1351 Giovanni Visconti makes an unwarranted attack on the

Tuscan cities. The Florentines drive his army back. The Genoese

fleet under Paganino Doria wins many victories on the Adriatic

and in Negropont.

1352 Defeat of the Venetians and Aragonese by the Genoese in

the Bosporus. The Eastern emperor gives the Genoese the entire

command of the Black Sea.

1353 Fra Moriale organises his free company. Genoa allies

herself with Hungary. After a disastrous defeat by Venice

and Aragon off the Sardinian coast, she gives up to Giovanni

Visconti who refits the fleet which

1354 destroys that of Venice in the Morea. Death of Giovanni

Visconti; he is succeeded by his three nephews. Charles IV of

Germany arrives in Italy and refuses to join the Visconti.

Rienzi returns to Rome from exile. He is made senator, abuses

his power and is killed.

1355 Conspiracy of Marino Falieri, doge of Venice. He is

beheaded. Charles IV received by Pisa and Siena, who pay dearly

for their hospitality. Venice makes peace with Genoa. The

Raspanti restored in Pisa. The Genoese take Tripoli with the

help of Venice.

1356 The Genoese throw off the yoke of the Visconti. League of

north Italian lords goes to war with the Visconti. The marquis

of Montferrat takes Asti from them. Louis of Hungary renews

struggle with Venice. Jacopo de’ Bussolari delivers Pavia from

the Visconti.

1357 Zara, Spalato, and other towns lost to Louis by Venice.

The league assisted by Count Lando’s Free Company defeats

the Visconti on the Oglio. The Raspanti party in Pisa at

instigation of the Visconti begins to annoy the Florentines.

1358 Peace between the Visconti and the league. The Venetians

abandon Istria and Dalmatia to Louis. The Visconti again

besiege Pavia. The Florentines defeat the Great Company.

1359 Pavia capitulates to Galeazzo Visconti. Siege of Bologna

by Barnabò Visconti.

1360 Cardinal Albornoz takes Bologna and Barnabò Visconti is

finally driven away. Chair of Greek literature founded at

Florence.

1361 Barnabò Visconti renews the siege of Bologna. Sir John

Hawkwood invited into Italy. Foundation of the University of

Pavia by Galeazzo Visconti.

1363 Defeats for the Visconti in several places. Sir John

Hawkwood and his company enter service of Pisa. Pisa defeats

Florence.

1364 The Visconti make peace with the league. Peace between

Pisa and Florence. Giovanni Agnello is made doge of Pisa.

1367 Formation of a new league against the Visconti. It

includes the emperor, the king of Hungary, Padua, Ferrara,

Mantua, and Naples. Barnabò threatens Venice.

1368 Charles IV enters Italy. The Visconti pay him a large sum

for peace. Barnabò Visconti invades Mantua.

1369 Charles returns to Germany. Pisa receives its freedom.

Barnabò makes war on Florence, which is assisted by the pope.

1370 Lucca buys its independence from the emperor. Galeazzo

Visconti takes Casale. The Florentines capture San Miniato. The

Eastern emperor Joannes V held in Venice for debt.

1371 Barnabò Visconti captures Reggio.

1372 War breaks out between Venice and Genoa.

1373 Venice makes war on Padua, which is compelled to accept

humiliating peace. Genoa attacks Cyprus, restoring it to the

house of Lusignan.

1375 Truce between the Visconti and their enemies. The papal

legate sends Sir John Hawkwood against the Florentines, who vow

vengeance on the holy see and the French legates. They unite

with Barnabò Visconti against the church and admit Siena, Pisa,

and Lucca into the league, and form the “eight of war.” Eighty

cities and towns throw off the yoke of the legate.

1377 The papal forces punish Faenza and Cesena severely. The

league engages Sir John Hawkwood. It begins to break up.

Bologna makes peace with the pope.

1378 Barnabò makes secret negotiations to betray Florence

to the pope. Florence makes peace with Rome. The Venetians

besiege the Genoese in Cyprus. Defeat of the Genoese fleet off

Antium. Revolt in Florence. Sedition of the ciompi. Silvestro

de’ Medici chosen gonfalonier. Death of Galeazzo Visconti,

succeeded by his son Gian Galeazzo.

1379 The Venetian fleet almost annihilated by the Genoese off

Pola. Pietro Doria captures Chioggia and attacks Venice. Siege

of Treviso by Francesco da Carrara. The town is relieved by

Barnabò Visconti.

1380 The Genoese surrender to the Venetians and make treaty of

peace.

1381 Venice cedes Treviso to Duke Leopold of Austria to save

it from Francesco da Carrara, who has again laid siege to it.

Treaty of Turin. The Albizzi assume the government of Florence.

1384 Leopold of Austria sells Treviso to Francesco da Carrara.

1385 “The Reformers” driven out of Siena. Gian Galeazzo has

his uncle Barnabò put to death, and takes possession of his

dominions, making many reforms. He thus becomes the most

powerful ruler in Italy. The Milan cathedral is started.

1387 Gian Galeazzo, having made an alliance with Francesco

da Carrara of Padua whom Antonio della Scala of Verona is

attacking on behalf of the Venetians, seizes Verona and

Vicenza, the latter of which he refuses to give Carrara as

promised. He now offers himself to the Venetians against Padua.

1388 Galeazzo takes Padua, holds it, captures Treviso, and

threatens Venice. He makes many unsuccessful attempts on the

Tuscan cities. Nice joined to Savoy.

1389 Florence makes alliance with Bologna against Gian Galeazzo

engaging Sir John Hawkwood.

1390 Gian Galeazzo attacks Bologna. He is resisted by Hawkwood.

Francesco Novello da Carrara, assisted by the duke of Bavaria,

takes Padua from Gian Galeazzo. The Florentines engage the

count of Armagnac to invade Lombardy.

1391 Armagnac defeated at Alessandria.

1392 Florence makes peace with Gian Galeazzo. At instigation

of Gian Galeazzo, Jacopo Appiano murders Piero Gambacorti, the

ruler of Pisa, and makes himself master of the city.

1393 Civil war in Genoa.

1394 Death of Sir John Hawkwood.

1395 Gian Galeazzo purchases from the emperor Wencelaus the

title of duke of Milan, and count of Pavia with the investiture

of the twenty-six cities once included in the Lombard League.

The title is to be hereditary.

1396 The Genoese ask the protection of France.

1397 Gian Galeazzo renews war against Florence and Mantua.

1398 The French governor of Genoa is compelled to retire on

account of civil discord in the city. Ten years’ peace between

Gian Galeazzo and Florence and Mantua.

1399 The son of Jacopo Appiano sells Pisa to Gian Galeazzo,

reserving Piombino for himself. Gian Galeazzo receives promise

of surrender from Siena.

1400 Perugia submits to Gian Galeazzo. Paolo Guinigi usurps

sovereignty of Lucca and places himself under Gian Galeazzo’s

protection.

THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY

1401 Rupert of Germany enters Italy to suppress Gian Galeazzo,

but is defeated. Gian Galeazzo proclaimed sovereign lord of

Bologna.

1402 Gian Galeazzo dies of the plague. He divides his

possessions between his two young sons Giovanni Maria (duke

of Milan) and Filippo Maria (count of Pavia) under the care

of their mother Caterina and the condottieri in his service.

The latter place themselves at the head of various cities. The

Guelfs and Ghibellines recover power in many places.

1403 The dominions of Gian Galeazzo begin to break up. Bologna

and Perugia are restored to the papal states. Siena places

herself under the protection of Florence. The Venetians defeat

a French and Genoese fleet.

1404 Francesco Novello da Carrara seizes Verona from the

Visconti. Venice takes Vicenza and leagues with Francesco

di Gonzaga of Mantua to take Verona from the lord of Padua.

Caterina Visconti imprisoned and poisoned.

1405 The Venetians with the lord of Mantua capture Verona and

Padua. Jean Boucicault, French governor of Genoa, to whom the

Pisans have given the protection of their cities, offers to

sell it to Florence. The Pisans resist, and war with Florence

results.

1406 Francesco da Carrara and his sons executed at Venice. Pisa

surrenders to Florence.

1408 Ladislaus of Naples attacks Tuscany, ravages Arezzo and

Siena, and seizes Cortona.

1409 Florence, in alarm at Ladislaus’ ambitions, calls on Louis

of Anjou to prosecute his claim to Naples. Boucicault attempts

to take Milan. During his absence the Genoese drive the French

from their city. Louis returns to Provence.

1410 The Florentine army under Braccio da Montone occupies

Rome. Ladislaus accepts offers of peace.

