COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES OF BEER OVER DISTILLED OR SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS.
The peculiar advantages of beer as a wholesome and refreshing beverage,
as compared with either ardent spirits or water have never been so
clearly displayed as in the late war between France and Germany—and
it may with truth be asserted, that it has triumphantly withstood the
trial, and fully maintained its reputation.
The German military surgeons, in their official report to the Imperial
medical board, bear witness to the superiority of beer over wine. They
not only state that the refreshing quality of the carbonic acid gas
contained in beer makes it especially grateful to men fatigued by a
long march, or exhausted by a day’s fighting, but lay still greater
stress on its usefulness in the hospital and ambulance, and say that
when it could be obtained it was administered with great success as
a cordial, both to the wounded, and to convalescent soldiers placed
for the time under their care. They add the interesting fact, that
throughout that campaign the wounded invariably evinced a great longing
for beer and that when brought into hospital with shattered limbs or
severe cuts or gun-shot wounds, their first request was usually for a
glass of beer. The same was true after severe operations, and the drink
was found to compose and fortify their unstrung nerves. The natural
inclination to beer as a restorative was very conspicuous among the
soldiers who were on exposed outpost duty during the cold weather at
the time of the blockade and siege of Paris. The supply was scanty,
and common soldiers did not hesitate to pay army followers a large
price for a glass containing only a few mouthfuls of beer. The report
of the Director General of the medical staff of the Imperial army is
in the same tone, and concludes with a strong recommendation not only
to supply the soldiers with rations of beer instead of spirits when
employed on active duty, but also to introduce it as the usual beverage
of the army in time of peace and when on home service.
Professor Moleschott, the distinguished physiologist, in his work
on the chemistry of food, treats of beer and makes the following
statements: “The weak alcoholic solution called beer contains nearly
the same proportion of albumen as is found in fruits, some sugar and
gum, and another constituent which is composed of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen, is soluble in water and is called the bitter principle of hops.
* * * Fermented liquors, particularly lager beer taken in moderation,
increase the secretion of the digestive juices and promote the solution
of the food, and further, a good lager beer partakes of all the
advantages of the alcoholic beverages and at the same time quenches
thirst by the large amount of water it contains. Hence lager beer is
particularly adapted to satisfy the frequent thirst caused by physical
exercise, and it is a laudable custom to refresh artisans who have to
work hard, with a glass of this beverage. Its albumen, equal to that of
fruit, even supplies a direct substitute for food.”
To this we may add that a laborer who has repeatedly experienced its
invigorating property will by no means admit the truth of the assertion
that a half-pound loaf of bread and a pint of water are more supporting
than a pint of beer. A glass of good beer may often be better than food
or physic. We do not always want food and we seldom need physic, but
a glass of beer is often a useful refreshment when the stomach is not
prepared for the one and the system has no need of the other. Excessive
physical labor, long Endurance of hunger, or anything else which has a
debilitating influence, affects the appetite for solid food and unfits
the stomach for its reception. At such times beer has an excellent
effect, both in affording some present refreshment and in preparing
the system for more substantial food—and no such advantage can be
found in the use of water, and nothing like an equivalent in that of
ardent spirits. Richmond Sheen, an eminent authority, says: “That beer
is nutritive and salubrious cannot be doubted. It proves a refreshing
drink and an agreeable and valuable stimulus and support to those who
have to undergo much bodily fatigue.”
In cases of mental depression too, a glass of beer has often the same
good effect as food after physical exhaustion. On this point Professor
T. K. Chambers of New York very justly says: “It is certain that the
habitual use of some stimulant, particularly beer, bestows on a large
class the nervous energy necessary to digest food enough to exist
upon and get through other vital functions. By this stimulus they are
enabled to be useful members of society instead of the mere drones they
must become during the rest of their existence under a total abstinence
regime.”
The records of disease and the bills of mortality in beer-drinking
countries show longer lives and a less percentage of sickness than
prevail where malt liquors are replaced by other beverages.[19] Not
only is this true but the social condition of the people is better
in countries where beer is recognized and encouraged by government,
and a very striking illustration of this truth may be found through a
comparison of the state of Maine and the kingdom of Bavaria. Bavaria
is the most noted beer-drinking country on the globe and Maine is
distinctively known as the prohibitory state. The forms of government
are radically different and an American naturally holds that the
republican is superior to the monarchical, _i. e._, tends to promote
the greater happiness of the individual. Let us see what can be learned
about the matter, and first as to the terms of the comparison.
