manual

nature. The education of such people should, therefore, be in the

direction of simple manual occupations.

For detecting such children, in addition to the tests given above,

elaborate tests for individual examination have been devised. The most

widely used is a series known as the Binet-Simon tests. A special group

of tests is provided for the children of each age. If a child can pass

the tests for his age, he is considered normal. If he can pass only the

tests three years or more below his age, he is usually considered

subnormal. But a child's fate should not depend solely upon any number

or any kind of tests. We should always give the child a trial and see

what he is able to achieve. This trial should cover as many months or

years as are necessary to determine beyond doubt the child's mental

status.

SUMMARY. Just as we differ in the various aspects of body, so also

we differ in the various aspects of mind. These differences can be

measured by tests. A knowledge of these differences should aid us in

grading, classifying, and teaching children, as well as in the

selection of occupation and professions for them. Mental traits have

some degree of independence; as a result a high degree of one trait

may be found with low degree of some others.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Many of the tests and experiments already described should have shown

many of the individual differences of the members of the class. The

teacher will find in the author's _Examination of School Children_ a

series of group tests with norms which can be used for a further study

of individual differences.

2. The tapping experiment described in the first chapter can now be

repeated and the results taken as a measure of reaction time.

3. You should now have available the records of all the tests and

experiments so far given that show individual differences. Make out a

table showing the rank of each student in the various tests. Compute the

average rank of each student for all the tests. This average rank may be

taken as a measure of the intelligence of the students, as far as such

can be determined by the tests used. Correlate this ranking with

standing in the high school classes. It will give a positive

correlation, not perfect, however. Why not? If your measures of

intelligence were absolutely correct, you still would not get a perfect

correlation with high school standing. Why not?

4. If you had a correct measure of intelligence of 100 mature people in

your city, selected at random, would this measure give you an exact

measure of their success in life? Give the reason for your answer.

5. Of all the tests and experiments previously described in this book,

which gives the best indication of success in high school?

6. If the class in psychology is a large one, a graph should be prepared

showing the distribution of abilities in the class. For this purpose,

you will have to use the absolute measures instead of ranks. Find the

average for each test used. Make these averages all the same by

multiplying the low ones and dividing the high ones. Then all the grades

of each student can be added. This will give each test the same weight

in the average. The use of a slide rule will make this transference to a

new average very easy. A more accurate method for this computation is

described in the author's _Examination of School Children_, p. 65.

The students should make a study of individual differences and the

distribution of ability in some grade below the high school. The tests

described in this chapter can be used for that purpose.

7. Is it a good thing for high school students to find out how they

compare with others in their various mental functions? If you have poor

ability, is it a good thing for you to find it out? If the teacher and

students think best, the results of all the various tests need not be

made known except to the persons concerned. The data can be used in the

various computations without the students' knowing whose measures they

are.

8. To what extent is ability a factor in life? You find people of only

ordinary ability succeeding and brilliant people failing. Why is this?

9. None of the tests so far used measures ideals or perseverance and

persistence. These are important factors in life, and there is no very

adequate measure for any of them. The students might plan some

experiments to test physical and mental persistence and endurance. The

tapping experiment, for example, might be continued for an hour and the

records kept for each minute. Then from these records a graph could be

plotted showing the course of efficiency for the hour. Mental adding or

multiplying might be kept up continuously for several hours and the

results studied as above.

10. We have said that ideals and persistence are important factors in

life. Are they inherited or acquired?

11. Do you find it to be the rule or the exception for a person standing

high in one mental function to stand high in the others also?

12. Make a complete outline of the chapter.

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING

MÜNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_. Chapter XVI.

PYLE: _The Examination of School Children_.

PYLE: _The Outlines of Educational Psychology_. Chapter XVII.

TITCHENER: _A Beginner's Psychology_, pp. 309-311.

