THE BEGGARS
Through a most unhappy coincidence, the prince on whose shoulders the
fate of the country was to rest during the critical times to come was
the first, since the beginning of unification, to be entirely unpopular
in the Low Countries. Even Maximilian, who could not adapt himself to
Belgian manners, found some moral support in the presence of his wife,
and, later on, of his son and heir. But no link of sympathy and
understanding could exist between the haughty and taciturn Spaniard and
his genial subjects, between the bigoted incarnation of autocracy and
the liberty-loving population of the Netherlands, so that even the
personal element contributed to render the task of government more
difficult.
Philip's first visit, in 1549, had hardly been a success. His second
stay in the country did not improve the impression he had produced on
those who had approached him. In 1557 Henry II of France had resumed
hostilities. The campaign which followed was signalled by the brilliant
operations of the Count of Egmont, who, first before St. Quentin and
the next year at Gravelines, inflicted severe reverses on the enemy.
But, in spite of the satisfactory treaties of Cateau-Cambraisis and the
marriage of Philip with the French Princess Elisabeth, which was a good
omen for peace, the people of the Netherlands remained discontented.
They had again been called upon to pay the cost of a war which did not
concern them directly, and they were deeply incensed by the continued
presence of Spanish troops, who, irregularly paid, committed incessant
excesses. Several Belgian deputies vented their grievances rather
freely, urging the king to deliver them from these "destructive
brigands." Philip, hurt in his pride, left the Low Countries for Spain,
on August 25, 1559, without any intention of ever returning.
[_MARGUERITE OF PARMA_]
He had left behind him as gouvernante Marguerite of Parma, a natural
daughter of Charles, who lacked neither education nor intelligence, but
whose initiative was paralysed by the detailed secret instructions she
had received. She had been told not to make any important decision
without the advice of a secret council called the "Consulta," formed by
three courtiers who were merely creatures of the king: Granvelle,
Bishop of Arras, the jurist Viglius d'Ayetta and Charles de Berlaymont.
It was, however, impossible to keep such an institution secret, and the
Council of State, whose functions were unconstitutionally superseded by
the action of the Consulta, naturally resented such interference. Among
the most prominent members of the opposition were William of Nassau,
Prince of Orange, governor of Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht; Lamoral,
Count of Egmont, governor of Flanders and Artois; and Philippe de
Montmorency, Count of Horn, grand admiral of the Flemish seas. These
three nobles were moderate Catholics, the two first being strongly
influenced by the tolerant spirit of Humanism, especially Orange, who,
though brought up as a Catholic, had had a Lutheran father.
The clergy had been also aggravated by Philip owing to the creation, in
1559, of fourteen new dioceses, added to the four ancient bishoprics of
Arras, Cambrai, Tournai and Utrecht. Such a reform had already been
contemplated by Philip the Good, and it would have caused no opposition
if the bishops had been nominated by the pope, as in mediaeval times.
But, owing to Charles V's religious policy, they were now selected by
the king, and his choice, which included several inquisitors, was much
criticized by the Belgian clergy and the abbots. The promotion of the
parvenu Granvelle to the supreme dignity of Archbishop of Malines, in
1561, added still more to the discontent.
The same year, ceding to the entreaties of Marguerite, Philip consented
to withdraw the Spanish troops. This measure gave satisfaction to the
people, but did not placate the grievances of the nobles and of the
clergy. At the instigation of William of Orange, the States of Brabant
openly supported the Council of State in its opposition to Granvelle
and the Consulta. This was brought to a climax by the refusal of
Orange, Egmont and Horn to sit on the Council as long as Granvelle
remained in the country. Again, Marguerite supported the attitude of
her Council and, reluctantly, Philip resigned himself to recall his
minister (1564).
[_THE PLACARDS_]
These first incidents were insignificant compared with the crisis
confronting the Government owing to the rigorous application of Charles
V's "placards." Philip had issued no new edicts, deeming, no doubt,
that his father's were sufficiently comprehensive, but these were to be
rigorously enforced. In his farewell message to the States General, he
had declared that "a change of religion cannot occur without at the
same time changing the republic," and it was a subject on which he was
not prepared to compromise. The increasing number of Protestants, owing
to the continued Calvinistic propaganda, rendered the placards more and
more odious and their application almost impossible. Marguerite herself
declared that "continual executions strained public opinion more than
the country could stand." In 1565 the Council of State deputed Egmont
to go to Spain in order to entreat Philip to moderate his instructions,
but, in spite of the courteous reception given to him, the journey of
the count remained without result. The horror inspired by the
Inquisition to Catholics and Protestants alike increased every day, and
the constant emigration of intellectuals and skilled workers to England
caused considerable uneasiness.
Queen Elizabeth was ready to welcome Belgian Calvinists. She assigned
the town of Norwich as the principal centre for their settlement. Quite
apart from her sympathy for the followers of the Reform, she realized
that the introduction of the refugees' various industries into
England--including tapestry--was likely to prove invaluable to this
country. She resented the economic rivalry of the Low Countries, and,
on several occasions, disregarded commercial treaties, levying taxes on
imports, from the Netherlands and ignoring the raids of English
privateers in the North Sea. It was high time to find means of checking
emigration.
