As the moon came out that night, her cold face was hateful to the
fleeing French, for it lit the roads for the merciless pursuers.
The exhausted English had halted at La Belle Alliance.
The Prussians came thundering on, and the two victors, Wellington and
Blücher, embraced. Each called the other the winner of the day. Justly
so--for each _was_ the winner. To success both had been necessary.
The Prussians had made a most fatiguing march in the morning, and had
fought with desperation for many hours, but they alone had strength
left for the pursuit. Wellington’s troops fell down among the dying
and the dead, to rest and sleep. But not until they had cheered the
Prussians passing by. “Hip, hip, hurrah!” shout the English, while the
bands play.
The Prussians go by, singing Luther’s hymn, “Now praise we all our God.”
And then these devout Christians hot-foot upon the track of other
Christians, hurry on to a moonlight hunt--vast, terrible, murderous.
These Prussians remember the pursuit after Jena; yes, and the pursuit
after Austerlitz; yes, and the long years of French military occupation
of the Fatherland. And now it is their turn.
“As long as man and horse can go--push the pursuit!” cried Blücher.
Not a great many Prussians are needed. A few cannon to make a
noise, a few bugles to sound the charge, a few drums to send terror
ahead--these, with about 4,500 troops, will be quite sufficient to
chase Napoleon’s army like a flock of sheep.
Forty thousand Frenchmen, unwounded, as brave a lot of men as ever
stepped into line, are now so crushed by unexpected disaster, so filled
with the terror of sheer panic, that no human power can check their
stampede.
Ney has tried it, vainly. Napoleon has tried it, vainly. They abandon
the artillery, they throw away their guns, they cast off their
accouterments, intent only on running for dear life. They cut through
the fields, they fight for passage on the road, they murder one another
in their frantic efforts to get on.
The Prussians chase them, cut them down, ride over them--the roads, the
fields, the woods are strewn with slaughtered Frenchmen. If any stand
is made and a few of the firmer rally, the first blare of Prussian
trumpets sets them running again. The 4,500 Prussians dwindle, as the
chase lengthens, until scarcely a thousand pursue. But the French have
lost their senses. The mere blare of a Prussian bugle throws them
into agonies of fright. One drummer-boy, galloping on horseback, a
dozen cavalrymen to yell the Prussian “Hourra!” are enough to keep the
stampede going.
“No quarter!” cry the pursuers. Yet after Ligny Napoleon had gone,
in person, to take care of the Prussian wounded, and had threatened
the Belgian peasants with the terrors of hell if they did not succor
these sufferers. “God bids us love our enemies,” said the Emperor
to these peasants. “Take care of the wounded, or God will make you
burn.” But the English had cried “No quarter!” as they charged down
from Mont-Saint-Jean, and now the Prussians are repeating the cry and
slaughtering, with indiscriminate fury, those who surrender, those who
are wounded and those who are overtaken.
So mad is the panic of the French that at Gemappe, where the little
river Dyle is only about fifteen feet wide and three feet deep, they
have a frightful crush at the narrow bridge and never once think of
wading across.
Here, once more Napoleon vainly endeavors to stop the rout. The
Prussians appear, beat the drum, blow the trumpets, fire cannon,
and the thousands of Frenchmen fight madly with each other for the
privilege of running away. They slash each other with their swords,
stab each other with their bayonets, and even shoot each other down.
To appreciate the state of mind of this fleeing army it is necessary
that one should have a good idea of what happens to the crowd in a
packed theater when the red tongues of the flames are seen in the
hangings and the cry of “_Fire! Fire!_” smites the startled ear. The
horrible scene which invariably follows is the outcome of exactly
the uncontrollable, unreasoning terror which made the flight from
Napoleon’s last battlefield such a disgrace to human nature.
* * * * *
The moon which held a light for the pursuit silvered also the slopes
where the great battle had been fought, shone upon the unburied corpses
that still lay at Ligny and Quatre Bras, shone upon 25,000 Frenchmen,
6,000 Prussians, and 10,000 of the English army, who lay on the field
of Waterloo; shone also upon other thousands who lay dead or dying
on the futile battle-ground of Wavre. Within three days and within
the narrow radius of a few miles more than 70,000 men had been shot
down--for what?
For what? To force upon the French a King and a system which they
detested, and to prevent the spread of democratic principles to other
countries where kings and aristocracies were in power.