CHAPTER X

APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

=The General Field.= Psychology has now reached that stage in its

development where it can be of use to humanity. It can be of use in

those fields which demand a knowledge of human nature. As indicated in

the first chapter, these fields are education, medicine, law, business,

and industry. We may add another which has been called "culture." We

cannot say that psychology is able yet to be of very great service

except to education, law, and medicine. It has been of less service to

the field of business and industry, but in the future, its contribution

here will be as great as in the other fields. While the service of

psychology in the various fields is not yet great, what it will

eventually be able to do is very clear. It is the purpose of this

chapter to indicate briefly, the nature and possibilities of this

psychological service.

=Education.= Throughout the preceding chapters, we have emphasized the

educational importance of the facts discussed. There is little left to

say here except to summarize the main facts. Since education is a matter

of making a child over into what he ought to be, the science of

education demands a knowledge of the original nature of children. This

means that one must know the nature of instincts, their relations to one

another, their order of development, and the possibilities of their

being changed, modified, developed, suppressed. It means that one must

know the nature of the child's mind in all its various functions, the

development and significance of these functions,--memory, association,

imagination, and attention. The science especially demands that we

understand the principles of habit-formation, the laws of economical

learning, and the laws of memory.

This psychological knowledge must form the ground-work in the education

of teachers for their profession. In addition to this general

preparation of the teacher, psychology will render the schools a great

service through the psycho-clinicist, who will be a psychological expert

working under the superintendents of our school systems. His duty will

be to supervise the work of mental testing, the work of diagnosis for

feeble-mindedness and selection of the subnormal children, the teaching

of such children. He will give advice in all cases which demand expert

psychological knowledge.

=Medicine.= In the first place, there is a department of medicine which

deals with nervous diseases, such as insanity, double personality,

severe nervous shock, hallucination, etc. This entire aspect of medicine

is wholly psychological. But psychology can be of service to the general

practitioner both in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. A thorough

psychological knowledge of human nature will assist a physician in

diagnosis. Often the best way to find out what ails a patient's body is

through the patient's mind, and the doctor must know how to get the

truth from the patient's mind even in those cases in which the patient

is actually trying to conceal the truth. A profound practical knowledge

of human nature is necessary,--a knowledge which can be obtained only

by long and careful technical study as well as practice and experience.

Psychology can be of service in the treatment of disease. The physician

must understand the peculiar mental characteristics of his patient in

order to know how to deal with him. In some cases, hypnotism is a

valuable aid in treatment, and in many cases, ordinary normal suggestion

can be of considerable service. The state of mind of a sick person has

much to do with his recovery. The physician must know this and must know

how to induce the desired state of mind. Indeed, a patient's trouble is

often imaginary, exists in the mind only; in such cases, the treatment

should be wholly mental, _i.e._ through suggestion. Of course, the best

physicians know these facts and make use of them in their practice, but

preparation for this aspect of their work should be a regular part of

their medical education. They should not be left to learn these facts

from their practice as best they may, any more than they should be

expected to learn their physiology and anatomy in this way.

=Law.= The service of psychology to law can be very great, but owing to

the necessary conservatism of the courts, it will be a long time before

they will make much use of psychological knowledge. Perhaps the greatest

service will be in determining the credibility of evidence. Psychology

can now give the general principles in this matter. Witnesses go on the

stand and swear to all sorts of things as to what they heard and saw and

did, often months and even years previously. The expert clinical

psychologist can tell the court the probability of such evidence being

true. Experiments have shown that there is a large percentage of error

in such evidence. The additional value that comes from the oath has been

measured. The oath increases the liability of truth only a small

percentage.

Experiments have also shown that one's feeling of certainty is no

guarantee of truth. Sometimes the point we feel surest about is the one

farthest from the truth. In fact, feeling sure of a thing is no

guarantee of truth.

In a particular case in court, the psychologist can determine the

reliability of the evidence of a particular witness and enable the judge

and the jury to put the proper value on such witness's testimony. For

example, a witness may swear to a certain point involving the estimation

of time and distance. The psychologist can measure the witness's

accuracy in such estimates, often showing that what the witness claims

to be able to do is an impossibility. A case may hinge on whether an

interval of time was ten minutes or twelve minutes, or whether a

distance was three hundred or four hundred feet. A witness may swear

positively to one or both of these points. The psychologist can show the

court the limitations of the witness in making such estimates.