[_THE BEGGARS_]
A few Calvinist notables, Jean de Marnix and Louis of Nassau,
William's brother, among them, conceived the plan of linking together
all the nobles opposed to Philip's policy. They drew up a compromise
acceptable to both parties in which the signatories swore to "defend
the privileges of the country and prevent the maintenance of the
Inquisition," without undertaking anything "which would be to the
dishonour of God and the king." Over two thousand adherents, nobles,
bourgeois and ecclesiastics, signed this document, and on April 5,
1556, three hundred nobles presented a petition to Marguerite. The
regent having assured them that she would apply the placards with
moderation while awaiting the king's orders, they promised, on their
side, to do their utmost to maintain public order. Two days later, the
delegates were invited to a banquet by the Calvinist Count of
Keulenburg. They appeared at this function dressed as beggars in rough
gowns, carrying wallets and bowls, and when Brederode, emptying his
bowl, toasted them, the cry of "Long live the Beggars!" was repeated
with enthusiasm by the whole assembly. Tradition has it that the reason
for this disguise was a disparaging reflection made by Count Berlaymont
when the nobles appeared before the regent in simple dress as a sign of
protest against the reckless expenditure which was ruining the
provinces. But the medals struck at the time and worn by nobles and
bourgeois suffice to explain the incident. These medals bore, on one
side, the effigy of the king, and on the other, two hands joined over a
wallet, with the inscription: "Faithful to the king even to beggary."
The "Compromise" implied liberty of conscience, but this remained open
to interpretation. Most of the signatories considered that the
followers of the Reform would merely be tolerated, Catholicism
remaining the only State and public worship. These were the "Beggars of
State." The Calvinists, on the other hand, the "Beggars of Religion,"
claimed full liberty to proclaim their faith, to "fight Roman idolatry"
through their propaganda and to transform the institutions of the
country. In order to keep the two parties together, in their struggle
against foreign interference, it would have been necessary to persuade
both sides to adopt a more moderate attitude and entirely to dissociate
the affairs of State from religious convictions. Orange tried to obtain
this result. At the time, he drew his main support from the German
Lutherans, who had accepted the "Religions Friede." But the Lutherans
were only a small minority in the Low Countries compared to the
Calvinists, who were in close touch with the French Huguenots. In order
to conciliate Catholics and Protestants, the prince endeavoured to
bring the Lutherans and Calvinists together, and even entered into
negotiations with the Calvinist leader, Gui de Bray. His efforts failed
completely, the Calvinists declaring that "they would rather die than
become Lutherans." From that time, owing partly to Philip's policy in
exasperating the people by the application of the placards and partly
also to the fanatic attitude adopted by the new sect, the Reform
entered on a new phase in the Low Countries. No concessions on the part
of the Government would satisfy the extremists, bent on complete
victory or separation.
These tendencies were soon made apparent by the return of many
emigrants and the number of open air "predicants" who held meetings
where the people flocked, armed with sticks and weapons. The moderation
shown by Marguerite came too late. It was merely considered as a proof
of weakness and emboldened the Reformers to redouble their attacks.
Their task was considerably facilitated by the misery prevalent in the
country, due to the bad harvest of the year and to the increased cost
of living brought about by the paralysis of many branches of trade. A
great many merchants had left Antwerp, and in the region of Oudenarde
alone eight thousand weavers were unemployed. The Church was held
responsible for the misery endured by the people; class hatred and
fanaticism combined to make it the scapegoat for all grievances. In
Flanders, some agitators produced letters, supposed to have been sealed
by the king, by which the pillage of the churches was ordered.
Suddenly, on August 11th, armed bands invaded the churches, convents
and monasteries of the region of Hondschoote and Armentieres, breaking
all statues, tearing pictures and manuscripts, and destroying church
treasures and ornaments. The movement spread to Ypres and Ghent,
ravaged the cathedral of Antwerp and passed like a hurricane over
Holland and Zeeland only to stop in Friesland, on September 6th. During
nearly a month the authorities of the Western and Northern provinces
allowed the destruction to continue without daring or trying to stop
it. Under the impression caused by the rising of the "Iconoclasts," the
Council of State obtained from Marguerite the abolition of the
Inquisition and the authorization for the Protestants to hold their
meetings publicly, but unarmed and only in such places where similar
meetings had already been organized. In return for these last
concessions, the nobles dissolved their confederation and applied
themselves to the re-establishment of order.
[_THE INQUISITION_]
Just as the Inquisition had deepened the gulf between the two parties
and stiffened the resistance of the followers of the Reform, the
excesses of the Iconoclasts exasperated the moderate Catholics and
rendered union more and more difficult. The Count of Mansfeld, a
Belgian Catholic, was made governor of Brussels by Marguerite, who
placed herself under his protection. A great many moderate nobles, who
had taken part in the Compromise, rallied round the Government, and it
was suggested that, in order to counteract the revolutionary movement,
it would be wise to obtain from all the nobles of the kingdom a new
oath of fealty to the king. This measure was bound to cause a split.
The small group of Calvinist nobles, headed by the brothers Marnix,
Louis of Nassau and Brederode, abstained from taking the oath. Orange
himself was led by his followers into adopting an intransigent
attitude, though he had not yet given up the hope of realizing union.