Creasy numbers Waterloo among the Twelve Decisive Battles of the World,
but it does not deserve the rank. It did not give democratic principles
anything more than a temporary set-back. It did not permanently restore
the Bourbons. It did not even keep the Bonaparte heir off the throne.
Much less did it settle the principle that one nation may dictate to
another its form of government.
In his old age, Wellington was asked to write his Memoirs. “No,” he
answered. “It wouldn’t do. If I were to tell what I know, the people
would tear me to pieces.”
I think I understand. If the ruling oligarchs of England,--Eldon,
Castlereagh, Pitt, Canning, Liverpool, Bathurst,--had revealed the
inner secrets of the Tory administration, the last one of them would
have been torn to pieces--deservedly.
* * * * *
The man-hunt rolls off toward the Sambre, the drum dies away in
the distance, the horror of the retreat goes farther and farther
away,--while the moon looks down upon the English army, asleep on
La Belle Alliance, upon the blood-stained valleys and slopes that
lead to Mont-Saint-Jean, upon the smouldering ruins of Hougoumont,
of La Haye-Sainte, of Papelotte, of Plancenoit. There are dead men
everywhere. Everywhere are dying men, dismounted cannons, broken
swords, abandoned guns and knapsacks, dead horses, and mangled horses
that scream as they struggle with pain and death, wounded men who moan
and groan and curse their fate.
A mile wide and two miles long, this strip of hell writhes beneath the
unpitying stars; and perhaps the most awful sound that shocks the ear
and the soul is that choked yell of terror and agony of the officer who
is being clubbed to death with a musket by the night prowler who wants
the officer’s watch, decorations and money.
Enter the ground of the Château of Hougoumont, pass the shattered
buildings and go into the flower garden. Here was once the beauty of
nature and the beauty of art, combined. This morning, when the sun
broke through the mists, these formal walks were bordered by the bloom
of flowers; these balustraded terraces were fragrant with the incense
of the orange and the myrtle. The birds were singing in the garden
overhead, along these quiet covered walks in the old Flemish garden,
vine clad with honey-suckle and jessamine, where many a word of love
had been spoken as lovers wandered here in years long past.
And now it is one of the frightful spots of the world, reeking with
blood, cumbered with dead and dying men, torn by shells, gutted by
fire. The well is ever so deep and ever so large, but is never so deep
nor so large as to hold all the dead and the dying. To-morrow it will
be filled. The dauntless defenders and the fearless assailants will
embrace in the harmony of a common grave. And for many and many a year
the peasant at his fireside at night will tell, in hushed tones, of the
sounds--the groans, the faint calls for help--which are said to have
been heard coming from the well, nights after its hasty filling in.
* * * * *
Few partisans of Napoleon now contend that he was free from serious
fault in this, his last campaign.
First of all, he should have made his appeal to the people, put himself
once more at their head as the hero of the French Revolution, remained
in France, and nationalized the war.
Again, he should not have placed two such generals as Vandamme and
Gérard under Grouchy.
He showed no vigor in following up his victory at Ligny, and made
a capital error in not breaking up the retreating foe with cavalry
charges.
He lost a great opportunity at Quatre Bras.
On the night of the 17th he should have sent definite orders to
Grouchy, and should have hearkened to Soult when he was urged by that
thorough soldier to call in at least a portion of Grouchy’s force.
He took the reports of Haxo and Ney, and based the battle upon their
erroneous reports. The Napoleon of earlier years would have _gone to
see for himself_.
He did not have a good view of the field and consequently missed
detailed movements of immense importance.
He treated with too much scorn the opinion of Soult and Reillé (who
had tested the English soldier in Spain), when they warned him that
the English, properly posted and properly handled--as Wellington could
handle them--were invincible.
He made the attack without maneuvering, in just the bare-breasted,
full-face way that best lent itself to bloody repulse.
The premature cavalry movement which contributed most to the
final disaster was under full headway,--too far advanced to be
stopped,--before he knew that it was contemplated.
In holding off the Prussians, the Emperor displayed his genius,
directing every movement himself. On the field of Waterloo, he left too
much to Ney and Jerome. Had he taken Ney out of the fight at the time
that he recalled Jerome, the issue might have been different.