[19] The Germans are the healthiest class of New Yorkers. Statistics
show that the mortality among them is nearly 38 per cent. less than
that of other citizens, while their increase by births is larger,
and the same is found to be generally true of Germans all over this
continent.
The advantages and disadvantages in the struggle for existence are
about equal in amount though naturally different in character. In
Bavaria, society is old, habits strong, the fetters of trade not easily
broken, untilled land scarce and the population dense. In Maine there
is abundance of new land, much timber yet unconsumed, no limits on a
choice of occupation, a new society and a sparse population. The state
has a climate that stimulates to industry and the men pride themselves
on their strength and energy. In Bavaria few receive aid from the
state or the municipality; while in Maine, the records in this respect
are frightful. Maine has in addition all the advantages that can be
obtained by means of the most stringent prohibitory law ever devised,
a law that, according to its advocates, must tend to secure peace,
prosperity and happiness. Which of these countries should have most
paupers, men who are unable to find their own living and are supported
at the cost of the state? As a matter of fact the number in Bavaria is
very small while the record of Maine is bad not merely in comparison
with the old monarchy but as set against that of the United States
at large. The last census shows one pauper to every 171.65 of the
population of Maine, while the pauper rate of the whole country was
only one in 502.47.
Again, the condition of Bavaria is such as favors emigration to a
large extent, yet her population, in spite of it, increased 4.5 per
cent. during the last census decade while that of Maine decreased
.02 _per cent._ during the same time, and _Maine was the only state
in the Union where a decrease occurred_. We have seen that in the
original comparison the _pros_ and _cons_ were pretty equally balanced.
The difference is that Bavaria encourages the use of beer and Maine
prohibits it. It must not, however, be supposed that the prohibitory
law suppresses the sale of spirituous drinks. On this point abundant
evidence will be shortly presented, and we need only say here that we
know on the best authority that “no one need go without his whisky in
Maine, though a glass of beer is not to be had for love or money.” The
reason is obvious, beer is bulky and difficult of concealment while
spirits can be easily hidden. In this connection notice that in the
United States between 1860 and 1870 the production of beer rose from
something more than a million barrels to over eight million and that
during the same time the pauper rate decreased from one in 379.09 to
one in 502.47, a striking and very significant fact which may well be
commended to the attention of our legislators and others interested in
the connection between the proverbial thrift of the German emigrant
here and his indulgence in beer. The intellectual advance of the
beer-drinking countries is so notorious as to need no special comment
here.
At present a recapitulation of some characteristic national habits in
the matter of drinking, things well known to every one who has given
the subject attention, will serve both as a further illustration of the
superiority of beer over other beverages and as a comment on what has
been previously said of the modern history of beer-drinking in the more
important civilized countries of the world.
The Scotchman drinks his “mountain dew,” a strong whisky containing
over 54 per cent. of alcohol,—and Scotland has long been noted for
intemperance. The Russian grows sullen and sluggish over his vadka
or kwass, containing 52.68 _per cent._ of alcohol, and drunkenness
and crime follow as natural results. The volatile Italians and
Spaniards drink their mild wines as freely as their mothers’ milk and
do not disgrace themselves or become a nuisance to others by beastly
intoxication. Frenchmen were formerly to be placed in the same category
but recent debates in the French Academy of medicine have developed the
fact that in parts of France and in some Swiss cantons the powerful and
seductive influence of brandy, absinthe and schnapps has diminished the
consumption of wine and gone far to undermine the health and morals
of the people. The excitable Irishman drinks eagerly and rapidly his
strong whisky which contains more than 57 per cent. of pure alcohol
and rouses all his combative qualities so that merry-making is almost
sure to end in a fight, and trials of strength or skill which begin
in good feeling end with broken heads and general tumult. The more
sedate German drinks slowly, with much smoke and animated conversation,
a beer which has only about four _per cent._ of alcohol. He imbibes
great quantities and may become merry or dull according to the length
of his potations, but he rarely if ever fights. The Englishman drinks
much in a solid matter-of-fact way, but is learning to substitute
beer for a great part of the stronger liquor he formerly consumed and
becoming temperate in the same ratio. The American Republic, though
chiefly British in its origin and therefore inheriting a taste for
strong liquors, has become by immigration truly cosmopolitan, and is
on the high road to temperance secured by a general use of fermented
drinks. One great obstacle in the way is the wonderful variety
of “fancy drinks,” whose names catch the ear as surely as their
ingredients tickle the palate. They entice young and old, seduce by
their novelty or piquancy and carry many thousands on the straight
road to drunkenness and its accompanying moral and physical wreck. The
practice of “treating” is also very common and very injurious. It leads
to a hasty and immoderate consumption that has little or no regard to
the requirements of the individual and has by some been considered
the real foundation stone of a habit of intemperance. The Rev. Henry
Ward Beecher, in a recent address before the Business Men’s Society of
Brooklyn, favored “moderation in drinking and total abstinence from
treating.” He said he never drank beer until he was sixty years old,
after which time he became fond of it, and evidently believed that its
use is a means to temperance for the people. There are many who might
say nearly the same thing. We are learning to appreciate malt drinks
and the tendency is unmistakable, although it must be admitted that, on
the whole, the disposition of the people is, as yet, more nearly like
that of the Celt than the Teuton.