Psychology can be of service in the examination of the criminal himself.

Through association tests and in other ways, the guilt or innocence of

the prisoner can often be determined, and his intellectual status can

also be determined. The prisoner may be insane, or feeble-minded, or

have some other peculiar mental disorder. Such matters fall within the

realm of psychology. After a prisoner has been found guilty, the court

should have the advice of the clinical psychologist in deciding what

should be done with him.

It should be added that the court and not the attorneys should make use

of the psychologist. Whenever a psychologist can be of service in a case

in court, the judge should summon such assistance, just as he should if

expert chemical, physical, physiological, or anatomical knowledge should

be desired.

A knowledge of human nature can be of much service to society in the

prevention of crime. This will come about from a better knowledge of the

psychological principles of habit-formation and moral training, through

a better knowledge of how to control human nature. A large percentage of

all crime, perhaps as much as forty per cent, is committed by

feeble-minded people. Now, if we can detect these people early, and give

them the simple manual education which they are capable of receiving, we

can keep them out of a life of crime.

Studies of criminals in reform schools show that the history of many

cases is as follows: The person, being of low mentality, could not get

on well at school and therefore came to dislike school, and consequently

became a truant. Truancy led to crime. Crime sent the person to the

court, and the court sent the person to the state reformatory.

The great duty of the state is the prevention of crime. Usually little

can be done in the way of saving a mature criminal. We must save the

children before they become criminals, save them by proper treatment.

Society owes it to every child to do the right thing for him, the right

thing, whether the child is an idiot or a genius. Merely from the

standpoint of economy, it would be an immense saving to the state if it

would prevent crime by the proper treatment of every child.

=Business.= The contribution of psychology in this field, so far, is in

the psychology of advertising and salesmanship, both having to do

chiefly with the selling of goods. Students of the psychology of

advertising have, by experiment, determined many principles that govern

people when reading newspapers and magazines, principles having to do

with size and kind of type, arrangement and form, the wording of an

advertisement, etc. The object of an advertisement is to get the reader

interested in the article advertised. The first thing is to get him to

_read_ the advertisement. Here, various principles of attention are

involved. The next thing is to have the _matter_ of the advertisement of

such a nature that it creates interest and remains in memory, so that

when the reader buys an article of that type he buys the particular kind

mentioned in the advertisement.

In salesmanship, many subtle psychological principles are involved. The

problem of the salesman is to get the attention of the customer, and

then to make him _want_ to buy his goods. To do this with the greatest

success demands a profound knowledge of human nature. Other things being

equal, that man can most influence people who has the widest knowledge

of the nature of people, and of the factors that affect this nature. The

successful salesman must understand human feelings and emotions,

especially sympathy; also the laws of attention and memory, and the

power of suggestion. A mastery of the important principles requires

years of study, and a successful application of them requires just as

many years of practice.

The last paragraph leads us to a consideration of the general problem of

influencing men. In all occupations and professions, one needs to know

how to influence other men. We have already discussed the matter of

influencing people to buy goods. People who employ labor need to know

how to get laborers to do more and better work, how to make them loyal

and happy. The minister needs to know how to induce the members of his

congregation to do right. The statesman needs to know how to win his

hearers and convince them of the justice and wisdom of his cause.

Whatever our calling, there is scarcely a day when we could not do

better if we knew more fully how to influence people.

=Industry.= The service of psychology here is four-fold: (1) Finding what

men are fitted for. (2) Finding what kinds of abilities are demanded by

the various trades and occupations. (3) Helping the worker to understand

the psychological aspects of his work. (4) Getting the best work out of

the laborer.

_Finding what men are fitted for._ In the preceding chapter, we

discussed the individual variations of men. Some people are better

fitted physically and mentally for certain types of work than they are

for other types of work. The determination of what an individual is

fitted for and what he is not fitted for is the business of psychology.

