CHANGES OF TASTE AND STYLE.
It is interesting to trace the changes that the more common and
necessary pieces of furniture have undergone during successive
historic ages. The social life of ancient times, even of the middle
ages which come so much nearer to us in point of years, differs from
that of our own in its whole aspect. Yet though personal habits have
so greatly altered the general wants of men remain much the same.
Hence such objects as beds, chairs, tables, chests, dressers,
wardrobes or cabinets, carriages or litters, have been always used and
maintained a certain identity. With a summary of the changes of
form and methods of decoration of a few of the principal objects of
personal use we shall conclude.
_Bedsteads and Couches._
Beds served often in antiquity and in the middle ages, and have served
at all times, almost as much for sitting or reclining by day as for
sleeping on at night.
To what has been already said on the subject of antique beds little
need be added. The Egyptian bed and the pillow or crutch, of wood or
more valuable materials, have been described. Examples of the crutch
are numerous in the British museum and in the Louvre. "The Egyptians
had couches," says Sir G. Wilkinson, "but they do not appear to have
reclined upon them more frequently than modern Europeans, in whose
houses they are equally common. The ottomans were simple square sofas
without backs, raised from the ground nearly to the same level as
the chair. The upper part was of leather, or of cotton stuff, richly
coloured, like the cushions of the fauteuils, and the box was of
wood painted with various devices and ornamented with the figures of
captives, who were supposed to be degraded by holding so humiliating
a position. And the same idea gave them a place on the footstools of a
royal throne."
The bed, [Greek: lexos], of the Greeks was covered with skins, over
the skins with woollen blankets; sometimes a linen cloth or sheet was
added. The finest coverlids were from Miletus, Carthage, and Corinth.
These varied in the softness of their woollen texture and the delicate
disposition of the colours. Later Greek beds had girths of leather or
string; a mattress; and a pillow.
The Roman bed had the side by which it was entered open, the other was
protected by a shelf. The mattresses were stuffed with herbs, in later
times with wool or feathers. Precious counterpanes embroidered with
gold were occasionally used. Canopies or frames for curtains, in one
form or another, have always been necessary adjuncts to beds. Testers
were placed on cradles, with gauze curtains to keep off flies. Beds
on wheels were in use for the sick in classical and mediæval times: as
also a low and portable bed, _grabatum_, with mats for bedding. This
is the word used in St. John's gospel, translated "take up thy bed and
walk."
[Illustration]
Besides beds, couches, and stools, used in antiquity, as in our own
times, we find amongst the ancients the habit, unknown since,
of reclining on the left elbow at meals. The Romans called the
conventional arrangement the _triclinium_. The accompanying woodcut
represents the plan of a _triclinium_, the guest reclining on the left
elbow and the faces of each directed from 1 to 3, 4 to 6, and so on.
These numbers and positions indicated a sort of superiority, or a
highest, middle, and lowest to every table. A passage from Horace,
often quoted, enumerates the guests in this order. Fundanius, who was
at the top, giving an account of a dinner to his friends, says: "I sat
at the top, Viscus Thurinus next to me; Varius, if my memory serves
me, below him; Vibidius along with Servilius Balatro, whom Mæcenas
brought as humble companions. Nomentanus was above, and Porcius below
the host himself."
The beds of the early middle ages in England had testers with
curtains, often of valuable material. These slid on rings on an iron
rod. Sometimes the rod, with a frame to sustain it, was on one or on
three sides of the bed, and the tester wanting. Sometimes the beds
were slung on uprights, as cots are at sea. No great expense was
incurred in the framework till the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
The splendour of state beds, or those of great people, consisted
in the curtains, which were occasionally taken down, and hung up in
churches on festivals. In the illuminations of manuscripts and in
pictures representing scenes in which there is a bed, we find the
tester strained by cords to the sides of the room or to the ceiling,
as in the accompanying woodcut. The curtains ran round this frame,
as in our modern four-posters; but we see them hoisted out of the way
during the daytime, not round a post, only raised beyond reach.
[Illustration]
The finest examples of bedsteads that can be called mediæval are
French, and only met with in fragments, or more or less complete. This
is unfortunately the case also as regards early English bedsteads. We
may refer the reader to the "Mobilier Français" of Viollet le Duc, for
an idea of the sumptuous carved oak bedstead of the great palaces and
hotels of France. It was a frame panelled down to the ground, often
containing chests, drawers, presses, or other safe places under the
sleeper. The back resembled more or less the reredos of an altar, or
the great panelled presses that filled the sides of sacristies. Four
posts supported the canopy. A bedstead of the fifteenth century was
long preserved at Leicester, and said to have been slept on by Richard
the third. The under part of it formed his military chest, and the
discovery of the treasure a century afterwards occasioned a barbarous
murder. None of the coin found was of a later mint than his reign. It
is also said by Pennant that a stump bedstead still in Berkeley castle
is the same on which the murder of Edward the second was committed.
Fine examples of Tudor bedsteads are preserved there. In the town of
Ware in Hertfordshire is, and has long been, an inn under the sign of
the Saracen's head, "In this," says Clutterbuck, "there is a bed of
enormous proportions, twelve feet square. The head is panelled in the
Elizabethan style of arched panels, and a date is painted on it--1460.
[This, however, is not authentic.] It is of carved oak. The top is
covered by a panelled tester, supported on baluster columns at the
feet. The bases of these rest on a cluster of four arches or supports
to each column." Nothing is known of the original history of the
bedstead. Shakespeare alludes to it in Twelfth Night.