1411 War breaks out between Hungary and Venice.

1412 The Milanese murder the cruel Giovanni Maria Visconti.

Filippo Maria seizes the city and marries the widow of Facino

Cane. The Venetians drive the Hungarians from Treviso and

regain part of Friuli.

1416 Amadeus VIII joins Piedmont to Savoy.

1417 Muzio Attendolo Sforza, in the pay of Naples, drives

Braccio da Montone and the Florentine army from Rome.

1418 Filippo Maria has his wife executed.

1419 The Milanese general, Francesco Carmagnola, recovers

Bergamo for Filippo Maria.

1420 Carmagnola recovers Parma, Cremona, and Brescia for Milan.

The Venetians recover Dalmatia and Friuli from the Hungarians.

1421 Genoa submits to Carmagnola, but reserves her liberties.

1424 Filippo Maria defeats the Florentines. Disgrace of

Carmagnola.

1425 Continued defeats of the Florentines. Venice unites with

Florence and employs Carmagnola.

1426 Florence, Venice, Ferrara, Mantua, Siena, Savoy, and

Naples unite against Filippo Maria. Francesco Sforza, son of

Muzio Attendolo, enters his service. Carmagnola takes Brescia

from Milan.

1427 The Venetians destroy a fleet collected by Filippo Maria

to conquer Mantua and Ferrara. Carmagnola defeats badly the

duke of Milan’s army near Macalo. Savoy withdraws from the

league and receives territory from Filippo Maria.

1428 Peace made between Milan and the allies. The Florentines

attack and take possession of Lucca.

1430 Niccolo Piccinino, the Milanese general, drives the

Florentines from Lucca. Venice and Florence reunite against

Milan and the war recommences.

1431 Francesco Sforza defeats Carmagnola at Soncino. The

Milanese destroy the Venetian fleet. The marquis of Montferrat

is defeated by Sforza. The allied fleets defeat the Genoese.

1432 The signoria of Venice suspect Carmagnola’s loyalty. They

invite him to Venice and behead him. Sigismund sells the title

of marquis of Mantua to Giovanni di Gonzaga.

1433 Francesco Sforza occupies the March of Ancona, which the

pope cedes to him the following year. Peace of Ferrara between

Milan and the allies. Treaty between Sigismund and Siena and

Florence. Rinaldo degli Albizzi, head of the oligarchy of

Florence, imprisons and banishes Cosmo de’ Medici, the leader

of the opposition.

1434 The Florentines recall Cosmo de’ Medici and place him at

the head of the government. The banished Albizzi flee to Milan

and persuade the duke to make war on Florence.

1435 Filippo Maria leagues with Alfonso of Naples against the

pope. The Genoese throw off the protection of Milan and restore

their independent government.

1436 Renewal of the league between Florence and Venice against

Milan. Genoa joins it. Francesco Sforza enters the service of

the allies.

1438 Sforza returns to the duke of Milan, who has promised him

his daughter in marriage.

1439 The duke of Milan fails to keep his promise and Sforza

returns to the allies. He is successful against Milan.

1441 Peace made between Milan and the allies. Sforza marries

Filippo Maria’s daughter. Venice acquires the principality of

Ravenna.

1443 Pope Eugenius IV plots to wrest the March of Ancona from

Sforza. Alfonso of Naples and the duke of Milan aid him. Sforza

defeats Piccinino at Monteloro.

1444 Sforza holds out against the alliance, which presses him

hard.

1446 Florence and Venice go to the aid of Sforza.

1447 Sforza loses the March of Ancona. Death of Filippo Maria.

The duchy is claimed by Alfonso of Naples, the duke of Orleans,

and by Sforza. Milan and other Lombard cities restore their

independence, but Sforza makes himself master of Milan and

captures Piacenza. Other cities submit to him.

1448 Sforza goes to war with Venice. He takes a large portion

of their territory, burns their fleet, and wins a great victory

at Caravaggio; then makes an alliance with Venice against

Milan, which is afraid of his treachery and shuts him out of

the city.

1449 The Venetians, realising Sforza’s schemes to enslave

Italy, desert him and join the Milanese. Sforza besieges Milan.

1450 The Milanese finally decide to admit Sforza and recognise

him as their duke.

1452 Sforza, having made alliance with Florence, Genoa, and

Mantua, goes to war with Venice. Frederick III sells Borso

d’Este, Reggio, and the duchy of Modena.

1454 Pope Nicholas V brings about the Peace of Lodi, signed by

Milan and Venice.

1455 Alfonso of Naples signs the Peace of Lodi, and joins with

the pope and the north Italian states in a league against the

Turks.

1457 Genoa and Naples go to war. The Council of Ten in Naples

deposes the great doge Francesco Foscari, who dies of grief.

1458 The Neapolitans besiege Genoa. Cosmo de’ Medici and Lucas

Pitti plan to force despot rule upon Florence.

1461 The Genoese free themselves from Naples.

1462 The Venetians ally themselves with Matthias Corvinus

against the Turks.

1463 Venice purchases Cervia from Malatesta IV.

1464 Sforza obtains control of Genoa. Death of Cosmo de’

Medici. His son Piero succeeds to the presidency of Florence.

1466 The Pitti family is defeated in its attempt to subjugate

Florence. The Alberti party is banished. Death of Francesco

Sforza. His son Galeazzo Maria succeeds. He misgoverns the

duchy and alienates the people from him.

1469 Death of Piero de’ Medici. His sons Lorenzo and Giuliano

succeed, but the governing power remains in the hands of the

five citizens who exercised it under Piero.

1470 The Turks take Negropont in Eubœa from the Venetians.

Florence, Modena, Milan, Naples, and the pope form a holy

league against the Turks. Venice and the knights of Rhodes make

alliance with the sultan of Persia for the same purpose. The

conspiracy of Nardi against the Medici.

1471 The pope confers the duchy of Ferrara upon Borso d’Este.

1472 The fleet of the Holy League drives the Turks from the

Grecian archipelago and ravages Smyrna.

1473 The Turks reach the borders of Friuli.

1475 The Venetians garrison the island of Cyprus. The Turks

capture the Genoese ports in the Crimea.

1476 Conspiracy at Ferrara in favour of Niccolo d’Este. It

fails. Assassination of Galeazzo Maria Sforza at Milan, the

result of the Olgiate conspiracy. His son Giovanni Galeazzo

Maria succeeds under regency of his mother.

1477 Revolt of Matteo de’ Fieschi at Genoa.

1478 The Pazzi conspiracy in Florence, aided by Sixtus IV.

Giuliano is murdered. Lorenzo, wounded, escapes. The people

massacre most of the conspirators, among them the archbishop of

Pisa, for which deed Sixtus excommunicates Florence. The pope,

and Naples, and other Italian states begin war on Florence. The

Genoese restore their government.

1479 Venice makes peace with the Turks, giving up Scutari and

fortresses in Illyria and the Morea. Sixtus IV induces the

Swiss to declare war on Milan. They win a victory at Giornico.

Defeat of the Florentines by the Neapolitans at Poggio

Imperiale. The situation of Lorenzo becomes critical. The

pope demands his expulsion from Florence. He goes to Naples.

Lodovico Sforza (Il Moro), uncle of the young Giovanni Galeazzo

Maria, undertakes the government of Milan.

1480 Lorenzo makes treaty with Ferdinand of Naples. On return

to Florence he makes the yoke more oppressive. The pope in fear

of the Turks, who have landed in Italy, becomes reconciled to

Lorenzo and makes treaty with him.

1481 All states of Italy (Venice excepted) unite against the

Turks and recover Otranto, lost the previous year. Sixtus and

the Venetians attempt to seize Ferrara and divide it between

them.

1482 Milan, Florence, and Naples form a league to prevent

Venice and the pope from carrying out their designs.

1483 Sixtus now sides with the league and excommunicates Venice

for persisting in the attack on Ferrara.

1484 Peace of Bagnolo between Ferrara and Venice; the former

gives up some of her possessions.

1485 Innocent VIII begins a war upon Florence, but makes peace

the following year.

1487 Lorenzo de’ Medici wrests Sarzana from the Genoese, who

put themselves again under Milan’s protection.

1489 Galeotto Manfredi, lord of Faenza, stabbed by his wife

as he is about to sell his principality to the Venetians.

Savonarola arrives in Florence and begins to preach reform in

the church.

1492 Death of Lorenzo de’ Medici. His son Piero succeeds.

1493 Lodovico il Moro, wishing to retain his power in Milan,

plots to get rid of his enemy the king of Naples, and invites

Charles VIII of France to revive the Angevin claim to Naples.