In some cases, the verdict of psychology can be very specific; in

others, it can be only general. Much misery and unhappiness come to

people from trying to do what they are not fitted by nature to do. There

are many professions and occupations which people should not enter

unless they possess high general ability. Now, psychology is able to

measure general ability. There are many other occupations and

professions which people should not enter unless they possess some

special ability. Music, art, and mechanics may be mentioned as examples

of occupations and professions demanding specific kinds of ability. In

industrial work, many aspects demand very special abilities, as quick

reaction, quick perception, fine discrimination, calmness and

self-control, ingenuity, quick adaptation to new situations. Psychology

can aid in picking out the people who possess the required abilities.

_The different abilities demanded._ It is the business of psychology to

make a careful analysis of the specific abilities required in all the

various works of life. There are hundreds of occupations and often much

differentiation of work within an occupation. It is for the psychologist

of the future to make this analysis and to classify the occupations with

reference to the kinds of abilities demanded. Of course, many of them

will be found to require the same kind of ability, but just as surely,

many will be found to require very special abilities. It is a great

social waste to have people trying to fill such positions unless they

possess the specific abilities required.

It should be the work of the high school and college to explain the

possibilities, and the demands in the way of ability, of the various

occupations of the locality. By possibilities and demands are meant the

kinds of abilities required and the rewards that can be expected, the

kind of life which the different fields offer. It is the further duty of

the high school and college to find out, as far as possible, the

specific abilities of the students. With this knowledge before them, the

students should choose their careers, and then make specific preparation

for them. The schools ought to work in close coöperation with the

industries, the student working for a part of the day in school and a

part in the industries. This would help much in leading the student to

understand the industries and in ascertaining his own abilities and

interests.

_The psychological aspects of one's work._ All occupations have a

psychological aspect. They involve some trick of attention, of

association, of memory. Certain things must be looked for, certain

habits must be formed, certain movements must be automatized. Workmen

should be helped to master these psychological problems, to find the

most convenient ways of doing their work. Workmen often do their work in

the most uneconomical ways, having learned their methods through

imitation, and never inquiring whether there is a more economical way.

_Securing efficiency._ Securing efficiency is a matter of influencing

men, a matter which we have already discussed. Securing efficiency is

quite a different matter from that treated in the preceding paragraph. A

workman may have a complete knowledge of his work and be skilled in its

performance, and still be a poor workman, because he does not have the

right attitude toward his employer or toward his work. The employer must

therefore meet the problem of making his men like their work and be

loyal to their employer. The laborer must be happy and contented if he

is to do good work. Moreover, there is _no use in working_, or in living

either, if one cannot be happy and contented.

We have briefly indicated the possibilities of psychology in the various

occupations and professions. There is a further application that has no

reference to the practical needs of life, but to enjoyment. A

psychological knowledge of human nature adds a new interest to all our

social experience. The ability to understand the actions and feelings

of men puts new meaning into the world. The ability to understand

oneself, to analyze one's actions, motives, feelings, and thoughts,

makes life more worth living. A knowledge of the sensations and sense

organs adds much pleasure to life in addition to its having great

practical value. Briefly, a psychological knowledge of human nature adds

much to the richness of life. It gives one the analytical attitude.

Experiences that to others are wholes, to the psychologist fall apart

into their elements. Such knowledge leads us to analyze and see clearly

what otherwise we do not understand and see only darkly or not at all.

Literature and art, and all other creations and products of man take on

a wholly new interest to the psychologist.

SUMMARY. Psychology is of service to education in ascertaining the

nature of the child and the laws of learning; to law, in determining

the reliability of evidence and in the prevention of crime; to

medicine, in the work of diagnosis and treatment; to business, in

advertising and salesmanship; to the industries, in finding the man

for the place and the place for the man; to everybody, in giving a

keener insight into, and understanding of, human nature.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Visit a court room when a trial is in progress. Note wherein

psychology could be of service to the jury, to the judge, and to the

attorneys.