[Illustration]
To the Tudor and Jacobean period of heavy oak furniture succeeded the
custom of supplying the place of oak-panelled testers and headboards
with rich hangings either of tapestry, cut Genoa, or Venice velvets
and other costly materials, with ostrich feathers or other ornaments
on the angles. The royal beds at Hampton court admirably illustrate
this stately fashion, as in the accompanying woodcut. More modern
changes it is unnecessary to trace.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
Couches for reclining or sitting upon were, in the middle ages, rather
benches with cushions on them. The king conversing with a lady in her
chamber is from a manuscript of about 1390 (the "Romance of Meliadus")
in the British museum. In the seventeenth century we find the same
ornaments that were used in chair backs extended to large frames so
as to form them into couches, and the same plaited cane panels. In the
last century, sofas were sometimes made in the form of several chair
backs, with arms at each end, the backs being pierced work or framing
made of bars in fancy shapes. This work was in mahogany or satin wood,
or was painted after the fashion of vernis-martin work. In all cases
such pieces were made to accord with suites of chairs, tables, &c.
Cradles have been made in many shapes. The most approved in antiquity
was that of a boat, [Greek: skaphos], or a shield; in either case they
could be rocked. In the fourteenth century the men of Ghent destroyed
the house of the earl of Flanders, according to Froissart, and all his
furniture including the cradle in which he was nursed, which was of
silver. The cradle of Henry the fifth is still preserved. It is in the
form of a chest, much like the cradle in the Kensington museum, n^{o.}
1769; and swings on posts, one at each end, standing on cross-bars to
keep them steady: but there is no higher portion, as in the example in
the museum, to support a tester. A hundred years later the shape seems
to have become heavier.
[Illustration]
_Chairs._
In the ancient Egyptian paintings at Thebes, and elsewhere, chairs are
minutely represented like the throne or arm chair of the Greeks, each
containing one person. Occasionally they used stools and low seats
raised a little above the ground. Some sat cross-legged on the ground,
though this is more rare, or kneeling on one knee. The men and women
generally were apart, but in the same room, while conversing they sat,
and did not recline. Wilkinson gives a full description of the old
Egyptian chairs and stools.
The classical curule chairs were made of ivory; sometimes of solid and
entire elephants' teeth, which seems to have been the typical idea of
the ivory chair; sometimes the ivory was veneered on a wooden base.
The foot or point of the tusk was carved into a head or beak. It is
from this curved chair of state that the later chairs were derived,
of which the form remained popular in Italy through the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries. The mediæval name was _faldistorium_, rendered
"faldstool," a stool or seat to support the arms when kneeling, or to
act as a chair when sitting.
[Illustration]
The earliest type of the architectural thrones or chairs of the middle
ages is the ancient chair of St. Peter, at Rome, of which a woodcut
has been given in p. 35. A full description and plates of it will be
found in the "Vetusta monumenta" of the Society of antiquaries for
1870. Another famous chair, that of St. Mark, is preserved at Venice,
in the treasury of St. Mark's. Anciently this chair, like that of
St. Peter in Rome, was covered with plates of ivory, carved panels
probably fitted into frame pieces of wood as a covering to the stone.
As it is now seen, however, the work is of oriental marble. It is a
rudely shaped arm chair, with high back sloping upwards in the form of
a pediment, truncated and surmounted by a stone, cut into an imperfect
circle or oval, and having an arm or volute like the reversed
angle-volute of a column projecting from the lower part of each side.
The chair of St. Maximian at Ravenna dates from the sixth century;
this is described in Mr. Maskell's "Ivories." A magnificent fourteenth
century architectural chair of silver is preserved at Barcelona. The
supports represent window tracery. One large arch supplies the front
support, being cusped, and these cusps are again subdivided. The two
sides form each a pair of windows of two lights or divisions, with a
circle above, the whole cusped and having trefoil leaves on the cusps.
The back is open tracery work, representing three narrow windows,
with two lights or openings each. They finish in three lofty gables,
crocketed outside and divided into tracery within.
[Illustration]
Chairs in England during the mediæval period were sometimes made of
turned wood. Sometimes they were cleverly arranged to fold up, as in
our own days: the engraving (p. 122) is from a beautiful manuscript
of the fifteenth century. The chair known as that of Glastonbury is a
square board on two pairs of cross-trestles, with a square board for
a back, held to the seat by sloping arm pieces, shaped out to receive
the arms of a sitter. On the edges of the seat and back tenons
protrude, long enough to pass through mortices in the leg and arm
pieces, which are pegged to keep them firm. Like the sixteenth century
curule chairs these can easily be taken to pieces for travelling.
During the reigns of Elizabeth and James, high-backed chairs, richly
cut and pierced, with wooden, afterwards with cane, seats were used
and remained in use simplified and lightened during more than a
century. The woodcut (p. 123) represents the fashion of chair common
in Italy about the year 1620: and from thence introduced into England.
The use of marquetry was not confined to tables and cabinets. Rich
chairs were made in this material (rarely in boule) during the
eighteenth century in France, Italy, and Holland, from whence they
came to this country. Light and very elegant yellow satin-wood
marquetry chairs were also then in fashion. The use of mahogany for
chairs, often delicately carved and admirably constructed, was general
during the last century in England. The French carved chairs of the
time of Louis the sixteenth covered with silk all but the legs and
framework, and painted white or gilt, were made to accord with the
sofas and carved woodwork of the rooms. This example was followed in
England, with certain national differences.