1494 The emperor Maximilian makes Lodovico duke of Milan.

Giovanni Galeazzo Maria banished to Pavia. Alfonso II of Naples

attacks Genoa but is defeated by the Swiss. Charles VIII enters

Italy. Sudden and mysterious death of Giovanni Galeazzo Maria.

Charles enters Tuscany. Piero surrenders Sarzana and offers to

give up Pisa and other cities. The people rise and drive Piero

out of Florence. Charles grants the Pisans their liberty and

proceeds to Rome.

1495 Lodovico, alarmed at Charles’ success, forms a league

against him, with the pope, the emperor Maximilian, and

Ferdinand of Spain, in Venice. Charles leaves Naples and with

difficulty returns to France. Formation of the Grand Council by

advice of Savonarola to govern Florence.

1496 Maximilian comes to Italy with an army, but returns to

Germany after a quarrel with Venice. Florence attempts to

regain Pisa.

1498 The Venetians and Florentines struggle for the possession

of Pisa. Milan aids the Florentines. Execution of Savonarola.

Death of Charles VIII in France. His successor, Louis XII,

takes title of duke of Milan and claims the duchy.

1499 Louis makes a treaty with the Venetians for the conquest

of Milan. The French army enters Italy. Flight of Lodovico il

Moro to Germany. Louis XII enters Milan. The rest of Lombardy

submits. Genoa comes under French protection. The Florentines

tire of the war with Pisa and make peace.

1500 The Milanese tire of the oppressive French. Lodovico

returns with an army. Como, Milan, Parma, and Pavia open their

gates. Novara taken after a siege. Lodovico is betrayed at

Novara into the hands of Louis de la Trémouille, the French

general, and sent to France in captivity. Milan again subject

to the French. The French army marches to Naples.

THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

1501 Cesare Borgia begins his conquest of the petty states of

Romagna. He takes Pesaro, Rimini, Forlì, and Faenza.

1502 Cesare seizes the duchy of Urbino with the aid of Louis.

He wars with the Orsini and plans to capture Pisa, and marries

his sister Lucrezia to the son of the duke of Ferrara. The

Florentines create the office of gonfalonier for life.

1503 At death of Pope Alexander VI the dominions of Cesare are

taken from him by Julius II. Venice seizes Faenza and Rimini,

which enrages the pope. The Venetians make peace with the

Turks, renouncing their possessions in the Peloponnesus. Death

of Piero de’ Medici with the French army in Naples. Pietro

Soderini chosen gonfalonier of Florence.

1504 Louis signs treaty of Blois with Maximilian, in which they

propose to divide the republic of Venice between them. Florence

makes another attempt to take Pisa.

1506 Julius II attacks Perugia and Bologna.

1507 Unable to endure the yoke of the French and their own

nobles, the Genoese drive out the French and restore the

republic. Louis at once captures Genoa and puts the doge and

other prominent citizens to death.

1508 Unsuccessful invasion of Italy by Maximilian. The

Venetians defeat him and he is compelled to make truce,

yielding them Trieste. The infamous League of Cambray formed by

the pope, the emperor, Spain, and France against Venice. Savoy,

Mantua, and Ferrara also join.

1509 France declares war on Venice. The Venetians, badly

defeated at Agnadello, give up their possessions in northern

Italy. The Venetians regain Padua. The Florentines capture Pisa.

1510 Julius begins to fear his foreign allies and resolves to

drive the barbarians from Italy with the aid of the Swiss. He

absolves the Venetians and pits the Spanish against the French.

The French are attacked in Genoa, Modena, and Verona.

1511 Julius captures Mirandola; the French take Bologna from

him. Julius forms the holy league with the Spaniards, English,

Swiss, and Venetians against France.

1512 Gaston de Foix relieves the French, besieged in Bologna by

the Spaniards; retakes Brescia, and fights a great battle at

Ravenna with the pope and his allies, in which he is killed.

Maximilian abandons the French. The Swiss occupy Milan and

restore Massimiliano Sforza, son of Lodovico. The pope regains

Bologna and Ferrara, and seizes Parma and Piacenza from the

Milanese. The Medici return to Florence and resume their former

position. Genoa expels the French. Italy passes from the yoke

of France to that of the Swiss, Spaniards, and Germans.

1513 Giovanni de’ Medici becomes Pope Leo X. Alliance between

the Venetians and the French. The latter enter the duchy of

Milan, but are defeated by the Swiss mercenaries at Novara. The

Spaniards attack Venice on behalf of Maximilian, and occupy

Verona, Padua, and Vicenza, acting with great cruelty.

1514 The French are driven out of their last fortresses in

Italy.

1515 Francis I, the new French king, asserts his claim

to Milan, recovers Genoa, and badly defeats the Swiss at

Marignano. He enters Milan, and the Swiss leave Italy forever,

after making peace with Francis. Massimiliano Sforza abdicates.

Venice captures Bergamo and Peschiera. Peace between Francis

and Leo. The latter gives up Parma and Piacenza.

1516 The Venetians capture Brescia and lay siege to Verona.

Treaty of Noyon between Francis and Charles I of Spain.

Maximilian agrees to it. By its terms Venice recovers all the

territory taken from her by the League of Cambray.

1517 Verona restored to Venice. France and Venice renew their

alliance. Leo turns the duke of Urbino out of his duchy and

gives it to Lorenzo de’ Medici.

1518 Treaty of peace signed between Maximilian and Venice.

1519 Death of Lorenzo. The pope annexes Urbino to his states

and attempts to seize Ferrara. Charles V succeeds to the

imperial title.

1521 Leo makes treaty with Charles to drive the French from

Italy. The allies enter Milan; the Sforza are restored. Death

of Leo stops attempts on Ferrara.

1522 The French, defeated, evacuate Lombardy, but retain Genoa,

which is pillaged by the Spaniards.

1524 The French attempt to recover Lombardy. Francis besieges

Pavia.

1525 Battle of Pavia. Defeat and capture of Francis. The way

for Spanish dominion is opened in Italy. The marquis of Pescara

betrays the Sforza party into the hands of the emperor.

1526 Francis, liberated, treats with the pope, the Venetians,

and Francesco Sforza, to deliver Italy from the Spaniards.

Surrender of Sforza and Milan to the Spaniards. The constable

De Bourbon leads the imperial forces to Rome.

1527 Capture and sack of Rome by the Spaniards. The pope a

prisoner, escapes to Orvieto. The Florentines restore their

republican government and drive Alessandro de’ Medici from the

city. A French army under Lautrec enters Lombardy, conquers

Pavia, Genoa, and many other cities. The duke of Ferrara seizes

Modena, and the Venetians Ravenna.

1528 Andrea Doria drives the French from Genoa, and

re-establishes the republic.

1529 Treaty of Barcelona between Charles and the pope,

restoring the Medici to Florence. Peace of Cambray between

Francis and Charles, in which France relinquishes all claims on

Italy to Spain. Francesco Sforza and the duke of Ferrara submit

to Charles. Venice gives up Ravenna and Cervia to the pope. The

republics of Lucca, Genoa, and Siena make themselves dependent

on Charles. The marquis of Montferrat and the duke of Savoy

join the Spanish party and the former is made duke.

1530 Charles crowned king of Italy and emperor at Bologna. Fall

of Florence before the imperial army, after a brave defence by

Francesco Ferrucci. End of the republic. Charles decides the

papal claims on Ferrara in favour of Alfonso d’Este.

1531 Return of Alessandro de’ Medici to Florence with title of

duke of Cività di Penne, obtained from the emperor. The pope

relinquishes Modena to Alfonso and makes him duke of Ferrara.

1535 On death of Francesco Sforza, Charles takes possession of

the duchy of Milan and makes his son Philip governor. For this

act France again attempts to gain a foothold in Italy and sends

an army into Savoy.

1536 Capture of Turin by the French. Sack and burning of Nice.

Montferrat is given to the duke of Mantua.

1537 Assassination of Alessandro de’ Medici. Cosmo of the

younger branch is made duke.

1538 League of Genoa and Venice against the Turks. Andrea Doria

breaks the alliance and is defeated by the Algerine corsair

Barbarossa.

1540 Peace between Venice and the Turks; all the former’s

possessions in the Morea are given up. Paul III forms the

Society of Jesus.

1545 Pope Paul III makes Parma and Piacenza into a duchy for

his son Pier Luigi Farnese.

1546 Cosmo thwarts the plot of Francesco Burlamacchi of Lucca

to restore the liberty of the Tuscan republics. Burlamacchi

executed at Milan.