2. To test the reliability of evidence, proceed as follows: Take a large

picture, preferably one in color and having many details; hold it before

the class in a good light where all can see it. Let them look at it for

ten or fifteen seconds, the time depending on the complexity of the

picture. The students should then write down what they saw in the

picture, underscoring all the points to which they would be willing to

make oath. Then the students should answer a list of questions prepared

by the teacher, on various points in the picture. Some of these

questions should be suggestive, such as, "What color is the dog?"

supposing no dog to be in the picture. The papers giving the first

written description should be graded on the number of items reported and

on their accuracy. The answers to the questions should be graded on

their accuracy. How do girls compare with boys in the various aspects of

the report? What is the accuracy of the underlined points?

3. Let the teacher, with the help of two or three students, perform

before the class some act or series of acts, with some conversation, and

then have the students who have witnessed the performance write an

account of it, as in No. 2.

4. Divide the class into two groups. Select one person from each to look

at a picture as in No. 1. These two people are then to write a complete

account of the picture. This account is then read to another person in

the same group, who then writes from memory his account and reads to

another. This is to be continued till all have heard an account and

written their own. You will then have two series of accounts of the same

picture proceeding from two sources. It will be well for the two who

look at the picture to be of very different types, let us say, one

imaginative, the other matter-of-fact.

Do all the papers of one series have some characteristics that enable

you to determine from which group they come? What conclusions and

inferences do you draw from the experiment?

5. Does the feeling of certainty make a thing true? See how many cases

you can find in a week, of persons feeling sure a statement is true,

when it is really false.

6. In the following way, try to find out something which a person is

trying to conceal. Prepare a list of words, inserting now and then words

which have some reference to the vital point. Read the words one by one

to the person and have him speak the first word suggested by those read.

Note the time taken for the responses. A longer reaction time usually

follows the incriminating words, and the subject is thrown into a

visible confusion.

7. Talk to successful physicians and find out what use they make of

suggestion and other psychological principles.

8. Spend several hours visiting different grades below the high school.

In how many ways could the teachers improve their work by following

psychological principles?

9. Could the qualities of a good teacher--native and acquired--be

measured by tests and experiments?

10. Visit factories where men do skillful work and try to learn by

observation what types of mind and body are required by the different

kinds of work.

11. Does the occupation which you have chosen for life demand any

specific abilities? If so, do you possess them in a high degree?

12. Could parents better train their children if they made use of

psychological principles?

13. In how many ways will the facts learned in this course be of

economic use to you in your life? In what ways will they make life more

pleasurable?

14. Make a complete outline of this chapter.

REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING

MÜNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, Chapter XXVII-XXXIII.

MÜNSTERBERG: _The Psychology of Industrial Efficiency_.

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING

COLVIN, S. S., and BAGLEY, W. C.: _Human Behavior_. The Macmillan

Company, 1913.

DAVENPORT, C. B.: _Heredity in Relation to Eugenics_. Henry Holt &

Company, 1911.

DEWEY, J.: _How We Think_. D. C. Heath & Company, 1910.

KELLICOTT, W. E.: _The Social Direction of Human Evolution_. D. Appleton

& Company, 1911.

KIRKPATRICK, E. A.: _The Fundamentals of Child Study_. The Macmillan

Company, 1912.

MÜNSTERBERG, H.: _Psychology, General and Applied_. D. Appleton &

Company, 1914.

MÜNSTERBERG, H.: _The Psychology of Industrial Efficiency_. Houghton

Mifflin Company, 1913.

PILLSBURY, W. B.: _Essentials of Psychology_. The Macmillan Company,

1916.

PYLE, W. H.: _Outlines of Educational Psychology_. Warwick and York,

1912.

PYLE, W. H.: _The Examination of School Children_. The Macmillan

Company, 1913.

ROWE, S. H.: _Habit-Formation and the Science of Teaching_. Longmans,

Green, & Company, 1911.

TITCHENER, E. B.: _A Beginner's Psychology_. The Macmillan Company,

1916.

GLOSSARY

Most of the terms given below are explained in the text, but it is hoped

that this alphabetical list with brief definitions will prove helpful.

It is a difficult task to make the definitions scientific and at the

same time brief, simple, and clear.

_Abnormal._ Having mental or physical characteristics widely different

from those commonly found in ordinary people.

_Acquired nature._ Those aspects of habit, skill, knowledge, ideas, and

ideals that come from experience and are due to experience.