_Tables._
The ancient Egyptian tables were round, square, or oblong; the former
were generally used during their repasts, and consisted of a circular
flat summit, supported, like the _monopodium_ of the Romans, on a
single shaft or leg in the centre or by the figure of a man intended
to represent a captive. Large tables had usually three or four legs,
but some were made with solid sides; and though generally of wood
many were of metal or stone; and they varied in size according to
the different purposes for which they were intended. Often they were
three-legged, the legs in a concave shape.
An antique marble table of Græco-Roman work is preserved at Naples,
supported by a centaur in full relief at one end, and a sea monster,
Scylla it is supposed, involving a shipwrecked mariner in the folds of
her tail, with indications of waves, &c., round her body. Other Roman
tables of larger dimensions had three, four, or five supports of
sphinxes, lions, and the like. We give representations of three kinds
of tables from paintings on vases; and another, on three marble legs,
found at Pompeii.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
In the middle ages, as has been before said, tables were generally
folding boards laid on trestles and moveable. The general disposition
of the dining table was taken from those of abbeys and convents, and
may be seen continued in some of our own colleges to this day. The
principal table was on a raised platform or floor at the upper end of
the hall, and thence called the "High" table. The guests sat on one
side only, as in the traditional representations of the Last Supper,
and the place of honour was the centre, the opposite side being left
for the service. The principal person sat under a canopy or cloth
of estate, either made for the occasion, or under a panelled canopy
curving outward and permanent. Occasionally mediæval tables in England
were of stone or marble. Of the former material a table is preserved
belonging to the strangers' hall at Winchester; and a wooden one in
the chapter-house at Salisbury. The tops of some old English tables
are made with two thicknesses, the lower pulling out on either side
to rest on supports drawn from the bed. A table of this description is
kept at Hill hall, Essex; and the woodcut represents a folding table
of the time of Elizabeth, long preserved at Flaxton Hall, in Suffolk.
During the last century mahogany tables with delicate pierced
galleries round the edge, and similar work to ornament the bed or
frame, were made by Chippendale and his contemporaries. Many of them
are light and graceful pieces of construction. Others were massively
made with goat-footed legs that bulge well beyond the lines of
the table top, which in these cases is often a slab of marble. The
workmanship is admirable. Mahogany had then supplanted the use of oak
for large tables.
[Illustration]
_Chests, Cabinets, and Sideboards._
The wardrobe, both in the Roman house and the mediæval castle, was a
small room suitably fitted up and provided with receptacles. Chests,
coffers, and caskets were also in use, and implied moveability. In
later days the renaissance chests were either mounted on stands or
gave place to mixed structures; and cabinets of various forms that
could be kept permanently in the hall or chamber became the fashion.
They were large, important objects, were never moved or carried
abroad, descended from father to son, and were the monumental objects,
as the panelled superstructure of the fireplace was, of halls and
reception rooms. These pieces have various forms. In dining halls or
rooms occasionally so used, they were cupboards, dressers, or places
with a small receptacle to hold food, and a flat top with perhaps a
step or shelf above it to carry plate, candlesticks, &c. When placed
in receiving rooms or to hold dresses they were cabinets or wardrobes;
for the conveniences of writing they are bureaux, sécrétaires, or
escritoires.
[Illustration]
We have early notices of the use of cypress chests, perhaps cabinets
as some of them are fitted with drawers, in this country. John of
Gaunt in his will, 1397, specifies "a little box of cypress wood;"
probably something like the chest engraved from a manuscript of that
date: out of which the servant is taking a robe evidently richly
embroidered with armorial bearings. In the memoirs of the antiquities
of Great Britain, relating to the reformation, we find an account of
church plate, money, gold and silver images, &c., delivered to Henry
the eighth: "Paid William Grene, the king's _coffer-maker_, for making
of a coffer covered with fustyan of Naples, and being full of drawers
and boxes lined with red and grene sarcynet to put in stones of
divers sorts, vi. _li._ xviij. _s._ ij. _d._," by which we may gather
something of its costly construction, "and to Cornelys the locke
smythe for making all the iron worke, that is to say, the locke,
gymours, handels, ryngs to every drawer box, the price xxxvi. _s._ iv.
_d._"
The marquetry invented or brought to perfection by Boule was displayed
in greater magnificence on cabinets of various shapes than on any
other pieces of furniture. The same may be said of the marquetry
cabinets in wood executed during the eighteenth century in France by
Riesener and David, with the help of the metal mounts of Gouthière
and his contemporaries. In these fine pieces the interior is generally
simple and the conceits of the previous century are omitted. Japan
cabinets obtained through the Dutch were frequently imported into
England. The hinges and mounts were of silver or gilt metal, richly
chased. The bureau, escritoire, or office desk, called in Germany
Kaunitz after a princely inventor, was a knee-hole table. These tall
bureaux were of general, almost universal, use in England during the
last century.
_Sideboards._
There are several old sideboards in the Kensington museum, described
under the names of _dressoir_ or _dressoir de salle à manger_ in the
large catalogue. They are small cupboards and would be called cabinets
but for the drawers half-way down, and the rows of the shelves on the
top; and are of the sixteenth century date. According to Willemin, the
old etiquette of France, certainly that of Burgundy, prescribed five
steps or shelves to these dressers for use during meals for queens;
four for duchesses or princesses; three for their children and for
countesses and _grandes dames_; two for other noble ladies. In the
middle ages cupboards or dressers were mere covered boards or shelves
against a wall on which plate was set out, and were made of three or
four or more stages according to the splendour of the occasion. The
cupboard dresser of more modest pretensions was considered as a piece
of dining-room furniture. It was ordinarily covered with a piece of
embroidery.