The last grand charge should not have been made at all. He should have
stopped, as Lee did at Gettysburg, in time to save his army, for by
this time he _knew_ that Grouchy would not come. To stake so much on
one last desperate throw was the act of a man who was no longer what
he had been at Aspern and Essling when he withdrew into the Island of
Lobau.
When the Emperor was giving the order for the last great charge,
General Haxo would have remonstrated. “But, Sire--” he began. Napoleon
flapped his glove lightly across Haxo’s face and said, “Hold your
tongue, my friend. There is Grouchy who will give us other news.” He
had mistaken Bülow’s cannonade for Grouchy’s.
One can understand what was passing in his mind when he said to
Gourgaud, a few weeks later, “Ah, if it were to be done over again!”
On Wellington’s side the management was superb. It was practically
faultless. He made the most of every advantage, and made the most of
the errors of his enemy.
With this exception: He left 18,000 of his men at Hal, four or five
miles away, protecting a road which he feared the French might take.
But with Napoleon facing him, here at Mont-Saint-Jean, the 18,000 men
were no longer needed at Hal; and no one has ever been able to explain
why Wellington did not call them in during the early morning of the
18th.
* * * * *
In other books than this you will read of how the wreck of Napoleon,
the man, and the wreck of Napoleon, the Emperor, found their way to
Paris; how the well-meaning but weak-headed La Fayette, dreaming of
an impossible Republic, worked in reality for the Bourbon restoration
in working against Napoleon; how the Chambers, honeycombed by the
intrigues of Fouché, demanded the second abdication; how the wreck
of Napoleon floated aimlessly down the current of misfortune; how he
signed away his throne; how the masses thronged about his palace,
wildly clamoring for him to put himself at the head of a national
uprising; how he sends his empty coach and six through the mob,
and makes off by the back way in a cab; how he stops at Malmaison,
weeps for his lost Josephine, listens to all kinds of counsel, takes
none, and has no plan; how the soldiers, marching past in straggling
detachments, cheer him with the same old enthusiasm, and how he calmly
remarks, “They had better have stood and fought at Waterloo.”
Napoleon was no longer the volcanic man of action, of connected ideas,
of sustained exertion, of inflexible purpose. The Waterloo campaign had
been a sputtering of the candle in the socket--a brief eruption of a
Vesuvius that made Europe quiver; and then all was over.
From Malmaison he is ordered off by Fouché, and he meekly obeys. At
Rochefort he dawdles, doubts, delays, and does nothing. Logically, he
becomes a prisoner to those by whom he has been beaten.
To St. Helena, and a few years of torture; to hopeless captivity
and the bitter inbrooding that eat the heart out; to the depths
of humiliation and the canker of impotent rage; to weary days of
depression and dreary nights of pain; to a long agony of vain regrets,
of wrath against fate, of soul-racking memories--to these go Napoleon
Bonaparte, the greatest man ever born of woman.
At last, the reprieve comes. At last there comes the day when the
little man can no longer torture the big one. Sir Hudson Lowe may at
length rest easy--the sweat of the final pain gathers on his captive’s
brow. English sentinels may slacken their vigilance now--the death
rattle is in the prisoner’s throat.
The storm comes up from out the wrathful sea, and the terrible anger of
the tempest beats upon the tropical rock. The thunder, peal on peal,
volleys over the crags, and the glare of the lightning lights up the
track of devastation. Within the renovated cow-house, and within a room
which will soon be used again as a cow-stall, is stretched the dying
warrior.
What was it that the storm said to the unconscious soldier? By what
mysterious law, yet to be made plain, does the sub-consciousness move
and speak when deep sleep or the delirium of disease has paralyzed
the normal consciousness of man? We do not know. In poetry, the
sub-conscious produces the weird “Kubla Khan”; in music it notates “The
Devil’s Sonata.” It is the sub-conscious which often gives warning of
evil to come; it is the sub-conscious that sometimes tells us the right
road when all is doubt.
As the thunder volleyed over Longwood, and the roar of the storm held
on, the dying Captain was strangely affected. Just such thunder had
rolled over his head that Saturday night and Sunday morning, when
he went the rounds of his outposts in the drenching rain--which may
have been the main cause of his loss of Waterloo. He and the faithful
Bertrand had made those night-rounds alone, and Napoleon, as he stopped
to listen to the thunder, muttered, “We agree.”
It must have been that in his delirium he fancied he was again on the
front line, listening to the storm which preceded his last battle.