_Action._ Muscular contractions usually producing motion of the body or

of some part of the body.

_Adaptation._ Adjustment to one's surroundings.

_Adaptive._ Readily changing one's responses and acquiring such new

responses as enable one to meet successfully new situations; also having

tendencies or characteristics which enable one to be readily adjustable.

_After-images._ Images that follow immediately after stimulation of a

sense organ, and resulting from this stimulation.

_Association._ Binding together ideas through experiencing them

together.

_Attention._ Relative clearness of perceptions and ideas.

_Attitude._ The tendency toward a particular type of response in action

or a particular idea or association in thought.

_Bond._ The connection established in the nervous system which makes a

certain response follow a certain stimulus or a certain idea follow

another idea or perception.

_Capacity._ The possibility of learning, achieving, etc.

_Color blindness._ Inability to experience certain colors, usually red

and green.

_Complementary color._ Complementary colors are those which, mixed in

the right proportion, produce gray.

_Congenital._ Inborn.

_Connection._ The nerve-path through which a stimulus produces a

response or through which one idea produces or evokes another.

_Conscious._ Having consciousness, or accompanying consciousness or

producing consciousness.

_Consciousness._ The mental states--perceptions, ideas, feelings--which

one has at any moment.

_Low level of consciousness._ Conscious processes not so clear as

others existing at the same time.

_High level of consciousness._ Conscious processes that are clear as

compared to others existing at the same time.

_Contrast._ The enhancing or strengthening of a sensation by another of

opposite quality.

_Correlation._ The relation that exists between two functions,

characteristics, or attributes that enables us, finding one, to predict

the presence of the other.

_Development._ The appearance, or growth, or strengthening of a

characteristic.

_Emotion._ The pleasure-pain aspect of experience plus sensations from

characteristic bodily reactions.

_Environment._ The objects and forces about us which affect us through

our senses.

_Environmental instincts._ Instincts which have originated, at least in

part, from the periodic changes in man's environment.

_Eugenics._ The science of race improvement through selective breeding

or proper marriages or in some cases through the prevention of marriage.

_Experience._ What we learn of the world through sensation and

perception.

_Fatigue._ Inability to work produced by work and which only rest will

cure.

_Feeble-minded._ Having important mental traits only poorly developed or

not at all.

_Feeling._ The pleasure-pain aspect of experience or of ideational

states.

_Function._ The use of a thing or process, also any mental process or

combination of processes considered as a unit.

_Genetic._ Having reference to origin and development.

_Habits._ Definite responses to definite stimuli depending upon bonds

established by use after birth.

_Heredity._ Transmission of characteristics from parent to offspring.

_Human nature._ The characteristics and tendencies which we have as

human beings, with particular reference to mind and action.

_Ideals._ Definite tendencies to act in definite ways. Ideas of definite

types of action with tendency toward the actions; ideas of definite

conditions, forms, and states together with a desire to experience or

possess them.

_Ideas._ Revived perceptions.

_Images._ Revived sensations, simpler than ideas.

_Imitation._ Acting as we see others act.

_Impulse._ Tendency to action.

_Individualistic instincts._ Those instincts which more immediately

serve individual survival.

_Individual differences._ The mental and physical differences between

people.

_Inherited nature._ Those aspects of one's nature due directly to

heredity.

_Instincts._ Definite responses produced by definite stimuli through

hereditary connections in the nervous system.

_Intellectual habits._ Definite fixed connections between ideas;

definite ways of meeting typical thought situations.

_Intensity._ The amount or strength of a sensation or image, how far it

is from nothing.

_Interest._ The aspect given to experience or thinking by attention and

pleasure.

_Learning._ Establishing new bonds or connections in the nervous system;

acquiring habits; gaining knowledge.

_Memory._ The retention of experience; retained and reproduced

experience.

_Mental set._ Mental attitude or disposition.

_Mind._ The sum total of one's conscious states from birth to death.

_Nerve-path._ The route traversed by a nerve-stimulus or excitation.

_Original nature._ All those aspects of mind and body directly

inherited.