Robert Frevyll bequeaths, 1521, to his "son John a stone cobard in the
hall." A manuscript inventory of Henry the eighth names, "Item, one
large cuppbord carpet of grene cloth of gold with workes lyned with
bockeram, conteyning in length three yards, iii. q'ters, and three
bredthes." In the herald's account of the feast at Westminster, on the
occasion of the marriage of prince Arthur, we find "There was also a
stage of dyvers greas and hannes (degrees and enhancings of height)
for the cuppbord that the plate shulde stande inn, the which plate for
the moost part was clene (pure) goold, and the residue all gilte and
non silver, and was in length from the closet doore to the chimney."
And when in the next reign Henry entertained Francis at Calais, a
cupboard of seven stages was provided and furnished with gold and
silver gilt plate.
Before concluding these remarks on dining-room furniture something may
be said on painted roundels or wooden platters. Though they have
long ceased to be used for their original purpose, several sets still
complete remain in country houses and collections of different kinds;
and three sets are in the Kensington museum. They are usually twelve
in number: and all seem to be of the date of the late Tudor princes.
They were kept in boxes turned out of a block, and decorated with
painting and gilding. Their size does not differ materially, all the
sets varying from 5-3/8 to 5-5/8 inches. There are, however, smaller
sets to be seen which range from 2-3/4 to 5 inches in diameter. The
top surface is in all instances plain and the under surface painted
with a border of flowers, generally alternating with knots more or
less artistically drawn in vermilion: "posyes" or a couple of verses
are generally added. These platters were used in the sixteenth century
as dessert plates, the plain side being at the top. Leland speaks
of the "confettes" at the end of a dinner, "sugar plate fertes, with
other subtilties with ippocrass" (a sweet wine). Earthenware plates
though not unknown were still very uncommon in England before the
reign of Elizabeth. The dinner was served on plate in royal or very
great houses, on pewter and wooden trenchers in more humble and
unpretending households. Specimens of the latter may still be seen in
our old collegiate establishments. Probably the earliest instance of
the use of earthenware may be found in the time of Edward the first,
when some dishes and plates of that material were bought from a
Spanish ship. Pitchers, jugs and the like had been for centuries
commonly made. "Porselyn" is mentioned in 1587: where we read of
"five dishes of earth painted, such as are brought from Venice" being
presented to the queen on one of her progresses.
_Carriages._
[Illustration]
The shape and decoration of carriages have changed continually, but
these changes have not always been in the direction of convenience and
handiness for rapid motion. Our space will not allow us to enter here
upon a history of the chariots of ancient nations; Egyptians,
Greeks, or Romans. A detailed account of them will be found in the
introduction to the large catalogue of furniture at South Kensington.
The woodcut represents the Roman "biga," the original of which (in
marble) is in the Vatican; and the "pilentum," or covered carriage,
from the column of Theodosius.
[Illustration]
We know but little of the period succeeding the destruction of Rome
and the extinction of classic customs. In the middle ages we find
carts, like those now in use for agricultural purposes in France;
a long frame with spreading rails balanced on one pair of wheels of
large dimensions, drawn by a string of horses. The woodcut of a family
carriage is from the well-known Luttrell psalter, an illuminated
manuscript of the early fourteenth century. Such vehicles seem to have
been clumsy enough and had no springs: nevertheless they were much
ornamented with various decorations. They had roofs as a protection
from the weather, with silk or leather curtains; and the interior was
fitted with cushions. In the "Squire of low degree" the father of the
princess of Hungary promises,
To-morrow ye shall on hunting fare,
And ride my daughter in a _chare_,
It shall be covered with velvet red,
And cloths of fine gold all about your head,
With damask white and azure blue,
Well diapered with lilies new
Your pomelles (knobs) shall be ended with gold,
Your chains enamelled many a fold.
The oldest kind of wheel-carriages known in England were called
_whirlecotes_, and one of these belonged to the mother of Richard the
second. Whirlecotes were used also at the marriage of Katherine of
Arragon. Coaches were probably first introduced from Hungary. They
seem to have been square, not differing greatly in outline from the
state coaches of which numerous engraved plates can be seen; and
were considered as too effeminate a conveyance for men in the days of
Elizabeth. The coach of Henry the fourth of France may be studied in
the plate by Van Luyken that represents his murder by Ravaillac, 1610.
It is four-wheeled, square, with a flat awning on four corner pillars
or supports, and curtains. The centre descends into a kind of boot
with leather sides. The accompanying woodcut represents the carriage
of the English ambassador at Rome in 1688: and we add also an
engraving of a state carriage of about fifty years later, still in the
possession of Lord Darnley.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
APPENDIX.
NAMES OF DESIGNERS OF WOODWORK AND MAKERS OF FURNITURE.
Only very meagre notices are to be found of the artists to whom we owe
the designs of modern furniture. For a hundred and fifty years after
the renaissance, furniture partook so generally, and the woodwork of
rooms so entirely, of the character and followed so continually the
details of architecture that the history of furniture-designers is
that of the architects of the day. These found in the members of
guilds of carvers, carpenters, or image sculptors admirable hands to
carry out the ornamental details of their woodwork, such as
chimney-pieces, &c., and who made sideboards, cabinets, chairs, and
tables to suit the woodwork. We have space here only for the names; in
the large catalogue a brief notice of almost every one of them is also
given.