“The Army! The head of the Army!” he muttered. “Desaix! Bessiéres!
Hasten the attack! Press on! The enemy gives way--they are ours!”
With a convulsive start he sprang up, out of the bed, and got upon his
feet. Montholon seized him, but he bore the Count to the floor. Others
rushed in; he was already exhausted, and they put him back in bed.
Afterward he lay still, and the boat drifted on, quietly on, toward the
bar.
The storm had passed away, and the Emperor, lying on his back, with one
hand out of the bed, fixed his eyes “as though in deep meditation.”
Those about the bed thought they heard him say, “France! Josephine!”
Then he spoke no more.
A light foam gathered on the parted lips. There was peace on his
face--for the pain had done what it came to do.
As the clear sun dipped beneath the distant rim of the sea, Napoleon
died.
It was May 5th, 1821.
* * * * *
In Hillaire Belloc’s magnificent study of Danton, the author makes
reference to a legend which is said to be current among the peasants of
Russia.
It is a story of “a certain somber, mounted figure, unreal, only an
outline and a cloud, that passed away to Asia, to the East and North.
They saw him move along their snows through the long, mysterious
twilight of the Northern autumn, in silence, with the head bent and
the reins in the left hand, loose, following some enduring purpose,
reaching toward an ancient solitude and repose. _They say that it
was Napoleon._ After him, there trailed for days the shadows of the
soldiery, vague mists bearing faintly the forms of companies of men.
It was as though the cannon-smoke of Waterloo, borne on the light west
wind of that June day, had received the spirits of twenty years of
combat, and had drifted farther and farther during the fall of the year
over the endless plains.
“But there was no voice and no order. The terrible tramp of the Guard
and the sound that Heine loved, the dance of the French drums, was
extinguished; there was no echo of their songs, for the army was of
ghosts and was defeated. They passed in the silence which we can never
pierce, and somewhere remote from men they sleep in bivouac round the
most splendid of human swords.”
A SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER
BLÜCHER
“Captain Blücher has full permission to resign, and to go to the devil,
if he likes.”
Thus endorsed by Frederick the Great, Captain Blücher’s written request
for leave to retire from the Prussian Army went into effect.
Yet this headstrong, boisterous, hard-drinking, hard-riding,
hard-fighting, indefatigable Blücher became one of the most thorough
and effective soldiers that ever led an army to battle. He possessed
some of those very qualities which made Washington, Cromwell, and
Frederick so great. He was tireless, he was iron-willed, he was
true-hearted, he was fearless, he was not to be discouraged, and he
never could be whipped so badly that he did not come back to fight
again, harder than ever.
Something of a national hero, something of a typical German soldier,
something of an ideal patriot, he was something of a ruthless Goth. He
had gone to England after the Campaign of Paris, in 1814, and rode
conspicuously in the great procession through London. As he looked
upon the wealth displayed on every side, he growled, “What a town to
sack.” Yet he was a devoted husband, a most loyal subject; a generous,
faithful, daring ally.
He had fought against the French a greater number of times than any
other commander. He had been whipped oftener and harder than any other
commander. He had been captured, and had grazed annihilation oftener
than any other commander.
After Jena, his king owed his escape from being made prisoner to a
bold falsehood--to General Klein--that an armistice had been declared.
At Bautzen he just did get out of the trap Napoleon laid for him, and
he did it because Ney, in making the turning movement, stopped to do
some fighting which gave the Prussian his warning. In 1814 he just did
miss being bagged time and again--but he missed it. And now in 1815
his pluck, his dash, and his luck were to save him, as by fire, again
and again. He was beloved by his troops. Wherever he sent them, he
was ready to go himself. He shirked nothing, and was whole-hearted in
everything. Like the Russian soldier, Skobeleff, he was sublime on the
field of battle, and led his men in person. With a kindly word, “Come,
comrades, follow me!” he could lead them into the jaws of hell. With a
plea like this, “Comrades, I gave my word to be there; you won’t make
me break it!”--he could inspire them to superhuman efforts, to drag the
heavy guns through the mud, and thus reach his ally in time to save.
Heading a cavalry charge at Ligny, his horse was shot under him,
and the French passed over him twice--once in advancing, once in
retreating--and the darkness was his friend each time. Dragged by
one of his officers from under his horse, he was borne off the field
bruised, almost unconscious. In two days, he is leading charges again.