Mr. W. A. Lawrence of Waterville, N. Y., in a paper chiefly devoted
to facts respecting the growth of hops, thus speaks of the general
question—beer _versus_ whisky: “The fact is that the quality of beer,
as a light and refreshing drink, has been wonderfully improved within
the past few years. A bottle of beer to-day has but about half the
strength of the beer of twenty years ago, and half the strength of
ordinary wine and cider. The beer of to-day is just what the American
people want—a cool, mildly refreshing, stimulating and palatable drink.
Wine is too expensive for a common drink. Cider is too sour and strong.
Whisky is not a drink at all but a drug, and you have to take water
after it as you do after taking other drugs, and it ought to be kept in
a drug-store for sale and nowhere else. But beer is not only agreeable
and refreshing and cheap, but it is mild, and generally peaceful and
good-humored in its effects. It is true a man can get drunk on it,
but a man won’t. A hog may, but most beer-drinkers are not hogs, but
hard-working men who know what they want and what fills the bill, and
if they wanted to get drunk they would drink whisky and get a good deal
bigger drunk at less expense and in half the time.
“The great majority of the beer-drinkers in America are these same
hard-working men and women, who also drink beer with their food as we
all do our tea and coffee. But in addition to these, who are mostly
our German citizens, there are thousands of men, old Americans, who
have learned to love beer, who will drink it as long as they live and
will live the longer for drinking it. It is among the native Americans
that the demand for beer and hops is increasing. The Germans always
did drink for fifteen generations back, as much as they could hold,
and in spite of all the theories of our anti-beer, total abstinence
friends, the Germans in Germany and in this country seem to be still
above ground; and so far as this country is concerned, as myself, an
American citizen, and the son of American ancestry for five generations
back, I wish to God we could trade off about two millions of native
American whisky-drinkers now in the “solid South,” for two millions
of hard-working Germans who would do their own work, and drink their
own beer, and keep clear of fights and strikes and riots and greenback
conventions, as they keep clear of them here in the North to-day.
“Now everybody knows that whisky is full of the devil and that beer is
full of humor and good fellowship; and it can hardly fail to rejoice
the heart of every good hop-grower to find that in raising hops for
beer he is incidentally engaged in the great “temperance movement” of
leading men away from bad whisky to good beer. I know this is not what
the professional temperance lecturers say, but what do I care what
they say? A temperance lecturer is generally a retired whisky drinker
and can see snakes in everything, including beer. Or he is a clergyman
and has acquired the habit of talking with no one to contradict him
and hence is careless of his facts. Or he is a paid professional, and
knows that if war is made on whisky alone, whisky would soon be driven
to the drug-store and no more temperance lecturers needed or paid for.
I do not hesitate to affirm that I know more about beer by experience
and contact and study than the whole crowd of temperance lecturers put
together. They ‘mean well’ to be sure; and so do I. The difference
between us lies in the fact that they don’t know what they are talking
about, and I do, because I am personally familiar with something like
a thousand breweries in the United States and have peculiar advantages
for information.
