FROM DIOCLETIAN, A.D. 284, TO CONSTANTINE'S DEATH, A.D. 337.
Diocletian began to reign A.D. 284, and once more revived the vigor of
the declining empire, which now seemed more than ever to depend for its
existence upon the qualities of a single ruler. It seems, indeed, to
have required an intellect of no common order to preserve the unity of
the empire, composed of so many different nations, of territories
separated by such vast distances, and threatened on every side by
innumerable foes; but, of all his contemporaries, Diocletian was best
suited to this task. His parents had been the slaves of a Roman Senator,
and he had himself risen from this low station to the highest positions
in the army. He acted with generosity toward the servants of the former
emperor, not only suffering them to remain in safety under his rule, but
even to retain their offices. Finding the empire too large to be
governed by a single ruler, he selected as his colleague Maximian, a
brave, but fierce and ignorant soldier, who, like himself, had risen to
a high rank in the army. Maximian, however, always admitted the
intellectual superiority of Diocletian. The emperor assumed the title of
Jovius, and Maximian that of Herculius. Diocletian also appointed two
Cæsars, Constantius and Galerius, to aid him in the defense of the
empire, which was divided between the four princes. Gaul, Spain, and
Britain were intrusted to the care of Constantius, Italy and Africa to
Maximian, Galerius commanded the legions on the Danube, while Diocletian
reserved for himself Thrace, Egypt, and Asia. The four rulers seemed to
have labored together in harmony, but the establishment of four courts
in different parts of the empire obliged them to increase the taxes, and
every province suffered under new impositions. Even Italy, which had
always been favored in this particular, was now heavily burdened, and
every where lands were abandoned and left uncultivated because their
owners could not pay the taxes and impositions. In A.D. 287 a rebellion
occurred in Gaul, which was suppressed by Maximian; soon after,
Carausius, having become master of Britain, and possessing a
considerable fleet, defied the power of the emperor; but when
Constantius was appointed Cæsar he prepared to reduce the island to
subjection. In A.D. 294 Carausius was put to death by Allectus, a new
usurper. Constantius now crossed the Channel and recovered the island,
which, after a separation of ten years, was once more reunited to the
empire. During this reign the Goths, Vandals, and other northern
barbarians wasted their strength in destructive contests with each
other; but whenever, in intervals of peace, they invaded the Roman
territory, they were driven back by the valor of the two Cæsars.
Maximian, in the mean time, subdued a revolt in Africa; and Diocletian
himself suppressed one of those seditions to which Egypt was constantly
exposed. The emperor besieged Alexandria for eight months, cut off the
aqueducts which conveyed water to the city, and, having taken it, put
many thousands of its citizens to death. One remarkable edict which he
now published forbade the study of alchemy in Egypt, and ordered all
books upon that subject to be burned. He also made a treaty with the
Nubians, in order to protect the frontiers of Egypt.
It gives us, indeed, a clear view of the immense extent of the Roman
power when we reflect that its commanders were, almost at the same
moment, struggling successfully against its enemies in Africa, Britain,
Germany, and the East. A war with Persia now arose, in which Galerius
was at first defeated, A.D. 296. But the next year he passed through
the mountains of Armenia at the head of twenty-five thousand chosen men,
and, having surprised the Persian army in the night, slaughtered great
numbers of them; the booty, too, was immense. A barbarian soldier,
finding a bag of shining leather filled with pearls, threw away the
contents and preserved the bag; and the uncultivated savages gathered a
vast spoil from the tents of the Persians. Galerius, having taken
prisoners several of the wives and children of the Persian monarch
Narses, treated them with such tenderness and respect that Narses made
peace. Mesopotamia was now added to the empire, being taken from the
King of Armenia, who received in its place a considerable Persian
province.
The two emperors returned to Rome and celebrated their triumph November
20, A.D. 303, the last spectacle of that kind which the world has
witnessed. Romulus, more than a thousand years before, had ascended the
Capitoline Mount on foot, bearing in his arms the spoil of Acron, and
his example had been followed by a long line of Roman heroes. In the
last triumph, the two emperors were attended by the spoils of Africa and
Britain, of the East and the West.
During this reign also occurred the last persecution of the Christians,
who were soon to become the masters of the empire. It began A.D. 303,
and continued for ten years; and such multitudes of the Christians
perished that the emperors boasted that they had wholly extirpated the
sect!
Diocletian introduced an Eastern pomp into his court, assumed the titles
of "Lord and Emperor," and wore a diadem set with pearls. His robes were
of silk and gold. He required his subjects to prostrate themselves
before him, and to adore him as a divinity.
In A.D. 305, like Charles V., he resolved to abdicate his power, having
persuaded his colleague Maximian to do the same: he lived in retirement
for nine years, and amused himself cultivating his garden. "I wish you
would come to Salona" (Spalatro), he wrote to Maximian, who sought to
draw him from his retirement, "and see the cabbages I have planted: you
would never again mention to me the name of empire." But the close of
his life was embittered by the ingratitude of Constantine and Licinius,
and the dangers of the empire. It is not known whether he died by
disease or by his own hand.