------------------------------+-----------------+----------------
|Country in which |
Names of Artists. | they worked. | Date.
------------------------------+-----------------+-----------------
A | |
| |
Adam, J. (and R.) |England |1728-1792.
| |
Agnolo, B. da |Italy |1460-1563.
| |
Agnolo, D. da | " |16th century.
| |
Agnola, J. da | " | " "
| |
Ambrogio, G. | " |17th "
| |
Ards, W. |Flanders |15th "
| |
Asinelis, A. |Italy |16th "
| |
B | |
| |
Bachelier, -- |France |16th century.
| |
Baerze, J. de |Flanders |14th "
| |
Baker, -- |England |18th "
| |
Barili, A. |Italy |16th "
| |
Barili, G. | " | " "
| |
Barili, S. | " | " "
| |
Baumgartner, U. |Germany |17th century.
| |
Beaugreant, G. de |Flanders |16th "
| |
Beck, S. |Germany | " "
| |
Belli, A. A. |Italy | " "
| |
Belli, G. | " | " "
| |
Berain, J. |France |1636-1711.
| |
Bergamo, D. da |Italy |1490-1550.
| |
Bergamo, S. da | " |16th century.
| |
Bernardo, -- | " | " "
| |
Berruguete, -- |Spain |1480-1561.
| |
Bertolina, B. J. |Italy |16th century.
| |
Beydert, J. |Flanders |15th "
| |
Blondeel, L. | " |1495-1560.
| |
Bolgié, G |Italy |18th century.
| |
Bonzanigo, G. M. | " | " "
| |
Borello, F. | " |16th "
| |
Borgona, F. de |Spain | " "
| |
Botto, B. |Italy | " "
| |
Botto, G. B. | " | " "
| |
Botto, P. | " | " "
| |
Botto, S. A. | " | " "
| |
Boulle, A. C. |France |1642-1732.
| |
Boulle, P. | " |17th century.
| |
Brescia, R. da |Italy |16th "
| |
Bross, -- de |France |17th "
| |
Bruggemann, H. |Germany |15th "
| |
Bruhl, A. |Flanders |16th and 17th
| | centuries.
| |
Brunelleschi, F. |Italy |1377-1446.
| |
Brustolone, A. | " |1670-1732.
| |
Buontalenti, B. T. | " |16th century.
| |
C | |
| |
Caffieri, Ph. |France |17th and 18th
| | centuries.
| |
Cano, A. |Spain |17th century.
| |
Canova, J. de |Italy |16th "
| |
Canozii, C. | " | " "
| |
Canozii, G. M. | " | " "
| |
Canozii, L. | " | " "
| |
Capitsoldi, -- |England |18th "
| |
Capo di Ferro, Brothers |Italy |16th "
| |
Carlone, J. | " |18th "
| |
Carnicero, A. |Spain |1693-1756.
| |
Castelli, Q. |Italy |16th century
| |
Cauner, -- |France |18th "
| |
Cauvet, G. P. |France |1731-1788
| |
Ceracci, G. |England |18th century.
| |
Cervelliera, B. del |Italy | " "
| |
Chambers, Sir W. |England |1726-1796.
| |
Chippendale, T. | " |18th century.
| |
Cipriani, G. B. | " | " "
| |
Coit, -- | " | " "
| |
Collet, A. | " | " "
| |
Copeland, -- | " | " "
| |
Cotte, J. de |France | " "
| |
Cotte, R. de | " |1656-1735.
| |
Cotton, C. |England |18th century.
| |
Cressent, -- |France | " "
| |
D | |
| |
Davy, R. |England |1750-1794.
| |
Dello Delli |Italy |14th and 15th
| | centuries
| |
Dolen, -- van |Flanders |18th century.
| |
Donatello, -- |Italy |1380-1466.
| |
Dorsient, A C.; C. Oc. |Flanders |16th century
| |
Ducerceau, A. |France |1515-1585.
| |
Dugar, E. |Italy |16th century.
| |
Du Quesnoy, F. H. and J. |Flanders |17th "
| |
F | |
| |
Faydherbe, L. |Flanders |1627-1694.
| |
Filippo, D. di |Italy |16th century.
| |
Flörein, J. |Flanders |15th "
| |
Flötner, P. |Germany |16th "
| |
G | |
| |
Gabler, M. |Germany |17th century.
| |
Galletti, G. |Italy |18th "
| |
Garnier, P. |France | " "
| |
Genser, M. |Germany |17th "
| |
Gervasius |England |
| |
Gettich, P. |Germany |17th "
| |
Geuser, M. | " | " "
| |
Gheel, F. van |Flanders |18th "
| |
Gibbons, G. |England |17th "
| |
Giovanni, Fra |Italy |16th "
| |
Glosencamp, H. |Flanders | " "
| |
Goujon, J. |France | " "
| |
H | |
| |
Habermann, -- |France |18th century.
| |
Haeghen,-- van der |Flanders | " "
| |
Hekinger, J. |Germany |17th "
| |
Heinhofer, Ph. | " |16th and 17th
| | centuries.
| |
Helmont, -- van |Flanders |18th century.
| |
Heppelwhite, A |England | " "
| |
Hernandez, G. |Spain |1586-1646.
| |
Hool, J. B. van |Flanders |18th century.
| |
Huet, -- |France | " "
| |
Hyman, F. |England | " "
| |
J | |
| |
John of St. Omer |England |13th century.