_Perceive._ To be aware of a thing through sensation.

_Perception._ Awareness of a thing through sensation or a fusion of

sensations.

_Plasticity._ Modifiability, making easy the formation of new bonds or

nerve-connections.

_Presupposition._ A theory or hypothesis on which an argument or a

system of arguments or principles is based.

_Primary._ First, original, elementary, perceptive experience as

distinguished from ideational experience.

_Reaction._ The action immediately following a stimulus and produced by

it.

_Reasoning._ Thinking to a purpose; trying to meet a new situation.

_Reflex._ A very simple act brought about by a stimulus through an

hereditary nerve-path.

_Response._ The act following a stimulus and produced by it.

_Retention._ Memory; modification of the nervous system making possible

the revival of experience.

_Science._ Knowledge classified and systematized.

_Sensation._ Primary experience; consciousness directly due to the

stimulation of a sense organ.

_Sense._ To sense is to have sensation, to perceive. A sense is a sense

organ or the ability to have sensation through a sense organ.

_Sense organ._ A modified nerve-end with accompanying apparatus or

mechanism making possible a certain form of stimulation.

_Sensitive._ Capable of giving rise to sensation, or transmitting a

nerve-current.

_Sensitivity._ Property of, or capacity for being sensitive.

_Sensory._ Relating to a sense organ or to sensation.

_Situation._ The total environmental influences of any one moment.

_Socialistic instincts._ The instincts related more directly to the

survival of a social group.

_Stimulation._ The setting up of a nerve process in a sense organ or in

a nerve tract.

_Stimulus._ That which produces stimulation.

_Subnormal._ Having characteristics considerably below the normal.

_Tendency._ Probability of a nerve-current taking a certain direction

due to nerve-organization.

_Thinking._ The passing of images and ideas.

_Thought._ Thinking; an idea or group of ideas.

_Training._ Establishing nerve connection or bonds.

_Vividness._ Clearness of sensations, perceptions, images, and ideas.

INDEX

Abilities, specialized, 179

Ability, unusual, 206

Adaptation of vision, 41

After-images, visual, 40

Ancestors, 22 f.

Anger, 58

Appearance of instincts, 54

Applied psychology, 8-9, 210 ff.

Association of ideas, 152

Astigmatism, 44

Attention, 80 ff.;

and will, 82.

Attitude, 157

Behavior, 7

Bodily conditions, 76

Brain, 7

Brightness, sensation of, 38

Business, 215

Causality, 18, 21

Centrally initiated action, 51

Child, nature of, 11

Cold, sense of, 42

Collecting instinct, 62

College, function of, 217

Color blindness, 45

Color mixture, 39

Color, sensation of, 38

Completion test, 198

Concentrated practice, 102

Consciousness, 7

Conservatism, 109

Costly Temper test, 186

Cramming, 141

Criminal, the, 213 f.

Curriculum, 145

Darwin, 89

Defects of sense organs, 43

Development, individual, 24 ff.;

racial, 18-21;

significance of and causality, 21-24

Direct method, 112

Dizziness, organs that give us sense of, 42

Dramatization, 67

Drill in school subjects, 110-112

Dynamic, world as, 20

Economical practice, 101 ff.

Education, 210;

aim of, 10;

preparatory, 167;

science of, 9 ff.

Educational inferences, 143

Educational psychology, 9 ff.

Efficiency, 98, 108

Emotions, 74 ff.

Environment, 31

Environmental instincts, 61

Envy, 58

Evolution, 19 ff.

Exceptions, 101, 114

Excursions, 61

Experience, 8;

organization of, 169

Experiment, 13 ff.

Eye, the, 37

Eye defects, 43 ff.

Eyestrain, 20

Farsightedness, 44

Fatigue, 101

Fear, 56

Feeble-mindedness, 29

Feeling, 73 ff.