Upon the abdication of Diocletian and his colleague, the two Cæsars,
Constantius and Galerius, assumed the title of Augustus. Constantius
retained his former provinces, Gaul, Spain, and Britain. He was
moderate, amiable, and lived with Roman simplicity. Galerius, on the
other hand, was haughty, severe, and ambitious. He had married a
daughter of Diocletian, and hoped that the death of Constantius would
soon leave him the sole emperor of Rome. The two emperors now appointed
two Cæsars, Maximin and Severus, the first nephew to Galerius, and the
latter devoted to his interests. Constantius died at York, in Britain,
A.D. 306, and his son Constantine was proclaimed Augustus by the
soldiers.
[Illustration: Constantine and Fausta.]
This prince, afterward Constantine the Great, was the son of Constantius
and Helena, who was said to have been the daughter of an inn-keeper.
When Constantius became Cæsar he divorced Helena, and her son was, in a
measure, neglected. Constantine, however, soon distinguished himself as
a soldier, and won the affection of the army. In appearance he was tall,
dignified, and pleasing; he excelled in all military exercises, was
modest, prudent, and well informed. He soon attracted the jealousy of
Galerius, who would have put him to death had he not escaped to his
father in Britain; and now Galerius refused to allow him any higher
title than that of Cæsar.
Maxentius, the son of the abdicated emperor Maximian, was also
proclaimed Augustus by his soldiers, and prevailed upon his father once
more to ascend the throne. Severus, who marched against them, was
defeated and put to death; and Constantine now married Fausta, the
daughter of Maximian. Galerius led a large army from the East, but was
repulsed from Rome and retreated, leaving Maximian and his son masters
of the capital. Galerius next associated Licinius with him in his
power, and there were now six sovereigns upon the throne.
In A.D. 310, however, Maximian, having conspired against the life of
Constantine, was put to death; Galerius died the next year; in A.D. 312
Maxentius fell before the arms of Constantine, and was drowned in the
Tiber while attempting to make his escape. It was during this campaign
that Constantine is said to have seen the miraculous cross in the
heavens.
The Roman Senate paid unusual honors to Constantine; games and festivals
were instituted in memory of his victory over Maxentius, and a triumphal
arch was erected, whose imperfect architecture shows the decline of
ancient taste. The Arch of Trajan was stripped of its ornaments to adorn
that of Constantine.
[Illustration: Arch of Constantine.]
The new emperor introduced good order into the administration of the
West, revived the authority of the Senate, and disbanded the Prætorian
Guards; he revoked the edicts against the Christians, and paid unusual
deference to the bishops and saints of the Church. The Emperor Licinius,
who had married his sister, in A.D. 313 defeated and put to death
Maximin, so that the empire was now shared between Constantine and
Licinius.
The former now summoned a council of bishops at Arles to suppress the
heresy of the Donatists, but, before it met, was forced to march against
Licinius, who had conspired against him. Licinius was defeated in two
battles, and forced to give up a large part of his dominions to his
conqueror. Constantine next defeated the Goths and Sarmatæ. Licinius
had assumed the defense of Paganism, while Constantine raised the
standard of the Cross. The last struggle between them took place near
Adrianople; the Pagan army was defeated and put to flight, and in A.D.
324 Licinius was put to death. Thus Constantine reigned alone over the
empire of Augustus.
At the famous Council of Nice, which met in A.D. 325, the doctrine of
the Trinity was established, Arianism condemned, and at the same time
the emperor was, in effect, acknowledged to be the spiritual head of the
Church. But an event now occurred which must have destroyed forever the
happiness of Constantine. He was induced to put to death his virtuous
son Crispus, through the false accusations of his wife Fausta, and when
afterward he discovered the falseness of the charges made against
Crispus, he directed Fausta and her accomplices to be slain.
Rome, which had so long been the capital of the world, was now to
descend from that proud position and become a provincial city. When
Constantine returned to Rome after the Council of Nice, he found himself
assailed with insults and execrations. The Senate and the people of the
capital saw with horror the destroyer of their national faith, and they
looked upon Constantine as accursed by the gods. The execution of his
wife and son soon after increased the ill feeling against the emperor,
and Constantine probably resolved to abandon a city upon which he had
bestowed so many favors, and which had repaid him with such ingratitude.
He was conscious, too, that Rome, seated in the heart of Italy, was no
longer a convenient capital for his empire, and he therefore resolved to
build a new city on the site of ancient Byzantium. The Bosphorus, a
narrow strait, connects the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmora; and here,
on a triangular piece of ground, inclosing on one side an excellent
harbor, Constantine laid the foundations of his capital. It was situated
in the forty-first degree of latitude, possessed a temperate climate,
and a fertile territory around it; while, being placed on the confines
of both Europe and Asia, it commanded the two divisions of the empire.
[Illustration: Map of Propontis, Hellespont, Bosphorus.]