Johnson, T. | " |18th "
| |
Juni, J. D. |Spain |16th and 17th
| | centuries.
| |
K | |
| |
Kauffmann, A. |England |18th century.
| |
Kiskner, U. |Germany |17th "
| |
Kuenlin, J. | " | " "
| |
L | |
| |
Ladetto, F. |Italy |18th century.
| |
Lalonde, -- |France | " "
| |
Lawreans, -- |England |17th "
| |
Lecreux, N. A. J. |Flanders |1757-1836.
| |
Le Moyne, J. |France |1645-1718.
| |
Leopardi, A. |Italy |1450-1525.
| |
Le Pautre, J. |France |1617-1682.
| |
Le Roux, J. B. | " |18th century.
| |
Linnell, J. |England | " "
| |
Lock, M. | " | " "
| |
Loir, A. |France |1630-1713.
| |
L'Orme, Ph. de. | " |16th century.
| |
Lunigia, A. da |Italy | " "
| |
M | |
| |
Macé, J. |France |18th century.
| |
Maifeis, P. di |Italy |15th "
| |
Maggiolino, -- | " |18th "
| |
Magister, O. | " |16th "
| |
Majano, B. da | " |15th "
| |
Majano, G. da |Italy |1432-1490.
| |
Margaritone, -- | " |1236-1313.
| |
Marot, D. |France |1650-1700?
| |
Marot, G. | " |17th century.
| |
Marot, J. | " |1625-1679.
| |
Martin, R. | " |1706-1765.
| |
Martincourt, -- | " |18th century.
| |
Meissonnier, J. A. | " |1693-1750.
| |
Mendeler, G. |Germany |17th century.
| |
Meulen, R. van der |Flanders |1645-1717.
| |
Minore, G. |Italy |15th century.
| |
Modena, P. da | " | " "
| |
Moenart, M. |Flanders |17th "
| |
Montepulciano, G. da |Italy |16th "
| |
Moser, L. |Germany |15th "
| |
Müller, D. | " |17th "
| |
Müller, J. | " | " "
| |
N | |
| |
Newrone, G. C. |Italy |16th century.
| |
Nilson, -- |France |18th "
| |
Nys, L. de |Flanders | " "
| |
Nys, P. de | " | " "
| |
O | |
| |
Oost, P. van |Flanders |14th century.
| |
Oppenord, -- |France |18th "
| |
P | |
| |
Pacher, M. |Germany |15th century.
| |
Padova, Z. da |Italy |16th "
| |
Panturmo, J. di | " |1492-1556.
| |
Pardo, G. |Spain |16th century.
| |
Pareta, G. di |Italy | " "
| |
Passe, C. de |France |17th "
| |
Passe, C. de, the younger | " | " "
| |
Pergolese, -- |England |18th "
| |
Perreal, J. |France |15th "
| |
Philippon, A. | " |16th "
| |
Picau, -- | " |18th "
| |
Picq, J. |Flanders |17th "
| |
Pigalle, -- |England |18th "
| |
Piffetti, A. P. |Italy |1700-1777.
| |
Plumier, P. D. |Flanders |1688-1721.
| |
Porfirio, B. di |Italy |16th century
| |
Q | |
| |
Quellin, A. |Flanders |1609-1668.
| |
Quellin, A., the younger | " |1625-1700.
| |
Quellin, E. | " |17th century.
| |
R | |
| |
Raephorst, B. van |Flanders |15th century,
| |
Ramello, F. |Italy |16th "
| |
Ranson, -- |France |18th "
| |
Rasch, A. |Flanders |15th "
| |
Riesener, -- |France |18th "
| |
Roentgen, D. | " | " "
| |
Rohan, J. de | " |16th "
| |
Rohan, J. de | " | " "
| |
Rosch, J. |Germany |15th "
| |
Rossi, P. de |Italy |15th and 16th
| | centuries.
| |
Rovezzano, B. da |England |16th century.
| |
S | |
| |
Salembier, -- |France |18th and 19th
| | centuries.
| |
Sangher, J. de |Flanders |17th century.
| |
Schelden, P. van der | " |16th "
| |
Schwanhard, H. |Germany |17th "
| |
Serlius, S. |France |16th "
| |
Servellino, G. del |Italy |15th "
| |
Sheraton, Th. |England |18th "
| |
Smet, R. de |Flanders |16th "
| |
Stoss, V. |Germany |1438-1533.
| |
Syrlin, J. | " |15th century.
| |
Syrlin, J., the younger | " |15th and 16th
| | centuries.
| |
T | |
| |
Taillebert, U. |Flanders |16th century.
| |
Tasso, D. |Italy |15th and 16th
| | centuries.
| |
Tasso, G. | " | " "
| |
Tasso, G. B. | " | " "
| |
Tasso, M. D. | " |15th century.
| |
Tatham, C. H. |England |18th "
| |
Taurini, R. |Italy |16th "
| |
Thomire, P. Ph. |France |1751-1843.
| |
Tolfo, G. |Italy |16th century.
| |
Toro, -- |France |18th century.
| |
Torrigiano, -- |England |1472-1522.
| |
Toto, -- | " |1331-1351.
| |
Trevigi, G. da | " |1304-1344.