“And I am sick and tired of sitting in churches built by hops, whose
clergymen’s salaries are paid by hops, whose congregations live by
hops, and that is by beer at first or second hand, and there listening
to wholesale denunciations of beer, and even to cold-blooded,
cold-water propositions to pass a general United States law making it
illegal to manufacture beer anywhere in the country. One hop-grower
who paid out over two thousand dollars to the poor women and children
of one village last fall for picking hops, got up and left a church
where some of this anti-beer nonsense was being aired, but as a general
thing a man can talk against beer in a hop church with as little
restraint as a missionary to Greenland feels in preaching hell-fire to
his shivering congregation. The brewer is far away, and the connection
between hops and beer is kept carefully out of sight. But to a carnal
mind like mine it does seem a mean trick for a hop-grower to send out
a hop-dealer with a flag of truce to the brewers and sell him hops in
a friendly way, and meanwhile the hop-grower is lying in ambush behind
a stack of hop-poles, ready as soon as his hops are sold to blaze away
at the brewer with a prohibition bullet or ballot. I believe there
are very few hop-growers who are capable of such meanness as this,
but I do believe there are a great many who do not realize the close
connection between hops and beer, and to these I say respectfully, as
I did two years ago in a prominent hop paper, ‘If you believe beer
is a bad thing, plow up your hop-yards and put in corn and potatoes.
It is true that somebody may turn the corn and potatoes into whisky,
but that is not your fault. Corn and potatoes must be had for food.
But there is no such excuse as this in the case of hops. The hops are
raised on purpose for beer. Not one bale in a hundred is used for
yeast or medicine. Therefore you are the “outside man” of the brewery,
and if beer is a fraud you are a party to a fraud, and you are not
an honest man. We believe that the making of beer is an honest and
praiseworthy occupation, no better and no worse than any other branch
of manufacturing goods that are wanted either for use or pleasure.’
“When I say we, I mean the men who believe in a radical distinction
between fermented liquors and distilled. Such men as Rev. Dr. Howard
Crosby, and Dr. William A. Hammond, formerly medical director of the
United States army, and Dr. Willard Parker, the leading practicing
physician of New York, and a most earnest Christian man. Dr. Parker
says in the _Christian Union_: ‘Fermented liquor is the work of God;
distilled liquor is the work of man or the devil or both.’ ‘It is
the still that does the harm. It is the still that takes the alcohol
out of its proper place in a liquid where it is not ordinarily found
in a larger proportion than six or seven per cent., and where it
rarely intoxicates, and never if taken in moderate quantities, and
concentrates it in a substance that is a deadly poison. Take away the
still and we should have peace and plenty on earth. We could then leave
the vinous liquors alone. I would compromise with all my heart on that
ground, and I would go to work and preach just as old Solomon did:
Don’t use too much.’ If with such men as Crosby and Hammond and Parker
you believe beer should be distinguished from whisky, then go and raise
your hops; pick them clean and get clean money. Take your glass of beer
like an honest man when you feel it will do you good. Let it alone like
an honest man when you think it will do you harm, just as you would a
cup of coffee when you were bilious. Sign no pledges, nor encourage
your children to sign them, except those against distilled liquors.
Encourage no temperance movement that does not move in the right
direction—against whisky and in favor of beer as a temperance drink; a
drink that is killing out whisky faster than whisky killed Ireland, a
drink that will build up the American constitution as it has built up
the German.”
We append tables showing the percentage of alcohol in a great variety
of wines, spirits, malt and fermented liquors, according to analyses
made by Brande, Gerhardt, Liebig, Prof. A. B. Prescott, Dr. Andrew Ure,
William Ripley Nichols, professor at the Technological Institute of
Massachusetts, and other chemists of well known reputation.
PORTUGUESE WINES.
Port contains 14.27 to 25.83 per cent. of alcohol.
Bucella “ 18.49 “ “ “ “
SPANISH WINES.
Sherry contains 13.98 to 23.86 per cent. of alcohol.
Malaga “ 17.26 to 18.94 “ “ “ “
MADEIRA AND CANARY ISLANDS.
Madeira contains 14.9 to 24.42 per cent. of alcohol.
Malmsey “ 12.86 to 16.40 “ “ “ “
FRENCH WINES.
Claret contains 12.91 to 17.11 per cent. of alcohol.