1547 Gian Luigi de’ Fieschi, with the aid of the French, forms

a conspiracy to throw off the yoke of the Spaniards and Andrea

Doria. Genoa is seized, but Fieschi is drowned and the Doria

remain in control. The duke of Parma is assassinated. The

imperial troops seize Piacenza; the pope seizes Parma.

1552 Pope Julius III gives Parma back to Pier Luigi’s son,

Ottavio. The Sienese drive out the Spanish garrison and admit a

French one.

1553 The French, aided by the Turks, capture a portion of

Corsica from the Genoese, most of which Andrea Doria recovers

the following year.

1554 Cosmo de’ Medici makes a sudden attack on Siena. The

marquis of Marignano undertakes to reduce the city.

1555 Surrender of Siena after a siege of fifteen months. The

Spaniards take possession. Pope Paul IV induces Henry II of

France to break his treaty of peace with Spain. The duke of

Alva invades the papal states. The duke of Guise and the pope

oppose him.

1557 The duke of Alva forces the French to retreat. The pope

makes peace with the Spaniards. Philip gives Cosmo full

sovereignty over Siena.

1559 The French-Spanish war terminated by the peace of

Cateau-Cambrésis. It leaves the king of Spain undisputed lord

of Italy. Savoy and Piedmont (except a few towns) are restored

to Emmanuel Philibert. The only remaining republics are Venice,

Genoa, Lucca, and San Marino. Venice alone is of any importance.

1562 Turin and four other towns are restored by the French to

Emmanuel Philibert. He transfers his capital to Turin, and his

house becomes thoroughly Italian.

1569 Pope Pius V makes Cosmo de’ Medici grand duke of Tuscany.

The emperor protests.

1570 The Turks take Cyprus from the Venetians.

1571 The combined fleets of Venice, Spain, the pope, and the

knights of Malta, defeat the Turks in the Gulf of Lepanto. This

victory delivers Italy from the infidel, but the allies do not

follow it up.

1573 Venice is forced to make peace with the Turks. She gives

up Cyprus and pays a large tribute.

1575 The emperor acknowledges the title of grand duke of

Tuscany.

1576 Great devastation made by the plague in Italy.

1578 Failure of a conspiracy at Florence against the grand duke

of Tuscany.

1580 Charles Emmanuel succeeds his father as duke of Savoy.

1582 Charles Emmanuel fails in an attempt to capture Genoa.

1586 Death of Ottavio Farnese, duke of Parma. His son

Alessandro succeeds.

1588 The duke of Savoy taking advantage of Francis’ distracted

condition, conquers Saluzzo.

1589 The duke of Savoy invades Provence.

1590 The French drive Charles Emmanuel from Provence.

1597 Death of Alfonso d’Este, duke of Ferrara. Pope Clement

VIII claims his dominions (Ferrara, Modena, and Reggio) from

his kinsman and heir, Cesare d’Este. France sides with the

pope, and Spain with the duke.

1598 Cesare gives up Ferrara to the pope and retires to Modena

and Reggio, where he rules as duke.

1600 Henry IV of France proceeds against the duke of Savoy.

THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

1601 Peace of Lyons between Henry IV and Charles Emmanuel. The

latter is allowed to keep Saluzzo, but gives up Bresse, Bugey,

and the Pays de Gex, his possessions in Burgundy.

1606 Pope Paul V attempts to compel Venice to acknowledge

his ecclesiastical supremacy. Hitherto the Venetians have

recognised no chief above their own patriarch. They prepare for

war with the pope. Henry IV mediates. The Venetians in a veiled

manner admit the papal supremacy, but refuse to readmit the

Jesuits, and the pope removes the interdiction.

1613 On the death of Francesco, the duke of Mantua and

Montferrat, his brother Ferdinand succeeds. Charles Emmanuel

invades Montferrat on behalf of his daughter, the late duke’s

widow. Philip III of Spain orders him to evacuate the duchy and

the duke of Savoy goes to war with Spain.

1615 The Spanish governor of Milan attacks Charles Emmanuel.

Venice and the imperial party come to hostilities over the

piracies of the Uscochi, subjects of the empire.

1617 Venice makes alliance with the Dutch.

1618 Conspiracy of Don Pedro de Toledo, governor of Milan, the

duke of Osuna, and the marquis of Bedmar to destroy Venice. It

is betrayed to the Council of Ten and thwarted.

1620 The Catholics in the Grisons revolt against the Protestant

government. Philip III sends the governor of Milan to help the

Catholics. He occupies the Valtelline.

1624 France, Savoy, and Venice unite against Spain in the war

in the Grisons.

1625 The duke of Savoy and a French army make an attempt to

capture Genoa. The Germans and Spaniards invade Savoy and the

duke is obliged to abandon the siege.

1626 On the death of the last of the Della Rovere family the

duchy of Urbino is annexed to the papal states.

1627 On the death of the duke of Mantua, Charles Emmanuel again

seizes Montferrat.

1628 France and Venice oppose the duke of Savoy. Spain and

Austria assist him. The Spaniards seize Casale. Plot of Vachero

and others in Genoa to place the city under the protection of

Charles Emmanuel. It is discovered and its leader executed.

1629 Treaty of Susa between France and Savoy. Spain and the

emperor refuse to ratify it.

1630 Death of Charles Emmanuel, succeeded by his son Victor

Amadeus I. The imperial army seizes Mantua.

1631 The Montferrat question settled by the treaty of Cherasco.

Mantua and Montferrat are given to Charles, duke of Nevers.

Savoy gets a small portion of Montferrat and Pinerolo is ceded

to France.

1637 On death of Victor Amadeus a contest over the regency for

his young son, Charles Emmanuel II, begins.

1639 Capture of Turin by Prince Thomas of Savoy in the contest

for the regency.

1642 The duke’s mother Christina obtains the regency of Savoy

under the protection of France. This leads to the implication

of Italy in the wars of Louis XIII with Germany and Spain.

Civil war breaks out in Italy. The ducal families take the side

of Spain.

1645 War breaks out between Venice and the Turks. The latter

seize a portion of Candia.

1651 The Venetians win a great naval victory from the Turks

near Scio.

1655 The Spaniards besiege Reggio without success. Prince

Thomas of Savoy and the duke of Modena with a French army fail

in an attempt to capture Pavia. Naval victory of the Venetians

over the Turks in the Dardanelles.

1656 Continued naval victories of the Venetians; they hire

mercenaries from the pope, and admit the Jesuits into their

city.

1659 The wars of Louis XIV and Spain ended by the treaty of the

Pyrenees. France retains possession of Pinerolo.

1669 After a long siege the Turks take Candia from the

Venetians. Crete is lost.

1670 After a long reign Ferdinand II, grand duke of Tuscany,

dies, succeeded by his son Cosmo III.

1675 Death of Charles Emmanuel II of Savoy. Victor Amadeus II

succeeds.

1684 The French fleet bombards Genoa, whose citizens have

refused to allow Louis XIV to establish a depot at Savona.

Venice, encouraged by Sobieski’s victories over the Turks,

leagues with the emperor and the Poles against them.

1685 The doge of Genoa and four senators go to Paris to

apologise and make terms with Louis XIV. The Venetians under

Francesco Morosini take many towns in the Morea from the Turks.

1686 The duke of Savoy forbids all religions but the Catholic

to exist in Savoy.

1687 The Venetians complete the conquest of the Morea. They

seize Lepanto, Corinth, and Athens.

1690 Toleration of the Protestants is restored in Savoy, which

joins the league against France. The French take Saluzzo and

other territory from Savoy.

1691 The progress of the French in Savoy is stopped by a German

army. Continued success of the Venetians in Greece.

1694 Siege of Casale by the duke of Savoy.

1695 The war with the Turks begins to turn against the

Venetians.

1696 The duke of Savoy makes peace with France, which gives up

Pinerolo to him.

1699 Treaty of Karlowitz between Venice and the Turks. The

former is confirmed in her conquests in Greece.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

1701 The war of the Spanish Succession is begun in Italy.

Tuscany and Mantua side with the French. Prince Eugene of Savoy

defeats the French army.

1702 Prince Eugene captures Cremona and besieges Mantua. The

duke of Vendôme drives him off. Victory of the French and

Spaniards at Santa Vittoria.

1704 The duke of Savoy goes over to the Austrian side. The

French are supreme in Savoy and Modena.

1706 Battle of Turin and great defeat of the French, who lose

all their conquests in Italy. The duke of Savoy recovers his

possessions and obtains Montferrat. Charles III is proclaimed

king of Spain.