Fighting instincts, 58

Formal drill, III, 112

Free association frequency surface, 178

Free association test, 193

Frequency of experience, 156

Gang instinct, 60

Genetic view of childhood, 24

Genius, 31

Habit, 87 ff.;

and nerve path, 91;

how formed, 98 ff.;

importance in life, 107;

intellectual, 89;

moral, 90;

of thought, 169;

results of, 94;

specific, 116

Hearing, 41;

defects of, 45

Heredity, 24 ff.

Heredity _vs._ Environment, 31

Heritage, social, 23

High school and fourth grade abilities compared, 203

High school, function of, 217

Home and moral training, 118

Idea, 52

Ideas, 124

Imitation, 64 ff.

Imitation in ideals, 67

Incidental drill, 111

Individual development, 24 ff.

Individual differences, 176 ff.

Individualistic instincts, 56

Industry, 216

Influencing men, 215

Inheritance, 22

Inherited tendencies, 50 ff.

Initiative, 113

Instincts, 52 ff.;

classification of, 55;

significance of, 55

Interest, 84

Intervals between practice, 102

Jealousy, 58

Joints, sense organs in, 42

Jost's law, 142

Language and thinking, 170 ff.

Language study, 144

Latin, 116

Law, service of psychology to, 212

Learning and remembering, 138

Learning by wholes, 141

Life occupations, 205

Logical memory, 184 ff.

Meaning, 163 ff.

Medicine, 211

Memories, kinds of, 132

Memory, 124 ff.;

and age and sex, 127;

and habit, 146;

and school standing, 135;

and thinking, 134;

factors of, 128 ff.;

good, dangers resulting from, 137;

kinds of, 132

Mendelian principle, 26

Mental development, 19

Mental differences, 178;

detection of, 180;

importance of, 201 ff.

Mental functions developed, 182

Mental set, 157

Mental tests, 183 ff.

Mind and body, 34 ff.

Mood, 78

Moral training, 117 ff.

Motive, 77

Muscular speed, 14

Museum, school, 62 ff.

Musical ability, 179

Nearsightedness, 44

Needs of child, 77

Nerve tendency, 92

Norms in mental tests, 184 ff.

Occupations, 205

Opposites test, 195 ff.

Organization of experience, 163 ff.

Pain sense, 42

Parents, and habit-formation of children, 104 ff., 119

Perception, 124

Physiological basis of memory, 126

Piano playing, 51, 97

Pitch, 41

Plasticity, 93

Play, 68

Pleasure and habit, 101

Pleasure, higher forms of, 80

Practice, 99, 113

Primary experience, 154

Psychology and culture, 218

Psychology defined, 5;

method of, 13;

problems of, 8

Race, development of, 18 ff.;

improvement of, 30

Ranking students, 15

Reasoning, 159; training in, 168

Recalling forgotten names, 146

Recency of experience, 155

Regeneration, 23

Repetition, 99

Respect for authority, 77

Resemblance, 25

Retina, the, 37 f.

Revived experience, 125

Rigidity, 108

Rote memory, 189

Rules for habit-formation, 113

Salesmanship, 215

School, and habit, 108;

and moral training, 119 f.

Schoolhouse, community center, 60 f.

Science, 1

Scientific law, 3

Scientist, 1 ff.

Securing efficiency, 218

Selecting habits, 109

Sense organs, affects of stimulating, 6, 7;

knowledge through, 35

Sleight's experiment, 140

Smell, 42

Social life of children, 60

Social tendencies, 59

Stimulation, 6

Stimulus and response, 50

Study, learning how to, 132

Subnormal children, 206

Substitution test, 192

Taste, 42

Teacher, function of in memory work, 142;

function of in habit-formation, 103

Teaching too abstract, 129

Temperament, 78

Tendons, sense organs in, 42

Thinking, 152 ff., 159

Touch, 42

Transfer of training, 114 ff., 140

Truancies, 61

Typewriting, 51, 94 ff.

Vision, 37; importance of, 45

Visual contrast, 39

Vividness and intensity of experience, 156

Wandering, 61

Warmth, sense of, 42

Weight, diagram showing frequency surface of, 177

Word-building test, 197

Work and psychology, 218

End of Project Gutenberg's The Science of Human Nature, by William Henry Pyle

Each mental function is capable of some development. It can be brought