| |
U | |
| |
Uccello, P. |Italy |1396-1479.
| |
Ugliengo, C. | " |18th century.
| |
V | |
| |
Venasca, G. P. |Italy |18th century.
| |
Verbruggen, P. |Flanders |17th "
| |
Verbruggen, P., the younger | " |1660-1724.
| |
Verhaegen, Th. | " |18th century.
| |
Voyers, -- |England | " "
| |
Vriesse, V. de |France |17th "
| |
W | |
| |
Walker, H. |England |16th century.
| |
Weinkopf, W. |Germany | " "
| |
Willemsens, L. |Flanders |1635-1702.
| |
William the Florentine |England |13th century.
| |
Wilton, J. | " |18th "
| |
Z | |
| |
Zabello, F. |Italy |16th century.
| |
Zorn, G. |Germany |17th "
INDEX.
Adam, Robert and John, 112
Alexandria, ancient centre of civilisation, 17
Anglo-saxon houses, 44
Antioch, ancient centre of civilisation, 17
Architectural style in furniture, 94
Art, classic, ends in third century, 34
" Byzantine, 35
" mediæval, its growth, 41
" " its perfection, 47
" Romanesque, long continuance, 42
" renaissance, 66
" classic, revived in eighteenth century, 107
" " early nineteenth century, 114
Atrium, 18
Attalus introduces tapestry, 17
Bedrooms, English, fourteenth century, 50
" French, eighteenth century, 104
Beds, Byzantine period, 37
" Norman, 46
" Egyptian, Greek, &c., 116
" Mediæval, 118, 119
" at Hampton court, 120
Bellows, renaissance, 72
Bombé furniture, 104, 111
Boucher, 108
Boule, 95
Bureaux in marquetry, 93, 104
" or knee-hole, 128
Byzantine period, 35
" wealth, 38
" artists welcomed by Charlemagne, 41
Cabinet, French, sixteenth century, 89
" Japan, 128
Cafass, Egyptian wood, 4
Candelabra, 23, 24
Candles, Anglo-saxon, &c., 45, 48
Carriage, Anglo-saxon, 45
" fourteenth century, 54, 131
" seventeenth century, 92
" the Speaker's, 132
" Lord Darnley's, 132
Caskets, Byzantine, 37
Ceilings in Roman houses, 21, 31
Chair, Egyptian, 4, 121
" Nineveh, 7
" Greek, 10, 11, 14
" Roman, 28, 122
" of St. Peter, 35
" Byzantine, 37
" at Ravenna, 39, 122
" in Bayeux tapestry, 45
" coronation, 49
" of Guidobaldo, 63
" Italian, fifteenth century, 63
" folding mediæval, 122
" of silver, at Barcelona, 123
" the Glastonbury, 123
" Italian, seventeenth century, 124
" marquetry, 124
Chambers, Sir William, 106
Chariots, Hebrew, 9
" Greek, 15
" Roman, 130
" Byzantine, 37
Chest, Greek, 11
" Roman, 29
" of king John, 47
" fourteenth century, 51
" for copes, 56
" fifteenth century, 60
Chest, Italian, 61
" renaissance, 69, 71
Chimneypieces, eighteenth century, 106
Chippendale, 106
Cipriani, 112
Cluny hôtel, carriages there, 2
Colbert, his patronage of art, 94
Couches, Egyptian, 5
" Roman, 13
" mediæval, 120
Coypel, Antoine, 104
Cradle, mediæval, 121
Cubicula, 20
Cypress chests, 70, 127
Dagobert's chair, 43
David, 105
Delafosse, 104, 108
Dilettanti society, influence, 115
Dining-room, Byzantine, 38
Diptych of Anastasius, 36
Distaff, 106
Doorway, English, seventeenth century, 98
"Droit de prisage," 54
Ébénistes, fine cabinet makers, 108
Ebony used seventeenth century, 108
Egyptian furniture, 5
Elizabethan style, 85
Flemish furniture, seventeenth century, 87
Fragonard, 108
French style prevalent in eighteenth century, 103, 105
Furniture, use of a collection, 1
" Byzantine, still perhaps in mosques and treasuries, 40
" sixteenth century, architectural, 75
" eighteenth century, 103
" bombé, explained, 104
German artists in England, sixteenth century, 78
" work, eighteenth century, 111
Gillow, 113
Glass windows in Roman houses, 20
" mosaics, &c., 22
" Venetian, 99
Glue used by the Romans, 33
Gouthière, 105, 110
Greek manners, simple, 12
" houses, 14
Grinling Gibbons, 97
" best examples of his work, 97
Halls in Roman villas, 20
Hebrew furniture, 8
Heppelwhite, 113
Hogarth, paintings of chimneypieces, 106
Holbein, his influence, 78
Holy-water stoup, 102
House, Roman, 18
" Greek, 14
" how warmed in Rome, 29
" Anglo-saxon and Norman, 44, 46
" of timber, fifteenth century, 58
Iconoclasts, destruction by, 40
Italian coffer at South Kensington, 61
" artists, sixteenth century, 68
" " in France and England, 78, 89
" carved woodwork, sixteenth century, 89
" distaff, 106
Japanese lac-work, 106
Kauffmann (Angelica), 112
Kaunitz, a kind of bureau, 128
Kitchen utensils, Roman, 30
Knife case, sixteenth century, 76
Lac-work, Chinese and Japanese, 106
Lalonde, 108
Lares, 28
Lebrun, first head of the "Gobelins," 95
Le Pautre family, 104
Litters, Roman, 31
Lock (Matthias), 112
Locks in Roman houses, 21
Louvre, Egyptian boxes, 6
Maggiolino, 111
Mansard, 104