1708 The emperor Joseph I claims the duchy of Mantua on the

death of the last duke. The pope attempts to resist, but is

overcome and submits to Joseph’s claim.

1713 The Peace of Utrecht. For his services in the war of

the Spanish Succession, =Victor Amadeus II= receives Sicily

with the title of king and is crowned at Palermo. The emperor

Charles receives Milan, Mantua, Sardinia, and Naples. Italy

passes from the power of Spain to that of Austria.

1714 The pope lays claim to Sicily and issues a bull against

Victor Amadeus, who ignores it. Philip V marries Elizabeth

Farnese, which makes him heir to Parma and Piacenza, and a

claimant of Tuscany.

1715 The Turks go to war with the Venetians and reconquer the

Morea.

1716 The emperor assists the Venetians. Prince Eugene captures

Temesvar. The combined fleet captures Santa Maura.

1717 In the dispute with Austria over the succession to the

grand duchy of Tuscany, Philip V of Spain unexpectedly conquers

Sardinia. The allied armies make headway against the Turks.

1718 The Quadruple Alliance--Great Britain, France, Austria,

and the Netherlands--formed against Philip, to take Lombardy

from him. War with the Turks ended by the Peace of Passarowitz.

Venice gives up the struggle against the infidels after five

hundred years. She is now in full decline and takes no part in

the eighteenth-century wars. The Spaniards invade Sicily.

1719 The Spaniards defeated and driven off from Messina. They

leave the island.

1720 Philip agrees to the terms of the Quadruple Alliance.

For his adherence to Philip, Victor Amadeus is compelled to

exchange Sicily for Sardinia, and his realm is henceforth

called the kingdom of Sardinia. Sicily is reunited to Naples.

1723 Gian Gastone succeeds to the grand duchy of Tuscany.

1730 Victor Amadeus abdicates in favour of his son, =Charles

Emmanuel III=. The Corsicans revolt against the Genoese to rid

themselves of tyranny.

1731 Death of the last duke of Parma. Don Charles of Spain

succeeds. Victor Amadeus attempts to regain his crown, but is

defeated by Charles Emmanuel and imprisoned in the castle of

Rimini, where he dies in 1732. Charles Emmanuel destroys all

temporal power of the pope in his realm.

1733 The war of the Polish Succession begins. France makes

alliance with Spain and Sardinia. They plan to drive the

Austrians from Italy; to establish Don Charles on the throne

of the Two Sicilies and in the duchies; and to give Milan to

Charles Emmanuel. The latter seizes Milan.

1734 Victory of Charles Emmanuel at Guastalla.

1735 Don Charles goes to Sicily and is crowned king.

1737 Death of Gian Gastone, grand duke of Tuscany, the last of

the Medici.

1738 The Treaty of Vienna settles the disputes of the war

of the Polish Succession. Duke Francis of Lorraine receives

Tuscany. Parma and Piacenza are given to Austria, which keeps

Milan and Mantua. Don Charles acknowledged king of the Two

Sicilies. Charles Emmanuel acquires Novara, and Tortona is

separated from Milan.

1740 War of the Austrian Succession begins. The Bourbon houses

of Spain, France, and the Sicilies oppose the Habsburg-Lorraine

party in the succession of Maria Theresa.

1741 Charles Emmanuel joins the Habsburg cause.

1742 The king of Sardinia attacks Reggio and Modena. The

Spanish army invades Savoy, but is driven back.

1743 The Sardinians defeated by the French and Spaniards, who

seize Parma and Milan. Francis of Lorraine, elected emperor,

sends an Austrian army against them.

1745 Defeat of the French and Spaniards by the king of Sardinia

and the Austrians at Piacenza. The Genoese compelled to admit

the Austrians into the city, but they afterwards expel them.

1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ends the war, and redivides

Italy. Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla are made into a duchy for

Don Philip, brother of Charles III of the Two Sicilies. The

Austrians keep Milan and Tuscany. Venice, Lucca, and San Marino

remain free, so does Genoa, but, with the duchy of Modena, it

is placed under the protection of France. Until the French

Revolution Italy ceases to be a matter of dispute between the

European nations.

1755 Pasquale Paoli takes command of the Corsicans in their

continued struggle to free themselves from Genoa. He plans to

establish a republic in the island.

1765 Death of the emperor Francis. Tuscany, which, since his

assumption of the emperorship, has been practically an Austrian

province, is given to his son Leopold and becomes a separate

state once more.

1768 Genoa, wearied of the struggle with Corsica, cedes it to

France.

1773 Death of Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia, succeeded by

his son, =Victor Amadeus III=.

1790 Leopold, succeeding to the empire, makes his son,

Ferdinand III, grand duke of Tuscany.

1792 The French army captures Savoy and Nice and makes them

part of the republic.

1793 Victor Amadeus joins the alliance against France.

1796 The French army under Napoleon Bonaparte crosses the

Alps. Victor Amadeus surrenders his claim to Savoy and Nice,

and gives up Alessandria and Tortona after Bonaparte’s many

victories. The French invade the Austrian dominions and enter

Milan. Bonaparte enters Bologna and founds the Cispadane

Republic, with Bologna as capital. Death of Victor Amadeus,

succeeded by his son, =Charles Emmanuel IV=. Defeat of the

Austrians at Arcola.

1797 Defeat of the Austrians at Rivoli completes conquest of

Lombardy. Mantua surrenders to Bonaparte. He declares war on

Venice and enters the city. Revolt against the republican

party in Genoa; Bonaparte interferes and establishes the

Ligurian Republic. He forms Lombardy, Parma, Modena, the

papal state of Bologna, Ferrara, Romagna, and part of Venice

into the Cisalpine Republic, with capital at Milan. Treaty

of Campo-Formio recognises the new republics and gives the

remainder of Venice to Austria.

1798 The French army enters Rome and forms the Tiberine

Republic. Pope Pius VI sent a captive to France. The French

take Piedmont and Charles Emmanuel retires to Sardinia.

1799 The French garrison gives up Rome to the English. The

French directory declares war against Austria and Tuscany. The

allies under Kay and Suvarroff defeat the French many times in

northern Italy. Milan is taken. The Austrians take Ancona and

Coni.

1800 Bonaparte recovers his lost possessions in Italy. Battle

of Marengo. Genoa and Tuscany given up to Bonaparte.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

1801 Bonaparte deposes Ferdinand III; makes Tuscany into the

kingdom of Etruria, and gives it to =Louis=, son of the duke of

Parma.

1802 The Cisalpine becomes the Italian Republic and Bonaparte

is president. Piedmont annexed to France. Charles Emmanuel

abdicates in favour of his brother =Victor Emmanuel I=.

1803 Death of Louis of Etruria. His wife, Maria Louisa, rules

as regent for his young son, =Charles Louis=.

1805 The emperor =Napoleon= makes the Italian Republic into

a kingdom and is crowned king; Eugène Beauharnais viceroy.

The Ligurian Republic is annexed to France. Lucca is made a

principality, and with the kingdom of Etruria given to Elisa

Bonaparte.

1806 By the conditions of the Peace of Pressburg the Venetian

possessions of Austria are added to the kingdom of Italy.

Pauline Bonaparte cedes Guastalla to the kingdom.

1807 Elisa Bonaparte cedes Etruria to the kingdom of Italy.

1809 Napoleon seizes the papal states and occupies Rome. He is

excommunicated by the pope.

1810 The papal states are added to the French Empire.

1814 The English capture Genoa. The pope returns to Rome by

Napoleon’s permission. Fall of Napoleon. Genoa, instigated by

England, makes a vain attempt to restore the Ligurian Republic.

1815 By the Treaty of Paris and Congress of Vienna, Victor

Emmanuel I receives back the kingdom of Sardinia with the

addition of Genoa. Venice and Milan are formed into the

Lombardo-Venetian province of Austria. Lucca is given to the

Parmesan Bourbons who are to recover Parma and Piacenza at

the death of Maria Louisa, Napoleon’s wife, to whom they are

allotted as a duchy. Ferdinand III is restored to Tuscany, and

he is to receive Lucca when the Parmesan house takes possession

of its own territory. Francis IV is made duke of Modena and he

is to receive Lunigiana from the grand duke of Tuscany when

the latter takes possession of Lucca. The papal states are

restored to Pope Pius VII. San Marino remains undisturbed, the

only Italian republic. Murat drives the pope from Rome, but is

defeated and escapes to Corsica. All the Italian sovereigns are

in strict alliance with Austria through whose influence they

hold their thrones.