Constantinople was adorned with all the architectural elegance of the
age, but the arts of sculpture and of decoration had so declined that
Constantine was forced to rob the cities of Greece of their finest works
in order to supply the deficiencies of his own artists: Athens and Asia
were despoiled to adorn his semi-barbarous capital. The city was
provided with a forum, in which was placed a column of porphyry upon a
white marble base, in all one hundred and twenty feet high, upon which
stood a bronze figure of Apollo. A hippodrome, or circus of great size,
and the baths and pleasure-grounds, recalled the memory of those of
Rome. Schools and theatres, aqueducts, fourteen churches, fourteen
palaces, and a great number of magnificent private houses, added to the
splendor of the new city. Constantine designed, it is said, to have
called his capital the SECOND OR NEW ROME, but his own name has always
been preferred.
[Illustration: Map of Constantinople.]
Having thus provided a capital, Constantine next began to form a new
constitution for his empire; he established, therefore, a complete
despotism, all the power being lodged in the emperor, and all honors and
titles being conferred by him alone. The name of Consul was still
preserved, these officers being yearly appointed by the emperor; but we
now notice the titles of _Count_ and _Duke_ joined with those of
Quæstors and Proconsuls. All the civil magistrates were taken from the
legal profession. The law was now the most honorable of the professions,
and the law school at Berytus, in Phoenicia, had flourished since the
reign of Alexander Severus.
The Roman Empire was divided into four great præfectures, which were
themselves subdivided into dioceses and provinces. The præfectures were
named that of the East, of Illyricum, of Italy, and of Gaul. A Prætorian
Præfect had charge of each præfecture, and regulated its civil
government; took care of the roads, ports, granaries, manufactures,
coinage; was the supreme legal magistrate, from whose decision there was
no appeal. Rome and Constantinople had their own Præfects, whose courts
took the place of those of the ancient Prætors, while a considerable
police force preserved the quiet of each city. The magistrates of the
empire were divided into three classes, the Illustrissimi, or
illustrious; the Spectabiles, or respectable; and the Clarissimi, or the
honorable.
Constantine also made Christianity the established religion of the
state, and appropriated a large portion of the revenues of the cities to
the support of the churches and the clergy. His standing army was very
large, but the ranks were now filled chiefly by barbarians, the Roman
youth having lost all taste for arms. It is said the young men of Italy
were in the habit of cutting off the fingers of the right hand in order
to unfit themselves for military service.
In order to support this extensive system, Constantine was forced to
impose heavy taxes upon his people. Every year the emperor subscribed
with his own hand, in purple ink, the _indiction_, or tax levy of each
diocese, which was set up in its principal city, and when this proved
insufficient, an additional tax, or _superindiction_, was imposed.
Lands, cattle, and slaves were all heavily taxed, and the declining
agriculture of the empire was finally ruined by the exorbitant demands
of the state. In Campania alone, once the most fertile part of Italy,
one eighth of the whole province lay uncultivated, and the condition of
Gaul seems to have been no better. Besides this, merchants,
manufacturers, mechanics, and citizens were taxed beyond their power of
endurance, while those who failed to pay were shut up in prison. Every
fourth year these taxes on industry were levied, a period to which the
people looked forward with terror and lamentation. Gifts were also
demanded from the cities or provinces on various occasions, such as the
accession of an emperor, the birth of an emperor's heir, the free gift
of the city of Rome, for example, being fixed at about three hundred
thousand dollars; and, in fine, the imperial despotism reduced the
people to want, and hastened, even more than the inroads of the
barbarians, the destruction of civil society.
Constantine in his old age adopted the luxury and pomp which Diocletian
introduced from the East; he wore false hair of various colors carefully
arranged, a diadem of costly gems, and a robe of silk embroidered with
flowers of gold. His family, at an earlier period, consisted of Crispus,
a son by his first wife Minervina, and the three sons of Fausta,
Constantine, Constantius, and Constans. Besides these there were three
daughters. Crispus, however, who was beloved by the people and the army,
excited the jealousy of Fausta. Constantine was led to believe that his
son was engaged in a conspiracy against his life, and Crispus was
executed by his father's orders, together with Cæsar Licinius, the son
of Constantine's favorite sister. Helena, the aged mother of
Constantine, undertook to avenge her grandson. Fausta was finally proved
to be unfaithful to her husband, and put to death, with many of her
friends and followers. These fearful scenes within the palace recalled
to the Roman people the memory of Nero and Caligula.
The three sons of Fausta were now the heirs of the throne, and, with
their two cousins, Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, were carefully
instructed by Christian professors, Greek philosophers, and Roman
jurisconsults, the emperor himself teaching them the science of
government and of man. They also studied the art of war in defending the
frontiers of the empire; but no important war disturbed the last
fourteen years of this reign. Constantine reigned thirty years, the
longest period of any since Augustus; and he died May 22, A.D. 337, at
his palace at Nicomedia, aged sixty-four years.
Constantine, although professing the Christian faith, was not baptized
until a short time before his death, when he received that solemn rite
with many professions of penitence, and of a desire to live in future
according to the precepts of religion. He seems to have possessed many
excellent qualities, was brave, active, and untiring, ruled with
firmness, and gave a large portion of his time to the cares of state.
[Illustration: Julian the Apostate.]