Too generous to suspect an ally, he stands and fights at Ligny on
Wellington’s promise of support, and when the support doesn’t come he
still does not suspect his ally of calculating selfishness. His staff
_does_. Hence it was that his staff opposed him when he wished to yield
to Wellington’s plea for help, on the night of the 17th. Long did
Gneisenau resist Blücher, contending that Wellington meant to leave
them in the lurch again. But at length the chief of staff consented
that the promise of relief be sent, and old Blücher was happy. The
promise was sent, and Wellington _knew_ it would be kept! Hence he
fought at Waterloo, with the knowledge that his task consisted in
holding out until the Prussians could arrive.
The heroic struggle of Blücher to make progress over the terrible
roads, his enormous energy, his magnificent devotion to the common
cause, his unselfish renunciation of credit for the victory which
was due to him more than to Wellington, raise him to the pinnacle of
military glory. No student of this last campaign of Napoleon can fail
to reach the conclusion that while Wellington was delaying at Brussels,
sending out orders not suited to the condition of things at the front,
and taking his supper at Lady Richmond’s ball, it was Blücher who was
where he should have been, and doing what he should have done. But for
the skilful retreat of Thielman, followed by the bold concentration at
Ligny and the stubborn fight there, the French would have gone into
Brussels without firing a shot.
On the night of the 18th, Blücher followed the pursuit as far as
Genappe, where his strength gave out. He went into the inn to go to
bed, but before undressing, wrote his wife:
“On the 16th I was compelled to withdraw before superior forces,
but on the 18th, in concert with my friend Wellington, I have
annihilated the army of Napoleon.”
To a friend he wrote:
“The finest of battles has been fought, the most brilliant of
victories won. I think that Bonaparte’s history is ended. I cannot
write any more, for I am trembling in every limb. The strain was
too great.”
Blücher was seventy-three years old. Napoleon and Wellington were
nearly the same age, both being born in 1769, and therefore forty-seven
years old.
Blücher was notoriously a hard drinker, and had been so all his life.
Both Napoleon and Wellington were extremely sober men; yet Blücher had
shown more energy than the other two together.
NEY
A mournful interest must always attach to Ney.
As Napoleon said, his “Bravest of the Brave” was no longer the same
man. First of all, in this campaign he was not handled right. The
Emperor should have employed him sooner, or not at all: should have
trusted him further, or not at all. The manner in which he was caught
up at the last moment and cast into the activities of the campaign was
most unwise.
In spite of the bad behavior of Ney in 1814, the troops were glad to
see him in their midst. Their nickname for him was “Red-head,” and
they called him this to each other as they saw him join the Emperor at
Beaumont. “All will go well now--Red-head is with us!”
But Ney was not at himself. There is no other phrase that will do,--all
of us know what it means. When the orator whom we _know_ to be a
heaven-born orator fails to move us, we say, “He is not at himself.”
When the brilliant writer is dull; when the expert mechanic is awkward;
when the painter’s brush misses the conception, when the sculptor’s
chisel cannot follow his thoughts, when the master musician makes
discord, we have nothing better to say than “He is not at himself.”
So it was with Marshal Ney. Advancing upon Quatre Bras, he stopped,
afraid of going too far. When had Ney been timid before?
Realizing at length what was expected of him, he fought furiously to
take the position which would have been his without a fight had he
simply not stopped in sudden fear the evening before. Then, having
been the Ney of old on the 16th, he became timid again on the morning
of the 17th, and let Wellington draw off without any attempt to
molest the retreat. Why no reports to the Emperor all that day of the
16th? Why none on the night of the 16th? Very near to the treason
for which officers are shot, was this sullen silence. He was not at
himself. Then at Waterloo, the Ney of old comes out again. He is not
only bold, but rash. He is possessed of a devil of fight. He is no
longer a general: he is just a reckless brigadier. Headlong charges,
blind rushes, frantic management which is calamitous mismanagement;
premature sacrifice of cavalry, false formation of columns of attack,
then wild rage and despair, and prayers for death! The soldier never
lived that fought harder and longer than Ney at Waterloo. As darkness
closed down, and the torrents of retreat ran past him, this heroic
and ill-starred soldier, his face black with powder smoke, his uniform
in tatters, the blood oozing from bruises, a broken sword in his hand,
cried out, “Come and see how a Marshal of France dies!” But alas, the
flood of disaster bore him away, and this leonine Frenchman was left to
make a target for French muskets. All of Ney’s horses had been killed
under him, and he owed his life--a bad debt, as it turned out--to a
faithful subaltern.