1821 The people of Turin and Alessandria demand constitutional

governments, and war with Austria. Rather than grant any

concession Victor Emmanuel abdicates in favour of his brother

=Charles Felix=. The movement is suppressed by Austria.

1824 Leopold II succeeds as grand duke of Tuscany.

1825 By Charles Felix’s order the poor in his kingdom are

forbidden instruction in reading and writing.

1830 Duke Francis of Modena intrigues with the liberal party,

in an attempt to obtain the succession to Sardinia.

1831 Revolt of Ciro Menotti in Modena. Francis deserts the

liberals. The duke of Modena and the duchess of Parma forced to

flee. Republican revolt in Romagna against the pope. He calls

on Austria for aid, which is given. The duke of Modena and

duchess of Parma are restored; the revolt in Romagna put down.

Execution of Menotti and his companions. Disappointment of the

liberals in not receiving help from France. Mazzini founds the

“Young Italy” party. Death of Charles Felix and the end of the

elder branch. =Charles Albert= of the Savoy-Carignano line

succeeds. Mazzini calls on him to defy Austria.

1832 The French, jealous of the Austrian garrisons in the papal

states, seize Ancona.

1833 Mazzini makes a raid on Savoy. It fails and he flees to

England.

1837 Charles Albert issues a new code for his kingdom.

1838 The French and Austrians withdraw their garrisons from the

papal states.

1844 Revolt of the Bandiera at Cosenza.

1846 Cardinal Mastai Ferretti is elected pope (Pius IX). He

declares himself a liberal and begins a new policy of reform.

The Austrians remonstrate.

1847 Pius forms the national guard in his states. The Austrians

seize Ferrara. Charles Albert turns from the Austrian party

and declares for reform and the liberation of Italy. Death of

the duchess of Parma. The Bourbons return from Lucca, which is

added to Tuscany.

1848 Metternich refuses to grant any of the demanded reforms

in Lombardo-Venetia. Following the example of Ferdinand

II of the Two Sicilies, the king of Sardinia, the grand

duke of Tuscany, and the pope, grant their people liberal

constitutions. The revolutionary troubles in Vienna and Hungary

incite Lombardo-Venetia to insurrection. The Milanese drive

Marshal Radetzky and the Austrian troops out of the city.

Other cities join the Milanese. The duke of Modena flees.

Venice rises against the Austrians. They leave the city, and a

provincial form of government is set up under Daniele Manin.

Charles Albert declares war on Austria. Peschiera surrenders to

him and he defeats Radetzky at Goito. Lombardo-Venetia votes

for annexation to Sardinia. Charles Albert is badly defeated

by Radetzky at Custozza and makes armistice. The Austrians

re-enter Milan. All the provinces except Venice return to

Austrian rule. Insurrection in Rome. Assassination of the

pope’s minister, Count Rossi. Pius flees to Gaeta.

1849 Revolt in Tuscany; the grand duke flees to Gaeta and a

provincial government is set up in Florence. A republic is

declared in Rome with Mazzini at the head. Gioberti retires

and Rattazzi assumes the leadership of the democratic party in

Piedmont. The war with Austria is renewed and Charles Albert

is completely defeated by Radetzky at Novara. He abdicates

in favour of his son =Victor Emmanuel II=. Genoa attempts to

restore the republic, but the revolt is put down. The French,

jealous of Austria’s power, send an army to restore the pope.

Rome is defended by Garibaldi, but is forced to capitulate. The

French garrison the city and declare for the papal government.

The Florentines recall Leopold, and the duke of Modena returns.

Venice surrenders to the Austrians. Treaty of peace between

Sardinia and Austria. Italy’s struggle for liberty is crushed.

1850 The pope returns to Rome. His policy is now entirely

against reform. The Siccardi law, abolishing ecclesiastical

courts and privileges, passed in Piedmont. Reform progresses

quickly under Victor Emmanuel.

1853 Count d’Azeglio resigns office of chief minister in

Piedmont; succeeded by Count Cavour, who allies himself with

Rattazzi and the democratic party. He begins his work for the

unification of Italy.

1855 Sardinia makes alliance with England and France against

Russia. A Sardinian army is sent to the Crimea.

1856 At Congress of Paris, Cavour lays the grievances of Italy

before the European powers and obtains assurance of Napoleon

III’s assistance.

1858 Cavour meets Napoleon at Plombières and arranges for a

Franco-Italian war against Austria.

1859 Austria demands disarmament of Sardinia. France and

Sardinia declare war. Napoleon declares he will free Italy.

Romagna frees itself from the pope. A revolt in Tuscany causes

the grand duke to flee. Battle of Magenta forces the Austrians

out of Lombardy. Great victory of the allies at Solferino.

Peace of Villafranca. Austria gives up western Lombardy to

Sardinia. The exiled dukes are to be restored. Fear of Prussia

deters Napoleon from carrying out his high purpose, and he

simply agrees to an Italian confederation of which Austria, as

ruler of Venice, will be a member. Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and

Romagna, object to the confederation and ask for annexation

to Sardinia, which decides Victor Emmanuel not to agree to

Napoleon’s plan.

1860 Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Romagna vote to become subject

to Sardinia. Napoleon agrees to this in return for the cession

of Savoy and Nice to France. Garibaldi liberates southern

Italy. The people of the Two Sicilies vote for annexation to

Sardinia. Umbria and the Marches also annexed. Only Rome and

Venice remain to be liberated.

1861 First Italian parliament at Turin. Victor Emmanuel

declared king of Italy. Death of Cavour.

1862 Garibaldi invades Sicily with a volunteer army. Owing

to objections from France, the Italian ministry is forced to

oppose him. He is defeated and wounded at Aspromonte.

1864 The September convention. Napoleon agrees to a gradual

withdrawal of the French troops from Rome. Victor Emmanuel

promises not to attack the pope’s territory. Florence is made

the capital of Italy.

1866 The Prusso-Austrian war breaks out. Alliance of Italy

and Prussia. The Italian army is defeated several times, but

after the Prussian victory of Königgrätz (Sadowa) Austria

cedes Venice to France. Treaty of Vienna. Venice with the

Quadrilateral of fortresses (Verona, Legnago, Peschiera, and

Mantua) is given to Italy. Austria keeps the Istrian and

Dalmatian provinces. The withdrawal of the French troops from

Rome is completed.

1867 Mazzini urges the Italian people to seize Rome. Garibaldi

makes the attempt. He defeats the papal troops at Monte

Rotondo. Victor Emmanuel pleads to have his agreement to the

September convention respected. The French regarrison Rome.

Garibaldi surrenders to the French and papal forces at Mentana,

and is arrested by the Italian government.

1870 The French leave Rome at the outbreak of the

Franco-Prussian War. Mazzini incites the republicans to seize

Rome. He is arrested and imprisoned at Gaeta. The fall of

Napoleon III releases Victor Emmanuel from the agreement of

the September convention and he enters Rome. The pope appeals

in vain to the king of Prussia and retires to the Vatican.

The papal territories are annexed, and the unity of Italy is

complete.

1871 The capital of Italy transferred to Rome.

1874 The Jesuits are ordered to leave Italy. Garibaldi enters

the chamber of deputies and takes the oath of allegiance.

1878 Death of Victor Emmanuel, succeeded by his son =Humbert=.

1882 Death of Garibaldi.

1885 Italy assumes the government of Massowah.

1887 Formation of the “Triple Alliance” between Italy, Germany,

and Austria. War begins in Massowah.

1888 Italy annexes Massowah. War with the Abyssinians begins.

1891 Treaty with Great Britain concerning the boundaries of

territories in East Africa. Renewal of the Triple Alliance.

Commercial treaty with Austria and Germany. Dispute with the

United States over the massacre of eleven Italian prisoners at

New Orleans.

1892 Indemnity paid by the United States. Diplomatic relations

renewed.

1893 The Aigues-Mortes riots. The bank scandals.

1895 Treaty with France respecting Tunis. Disastrous defeat

of the Italians at Adowa in Abyssinia. Treaty of peace with

Abyssinia recognising independence of Ethiopia.

1898 Bread riots in many places owing to rise of prices. An

Italian fleet attempts to enforce payment of the award to

Signor Cerruti for robbery and imprisonment by Colombia. The

matter is peacefully adjusted.

1900 Assassination of Humbert. His son =Victor Emmanuel III=

succeeds.

1903 Italy allied with England and Germany to enforce payment

of debt by Venezuela. The matter is settled by arbitration.

Death of pope Leo XIII; cardinal Sarto succeeds as Pius X.