Claret Chateau Latour “ 7.78 “ “ “ “
Claret Vin Ordinaire “ 8.99 “ “ “ “
Champagne “ 11.30 to 13.80 “ “ “ “
Burgundy “ 12.10 to 16.00 “ “ “ “
Hermitage “ 12.32 to 17.43 “ “ “ “
Sauterne “ 14.22 “ “ “ “
Frontignac “ 12.79 “ “ “ “
ITALIAN WINES.
Marsala contains 18.20 to 20.03 per cent. of alcohol.
Lacryma Christi “ 19.70 “ “ “ “
Falernian “ 18.99 “ “ “ “
CAPE WINES.
Cape Madeira contains 18.11 to 22.94 per cent. of alcohol.
Constantia “ 14.50 to 19.75 “ “ “ “
Muscat “ 18.25 “ “ “ “
PERSIAN WINE.
Sheraaz contains 12.95 to 19.80 per cent. of alcohol.
BRITISH WINES, CIDER, ETC.
Grape contains 18.11 per cent. of alcohol.
Raisin “ 23.30 to 26.40 “ “ “ “
Currant “ 20.55 “ “ “ “
Gooseberry “ 11.84 “ “ “ “
Orange “ 11.26 “ “ “ “
Elder “ 8.79 “ “ “ “
Mead “ 7.32 “ “ “ “
Cider “ 5.21 to 9.87 “ “ “ “
Perry “ 7.26 “ “ “ “
HUNGARIAN WINES.
Tokay contains 9.88 per cent. of alcohol.
Red Wine “ 13.20 to 19.04 “ “ “ “
White Wine “ 12.10 to 12.16 “ “ “ “
GERMAN WINES.
Hochheimer contains 8.88 to 14.37 per cent. of alcohol.
Johannisberger “ 8.71 “ “ “ “
Rüdesheimer “ 6.90 to 12.22 “ “ “ “
Rhenish Wine “ 7.00 to 7.58 “ “ “ “
OHIO WINES.
According to analyses received from Messrs. Parisette Bro’s, N. Y.,
and made five times within
six months, contain 6.11 to 11.30 per cent. of alcohol.
CALIFORNIA WINES.
White and Red, dry, contains 8.40 to 12.90 per cent. of alcohol.
Sweet Wines “ 6.20 to 13.80 “ “ “ “
SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS.
Irish Whisky contains 53.90 per cent. of alcohol.
Scotch Whisky “ 54.52 “ “ “ “
Holland Gin “ 53.80 “ “ “ “
French Brandy “ 53.40 “ “ “ “
St. Croix Rum “ 53.68 “ “ “ “
Batavian Arrack “ 53.70 “ “ “ “
Russian Vadka or Kwass “ 52.68 “ “ “ “
Ordinary American Whisky
contains 52.60 “ “ “ “
Bourbon Whisky contains 51.00 “ “ “ “
Whisky with much foreign matter
contains 44.50 “ “ “ “
ENGLISH MALT LIQUORS.
Ale—Burton contains 8.88 per cent. of alcohol.
“ Edinburgh “ 6.22 “ “ “ “
“ London “ 6.20 “ “ “ “
Brown Stout “ 6.80 “ “ “ “
London Porter “ 4.80 “ “ “ “
London Small Beer “ 2.56 “ “ “ “
Edinburgh Beer “ 5.36 to 7.35 “ “ “ “
GERMAN BEER.
Bavarian Augustiner contains 3.40 to 6.80 per cent. of alcohol.
Salvator “ 4.02 to 4.20 “ “ “ “
Vienna “ 4.20 to 5.60 “ “ “ “
Berlin Tivoli “ 4.60 “ “ “ “
Berlin Tivoli Export “ 5.40 “ “ “ “
Copenhagen “ 5.04 “ “ “ “
AMERICAN MALT LIQUORS AND CIDER.
New York Porter contains 6.20 to 8.40 per cent. of alcohol.
New York Ale “ 5.40 to 6.90 “ “ “ “
Albany Ale “ 5.40 to 6.20 “ “ “ “
Lager Beer “ 3.06 to 6.50 “ “ “ “
American Cider “ 5.80 to 11.60 “ “ “ “
Two analyses of beer brewed in the celebrated Brauerei Koenigstadt, of
Berlin, were found to give the following results:
Alcohol 4.501 per cent. by weight.