* * * * *
The restored Bourbons were determined to put Ney to death. Instead of
leaving his fate in the hands of his old companions in arms, as his
lawyer wanted him to do, Ney foolishly gave preference to a trial by
the civilians of the Chamber of Peers. This tribunal condemned him, and
he was shot. So says History.
But Tradition is persistent in claiming that the execution was a fake:
that blank cartridges were fired, that Ney fell unhurt, and that his
body was spirited away, and that he was shipped off to America, and
that he lived in North Carolina, a school-teacher, until he died a
natural death.
Many a time I have ridiculed this tradition, and marshaled in
convincing array the evidence against it. I must confess, however, that
a statement in the book of Sir William Fraser, called “Wellington’s
Words,” startled me. He expresses a doubt as to the genuineness of the
execution of Marshal Ney, _and Sir William was close to Wellington_.
Indeed, the account which Sir William gives of the alleged execution is
somewhat suggestive of a mock execution.
It was a beautiful morning, and the Garden of the Luxembourg was filled
with children, attended by their nurses, taking the morning air, amid
the trees and birds and flowers. A closed carriage drove up to the gate
and four men, leaving the carriage, entered the garden. One was Marshal
Ney, the others an officer and two sergeants. The officer placed Ney
against the wall, called the picket guarding the gate, gave the word
“Fire!” and Ney fell on his face. The body was immediately put into the
carriage and driven off. The nurses and the children had not realized
what was happening. Says Sir William Fraser (who had this account from
Quentin Dick, an eye-witness), “I confess to have got a lingering
doubt whether Ney was shot to death.”
But Sir William himself supplies a bit of evidence which resettles
my own conviction that Ney _was_ shot to death. The second Duke of
Wellington was invited by Queen Victoria to meet at Windsor Castle
the Emperor of the French. In the train of Louis Napoleon, the French
Emperor, was the son of Marshal Ney. The Emperor said, “I must
introduce two great names,” leading the Duke of Wellington to the
Prince of Moscowa. The Duke made a low bow: the Prince did not return
it. He remembered the murder of his father, and knew that the first
Duke of Wellington should have prevented it. In answer to the Emperor’s
whispered remonstrance, Ney’s son firmly declared that he did not
wish to make the acquaintance of Wellington’s son. To my mind this is
conclusive. Had Ney’s life been saved by the first Duke of Wellington,
as Sir William Fraser broadly hints, two things are certain: (1) Ney’s
son would have known it, and (2) Ney’s family would have gratefully
honored Wellington’s memory, instead of detesting it.
No: the lion-like Ney did not teach school in North Carolina; he died
a dog’s death in the garden of the Luxembourg. A victim to the cold
perfidy of Wellington, a bloody sacrifice to the vindictive ferocity
of Bourbon royalism, the magnificent French soldier was shot to death
by Frenchmen--shot like a dog, and fell on his battle-worn face dead,
dead, while the song of birds was in the trees, and the innocent
laughter of children rang in his ears. Well did he say when they were
reading his death-sentence, in which all of his high-sounding titles
were being enumerated, “Just Michel Ney--soon to be a handful of dust.”
Full of error, yet full of virtue: pure gold at one crisis, mere
dross at another; superbly great on some occasions, and pitiably weak
on others; true as steel one day, unsubstantial as water the next;
dangerous to the enemy on some fields, fatally dangerous to Napoleon
in the last campaign, the truth remains that this strenuous soldier
had been fighting the battles of France all his life, had never failed
her at any trial, had never joined her enemies, and must have died of
heart-break as well as bullet-wound when he heard a French officer give
the word, and saw French soldiers raise their guns to shoot him down.
Honor to the son of Ney who refused to take the hand of Wellington’s
son, although a Queen was the hostess, and an Emperor whispered a
remonstrance!
Transcriber’s Notes
Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a
predominant preference was found in the original book; otherwise they
were not changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced quotation
marks were remedied when the change was obvious, and otherwise left
unbalanced.
Page 40: “Auerstadt” was printed that way.