THE KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES

_The Hohenstaufens (1198-1266 A.D.)_

1198 =Frederick II=, son of the emperor Henry VI who has

conquered Sicily from the Normans, crowned king of Sicily

(Frederick I of Sicily) with his mother Constanza as regent.

Death of Constanza. Pope Innocent III assumes the guardianship

of Frederick, aged four.

1200 Innocent sends an army to Sicily which defeats Markwald,

who has claimed the guardianship of Frederick.

1201 Markwald, regent of Sicily. He dies and is succeeded by

Capparone. Sicily continues to be the prey of rebellious nobles

and adventurers.

1208 Frederick takes up the reins of government.

1210 The emperor Otto IV threatens to invade Sicily, which he

claims as part of the empire.

1211 Innocent excommunicates Otto and offers the crown of

Germany to Frederick.

1212 Frederick leaves Sicily to dispute the German crown with

Otto. He is crowned king of Germany at Mainz. Civil disorders

recommence in Sicily.

1215 Innocent crowns Frederick king of Germany at Aachen.

1220 Frederick crowned emperor at Rome. He returns to Sicily

and transfers a large colony of Saracens from the mountains to

Nocera.

1231 Frederick has a compilation made of the Norman laws and

ordinances.

1233 Frederick revisits Sicily to quell the republican

pretensions of the eastern cities.

1243 Saracen revolt in the mountainous districts.

1250 At Frederick’s death the crown passes to his son, =Conrad=

king of the Romans. In Conrad’s absence his natural brother

Manfred is regent.

1251 Innocent IV, in his attempts to further the cause of

William of Holland, excommunicates Conrad, and incites

rebellions in Sicily and southern Italy. Manfred puts them down.

1252 Innocent rejects offers of peace from Conrad, who then

attacks the pope. Capua is captured and Naples besieged.

1253 Surrender of Naples to Conrad. Innocent offers Richard,

earl of Cornwall, the crown of Sicily, but he declines it.

1254 Death of Conrad; his son =Conradin=, two years of age,

succeeds him. Manfred retains the regency. He opposes the papal

forces which have advanced into Apulia, and defeats them at

Foggia. Manfred takes Nocera.

1255 The citizens of Messina expel the papal governor. The

legate, having lost a large convoy, agrees to peace with

Manfred. Pope Alexander IV, who has offered the crown of Sicily

to Prince Edmund of England, refuses to ratify the peace. The

English parliament will not vote funds to enable Edmund to take

the Sicilian throne.

1256 Manfred drives the papal authorities from Sicily and makes

himself supreme there.

1258 On false rumour of Conradin’s death =Manfred= is crowned

at Palermo. He assumes the leadership of the Ghibellines in

Italy.

1259 Alexander IV excommunicates Manfred.

1260 Manfred sends aid to the exiled Ghibellines of Florence,

enabling them to win the battle of Montaperti.

1263 Pope Urban IV offers Sicily and Apulia to Charles of

Anjou, brother of Louis IX of France.

1264 The pope proclaims a crusade against Manfred.

1265 Charles of Anjou is crowned king of Sicily at Rome by the

pope. With an army of crusaders he proceeds against Manfred.

_The House of Anjou (1266-1282 A.D.)_

1266 Defeat and death of Manfred at battle of Benevento.

=Charles I= acknowledged king. He enters Naples in triumph.

The seat of government is transferred from Palermo to Naples.

Charles at once makes himself unpopular by his oppression.

1267 The pope makes Charles ruler of Tuscany and the citizens

of Florence offer him the _signoria_ for ten years. The

Ghibellines induce Conradin to enter Italy and proceed against

Charles.

1268 Defeat and capture of Conradin at the battle of

Tagliacozzo. Conradin beheaded at Naples. This disaster crushes

the hopes of the Ghibellines in Italy. Louis IX and Pope

Clement IV protest against Charles’ cruelties.

1269 Charles captures Nocera and scatters the Saracen

population.

1270 Charles joins Louis IX at Tunis in the last crusade. After

death of Louis, Charles makes treaty with the ruler of Tunis

and exacts tribute. The French and Genoese fleets, returning,

are wrecked on the coast of Sicily. Charles seizes the ships

and plunders them for his own benefit.

1274 The Genoese, who have united with the citizens of other

Italian cities to resist the cruelties of Charles, defeat his

fleet.

1275 Pedro of Aragon, husband of Manfred’s daughter Constanza,

begins his attempt to gain the Sicilian throne.

1277 Charles assumes the government of the principality of

Achaia. He plans to attack the Eastern Empire, but the pope

forbids him to do so.

1281 The agitation in Sicily against Charles incited by Pedro

of Aragon and his emissary Giovanni di Procida reaches a high

pitch. The Byzantine emperor Michael also contributes to it.

1282 The Sicilian Vespers. Massacre of the French in Sicily.

Charles lays siege to Messina. Pedro arrives and forces him to

retire to Calabria. Pedro proclaimed king of Sicily. The pope

excommunicates him. The kingdom is separated.

FIRST SEPARATION OF THE KINGDOM

_Naples (House of Anjou, and the Pretenders of the Second House of Anjou)

(1282-1435 A.D.)_

The term “kingdom of Naples” is here used merely for

convenience. It was never officially employed except by Philip,

son of Charles V, and later by Joseph Bonaparte and Murat. The

continental portion of the Two Sicilies was always known as

“Sicily on this side the Pharos,” referring to the lighthouse

at Messina; the island portion was called “Sicily beyond the

Pharos.” So there were often two Sicilian kingdoms and two

kings of Sicily.

1283 Capture of Reggio by Pedro.

1284 Capture of Charles’ son Charles, prince of Salerno, by the

Aragonese admiral Roger de Lauria, in a sea-fight off Naples.

He is sent to Aragon a prisoner.

1285 Death of Charles I. His son, =Charles II=, still a

prisoner, is acknowledged king at Naples.

1287 Roger of Artois, regent of Naples, attempts to recover

Sicily, but Roger de Lauria destroys his fleet.

1288 Charles is liberated by the terms of a treaty between

Aragon and France. He assumes the throne of Naples but resigns

that of Sicily.

1289 Charles is released by the pope from his resignation of

the Sicilian crown. A two years’ truce is effected between

Naples and Sicily.

1292 Defeat of the Neapolitans by Roger de Lauria in Calabria.

1296 The Sicilians invade Calabria, and take Squillace and

other places.

1297 The pope invests Robert duke of Calabria with Sardinia and

Corsica.

1300 Siege of Messina by Robert. Disease compels him to abandon

it.

1309 Death of Charles, succeeded by his son =Robert the Wise=.

He assumes the government of Ferrara as viceroy of the pope.

1312 Robert, in an attempt to prevent the coronation of Henry

VII, seizes the principal fortresses of Rome.

1314 The pope makes Robert senator of Rome and viceroy of

Naples. Robert fails in an attempt to capture Sicily. He makes

a three years’ truce.

1317 Robert’s garrison is expelled from Ferrara.

1318 Robert relieves the Ghibelline siege of Genoa and is

appointed governor for ten years.

1322 Durazzo restored to the kingdom of Naples.

1325 Robert fails in an attempt to capture Palermo.

1338 Another attempt of Robert on Sicily ends in failure.

1343 Death of Robert, succeeded by his granddaughter =Joanna

I=. Her husband, Andrew of Hungary, is not crowned with her. He

allows his Hungarian followers to usurp all political power.

1345 Murder of Andrew of Hungary perhaps by order of Joanna.

His cousin, the duke of Durazzo, incites the Neapolitans

against the queen.

1347 King Louis of Hungary invades Naples to avenge his

brother’s death. Joanna flees to Avignon with her lover, Louis

of Tarentum, and marries him. She resigns her claims on Sicily

and makes treaty with the Sicilian king, Louis.

1348 Louis of Hungary holds Naples. He has the duke of Durazzo

put to death. The plague compels Louis to return to Hungary

and he takes Andrew’s son with him. Avignon is sold by Joanna

to the pope who gives =Louis of Tarentum= the title of king.

Joanna and Louis return to Naples. Louis takes the Free

Company, headed by Werner, into his employ.

1349 Werner deserts Louis for the Hungarians.

1350 Louis of Hungary again invades Naples.

1351 Peace between Joanna and Louis of Hungary, who leaves

Naples.

1353 Niccolo Acciajuoli successfully invades Sicily and

captures Palermo and other towns for the kingdom of Naples.

1357 Rebellion of the duke of Durazzo. Acciajuoli returns to

Naples.