Marquetry, Venetian, 62
" seventeenth century, 92, 93
" Boule, 95
Meissonnier, 104, 108
Metallurgy, British, 42
Micque, 108
Mirror, Greek, 13
" renaissance, 69
Mirror frames, sixteenth century, 71
" " Venetian, 91, 99
" made in England, seventeenth century, 99, 100
Mosaic, Roman, pavements and on walls, 19
" or pietra dura, 74
Natoire, 108
Nero, colossus in his house, 25
Nineveh furniture, 6
Nuptiale, 18
[OE]ci, 20
Oppenord, 108
Ostium, 18
Paintings and pictures in Roman houses, 22
" in thirteenth century, of rooms, 48, 49
Panelling for rooms, 49
" oriental, 57
" of a chest, 60
" English, sixteenth century, 79, 80
" French, sixteenth century, 84
" English, 86
Pedestal, 90
Penates, 18
Peristylium, 20
Persian furniture, 8
" marquetry, 63
Picture-frames, renaissance, 71
Pomeranian cabinet at Berlin, 92
Pompeii, value of discoveries, 16
Porcelain given to Queen Elizabeth, 130
Pottery, time of Edward I., 49
Pudens, ancient house of, 20
Pugin, 114
Queverdo, 108
Religious houses, their woodwork, 63
" " safe generally from spoliation, 67
Renaissance in Italy, 66
" materials employed, 69
" in England, France, &c., 78
Restout, Jean, 104
Riesener, 105, 108, 109
Robert, 108
Rococo furniture, 103
Roentgen, 108, 109
Roman habits, at first simple, 16
" house, 18
" couches in dining-rooms, 19, 27
" locks and hinges, 21
" tables, 25
" chairs, 28
" kitchen utensils, 30
Roof of Westminster Hall, 55
Room decorations, French, eighteenth century, 107
Room of Marie Antoinette's time at South Kensington, 107
Roundels, 129
Salembier, 108
Scamnum, 28
Sculpture, architectural, &c., fourteenth century, 56
" renaissance, 69
Settle or seat, fourteenth century, 51
Sheraton, Thomas, 113
Sideboards, 128
Silks for furniture, eighteenth century, 107
Stuart style of woodwork and furniture, 85, 96
Table, Egyptian, 124
" Nineveh, 8
" Roman, 25, 125
" " veneered, 27
" " great value, 27
" Norman, 46
" furniture of, fourteenth century, 50
" fourteenth and fifteenth century, 53, 58, 125
" sixteenth century, 71
" of Francesco de' Medici, 75
" French, sixteenth century, 80, 81
" English, seventeenth century, 102
" long kept at Flaxton Hall, 126
Tapestry first brought to Rome, 17
" in Roman houses, 30
" in England, fourteenth century, &c., 50, 61
" Gobelin, 95
Tarsia, 62, 73, 74
Temple of Diana, 33
Theatre of C. Curio, 32
Tigrinæ tables, 26
Triclinium, 18, 117
Tripods, 22
Tudor cabinet at South Kensington, 78
" style, 85
Vase from Hadrian's villa, 25
Venetian mirror-frame, 91
Vernis-Martin, 105
Vestiaria, 20
Walpole (Horace), opinion on mediæval art, 111
Wardrobe, old English, 49
" Roman, 126
Wars of the Roses, evil consequences, 64
Wood used in Nineveh, 8
" " Greece, 15
" " Rome, for tables, &c., 26, 32
" " by Riesener, 109
Woodwork, English, in thirteenth century, 48
" " sixteenth century, 79
" Germany, in sixteenth century, 83
" Spanish, in sixteenth century, 84
" Tudor and Stuart, 86
Wren, Sir Christopher, 97
Wyattville, 114
THE END.
DALZIEL BROTHERS, CAMDEN PRESS, N.W.
* * * * *
Transcriber's Note
_ _ represents italic print.
^ represents a superscript.
The Table of Contents was erected by the transcriber, and placed
in the Public Domain.
Sundry missing or damaged punctuation has been repaired.
This book, published in England, dates from 1875. Some older, but
still correct, spellings may be present. There is also some 16th
century spelling. Both hyphenated and un-hyphenated versions of
some words appear in the text.
'Borgoña' and 'Borgona' both appear in the text, as do 'hôtel' and
'hotel'.
English spelling 'rules' have only existed since the second half of
the nineteenth century.
Illustrations which interrupted paragraphs have generally been moved
to more convenient positions between paragraphs. An exception is the
illustration of St. Edmund's 'well-furnished bedroom' on Page 51,
referred to in the first part of the long paragraph beginning on
Page 50. It made sense to insert the illustration after 'the year
1400', as the following text began a new topic.
Page 21: 'valves' corected to 'halves'. 'v' would seem to be a
misprint for 'h'.
"The doors were generally in two halves and could be closed with
locks,..."
Page 48: 'candesticks' corrected to 'candlesticks'.
"Though the royal table might be lighted with valuable candlesticks
of metal,..."
Page 82: [Illustration: SEMPER FESTINA LENTE = Hurry Slowly!]
Page 121: 'musuem' corrected to 'museum'.
"... as in the example in the museum,..."