Saccharine 1.893 “ “ “ “
Dextrine 0.861 “ “ “ “
Albuminoids 0.630 “ “ “ “
Hop-bitter, extractive and saline matter 2.296 “ “ “ “
Acid 0.005 “ “ “ “
Unfermented extract 5.680 per cent.
The second analysis was of dark colored beer, and was as follows:
Alcohol 4.250 per cent. by weight.
Saccharine 1.950 “ “ “ “
Dextrine 1.053 “ “ “ “
Albuminoids 0.621 “ “ “ “
Hop-bitter, extractive and saline matter 3.386 “ “ “ “
Acids 0.005 “ “ “ “
Unfermented extract 7.010 per cent.
Good lager beer properly brewed and fermented, and stored for some
time, should contain in one hundred parts, 90 water, 5.6 malt extract,
3.50 alcohol, and the remainder carbonic acid.
The following analyses show more particularly the percentage of extract
and of alcohol contained in the best known varieties of lager beer of
this country:
EXTRACT. ALCOHOL.
New York, 3.6 per cent. 4.8 per cent.
“ “ 3.7 “ “ 4.4 “ “
“ “ 4.2 “ “ 5.3 “ “
Staten Island, 3.2 “ “ 5.9 “ “
Milwaukee, 4.3 “ “ 5.6 “ “
Newark, 4.2 “ “ 5.6 “ “
Philadelphia, 4.2 “ “ 6.0 “ “
Chicago, 3.9 “ “ 5.2 “ “
Cincinnati, 3.4 “ “ 5.5 “ “
Boston, 3.6 “ “ 5.6 to 6.0 “ “
Hartford, 3.6 “ “ 4.9 “ “
A similar table made after results obtained by C. F. Chandler and
embracing several kinds of ales and lager beers reads as follows:
----------------------+-----------------+---------------------
| |CONTENTS PER IMPERIAL
| PERCENTAGE. | PINT.
+--------+--------+---------+-----------
| | |OUNCES OF|OUNCES OF
|ALCOHOL.|EXTRACT.| ALCOHOL.|EXTRACT.
----------------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------
Allsop’s Burton Ale | 8.25 | 13.32 | 2.16 | 2.77
Bass’s Ale | 8.41 | 11.75 | 2.18 | 2.42
Edinburgh Ale | 4.41 | 3.58 | 1.12 | .72
Guinness Stout | 6.81 | 6.17 | 1.74 | 1.25
Munich Lager Beer | 4.70 | 6.10 | 1.19 | 1.22
Munich Schenck Beer | 3.90 | 5.07 | 1.00 | 1.16
Munich Bock Beer | 4.60 | 9.02 | 1.17 | 1.90
New York Lager Beer | 5.86 | 4.32 | 1.48 | .88
----------------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------
In this table the term extract includes all the substances left when
the alcohol and water are removed by evaporation.
In view of the figures above given and of the fact that the lighter
beers form the bulk of the malt liquor consumed in the country, we are
safe in assuming an average alcoholic strength of not more than 5½ per
cent. for the total product. This product we have already seen to be
9,473,361 barrels, which, on the basis just assumed, yields 521,034
barrels or 16,673,088 gallons of alcohol. Now according to statistics
from the department at Washington the consumption of native spirits was
in 1878 over 70,000,000 gallons containing about 37,000,000 gallons
of alcohol. The cost of the native and foreign ardent spirits, wines
and liquors used in one year reaches $500,000,000, and it is among the
drinkers of spirits that we find most of the pauperism and crime of the
country. Those who drink beer use something that as far as alcohol is
concerned is more expensive than distilled liquors and yet spend less
than $120,000,000, as against the $500,000,000 above mentioned. It
should be noticed that while rum, gin, brandy, whisky, etc., contain
over 50 per cent. of alcohol, ales never reach nine per cent., and
lager beer seldom reaches six per cent. and is often below four.
An examination of these tables taken in connection with the other
facts mentioned should be sufficient to give a general idea of the
nature and extent of the claims to be made in favor of beer as a common
beverage. Others will come to light in the course of our discussion,
and particularly in the chapter entitled, “What Authorities Say,” in
which are embodied the conclusions of some of the most noted scientific
investigators of our time.