1358 The duke of Durazzo’s rebellion is ended by his

reconciliation with the crown.

1362 Death of Louis of Naples. Joanna marries James of Majorca,

but he does not assume the title of king.

1365 Death of Niccolo Acciajuoli. The king of Sicily recovers

Palermo and Messina.

1372 Peace between Naples and Sicily.

1375 Death of James of Majorca.

1376 Joanna marries Otto, duke of Brunswick, who does not

assume the royal title.

1378 Joanna supports Clement VII against Urban VI.

1379 Urban proclaims a crusade against Clement and Joanna. He

induces Charles of Durazzo, Joanna’s heir, to attempt conquest

of Naples. To thwart him Joanna adopts Louis of Anjou, and

makes him her heir.

1380 Excommunication of Joanna.

1381 Conquest of Naples by =Charles (III) of Durazzo=, who

takes throne and imprisons Joanna and her husband. Clement

gives Joanna’s Provençal dominions to duke Louis of Anjou.

1382 Louis of Anjou as Joanna’s heir attacks Charles, who puts

Joanna to death and takes Sir John Hawkwood into his service.

1384 Death of the pretender _Louis I_ and disbandment of

his army. He leaves his claim to his son, _Louis II_.

Excommunication of Charles, who besieges the pope in Nocera.

1386 Charles, invited to take the Hungarian throne, leaves

Naples to his young son =Ladislaus=, under the regency of the

latter’s mother, Margaret. Charles assassinated in Hungary. The

pope gives the crown of Naples to Louis of Anjou.

1387 Contests in Naples between the supporters of Ladislaus

and Louis. This struggle continues for many years, wrecks the

kingdom, and destroys its influence in Italy.

1388 Urban marches upon Naples with an army to subdue the

factions. He is injured and his army disbands.

1389 Louis II is crowned king of Naples by the anti-pope

Clement at Avignon.

1397 Ladislaus recovers some of the territory that Louis has

occupied.

1399 Ladislaus recovers the city of Naples, and Louis returns

to Provence.

1408 Ladislaus takes possession of Rome.

1409 The adherents of Pope Alexander V expel Ladislaus from

Rome, and invite Louis of Anjou to prosecute his claim to

Naples.

1410 Louis’ fleet on the way to Naples is totally defeated by

the Genoese allies of Ladislaus.

1411 Excommunication of Ladislaus by Pope John XXIII. Louis

defeats Ladislaus at Roccasecca, but from want of supplies is

obliged to return to Provence.

1412 Ladislaus concludes a treaty of peace with John XXIII.

1413 Ladislaus again takes possession of Rome and most of the

papal states.

1414 Death of Ladislaus. He is succeeded by his sister Joanna

II. The Neapolitan army leaves Rome, retaining only the castle

of St. Angelo.

1415 Joanna marries Jacques de Bourbon, who takes all authority

from her.

1416 Joanna regains her power. Muzio Attendolo Sforza, her

constable, whom Jacques has imprisoned, is liberated and his

position is restored.

1417 Sforza expels Braccio from Rome. Death of Louis II. His

son _Louis III_ succeeds as pretender.

1419 Sforza recovers Spoleto from Braccio. Jacques de Bourbon

returns to France.

1420 Joanna makes Alfonso of Aragon her heir. She asks his

protection against Louis III, who is urged by pope Martin to

seize the throne of Naples.

1422 Alfonso threatens to recognise the anti-pope, and the pope

ceases his hostilities. Sforza and Braccio unite to defend

Naples.

1423 Joanna quarrels with Alfonso. She annuls the adoption and

substitutes Louis of Anjou in his place. War with Aragon breaks

out. The Genoese go to the assistance of Naples.

1424 The Genoese take Naples for Queen Joanna. Death of Muzio

Attendolo Sforza. His son Francesco succeeds to the leadership

of the Neapolitan forces. Death of Braccio.

1425 Francesco Sforza leaves the Neapolitans and enters service

of the duke of Milan.

1434 Death of Louis III. Joanna adopts his brother René as her

heir.

1435 Death of Joanna. =René of Anjou= succeeds, but Alfonso of

Aragon and Sicily claims the kingdom. The Visconti and Genoese

uphold René, who is a prisoner in the hands of the duke of

Burgundy.

_Sicily (House of Aragon) (1282-1435 A.D.)_

1282 After Pedro III of Aragon (=Pedro I= of Sicily) drives

Charles of Naples out of Sicily, a parliament at Palermo

chooses him king. The pope excommunicates him and his people.

1283 Pedro obliged to return to Aragon, which the pope has

given to Charles of Valois. He leaves the island to his wife

Constanza and his great admiral Roger de Lauria, who prosecutes

the war against Charles and wins a victory off Malta.

1284 Roger de Lauria captures the son of Charles and sends him

to Aragon.

1285 Death of Pedro. Aragon and Sicily are separated. Pedro’s

second son =James I= receives Sicily. Roger de Lauria captures

Gallipoli and Tarentum.

1287 Roger de Lauria destroys the fleet prepared by Robert of

Artois, regent of Naples, for the conquest of Sicily.

1289 Siege of Gaeta by Roger de Lauria. Two years’ truce

between Naples and Sicily.

1291 James returns to Aragon to succeed his brother Alfonso as

king, leaving his younger brother Frederick regent in Sicily.

The Sicilians seize some territory in Calabria.

1292 Roger de Lauria defeats the Neapolitans and then invades

the Eastern Empire and takes Scios.

1295 James of Aragon becomes reconciled to the pope; the French

claim on Aragon is annulled, and James binds himself by the

treaty of Agnani to restore Sicily to the Angevins. Frederick

and Constanza prepare to prevent this.

1296 =Frederick II= crowned king of Sicily. The Sicilians are

excommunicated, and invade Calabria.

1297 Roger de Lauria captures Otranto. He then deserts the

Sicilians and goes over to James of Aragon, who promises the

pope to make war on Frederick.

1298 Roger di Flor enters Frederick’s service.

1299 James of Aragon besieges Syracuse, and the duke of

Calabria invades Sicily with some success. Great victory of the

Sicilians at Falconara.

1300 The duke of Calabria besieges Messina. Disease ravages his

army and he is obliged to withdraw.

1302 A treaty of peace concluded between Charles II of Naples

and Frederick. The latter receives title of king of Trinacria

for life, and Charles has undisputed right to that of king of

Sicily. Frederick is to marry Charles’ daughter. The terms

of the treaty are not meant to be carried out, and Frederick

resumes the title of king of Sicily.

1303 Roger di Flor forms the Catalan Grand Company out of his

Sicilian mercenaries.

1313 Alliance of Frederick with the emperor Henry VII against

the pope and Robert of Naples.

1314 Sicily is attacked by Robert, who agrees to a three years’

truce.

1317 Robert again attacks Sicily and makes another truce.

1325 Robert attacks Sicily for the third time, but is obliged

to return to Naples after an attempt to capture Palermo.

1337 Death of Frederick. His son =Pedro II= succeeds. The

kingdom sinks into obscurity.

1338 Robert fails in a fourth attack on Sicily.

1339 Robert takes the Lipari Islands from Sicily.

1342 Death of Pedro. His son =Luis= succeeds under the regency

of Pedro’s brother Juan.

1354 Niccolo Acciajuoli, grand seneschal of Naples,

successfully invades Sicily on behalf of Queen Joanna. He

captures Palermo and other territory.

1355 Death of Luis. His younger brother =Frederick III=

succeeds, and to the duchy of Athens as well.

1357 Acciajuoli returns to Naples.

1365 Frederick recovers the territory seized by Acciajuoli on

the latter’s death.

1372 Treaty of peace between Naples and Sicily.

1376 Death of Frederick, succeeded by his daughter =Maria= and

her husband =Martin I=, son of Martin of Aragon.

1386 Nerio Acciajuoli, governor of Corinth, seizes the duchy of

Athens.

1402 Death of Maria; Martin sole sovereign.

1409 Martin goes to Sardinia for his father to quell an

insurrection. He dies. His father =Martin II= succeeds. Sicily

is united to Aragon with Martin I’s second wife Blanche of

Navarre as regent.

1410 Death of Martin, the last of his line. The thrones of

Aragon and Sicily remain vacant until

1412 when the succession is decided in favour of =Ferdinand (I)

the Just=, regent of Castile.

1416 Death of Ferdinand, succeeded by his son =Alfonso (I)

the Magnanimous=. He is a man of cultivated tastes and great

liberality.

1432 Alfonso arrives in Sicily with a fleet to force his claim

to the succession of Naples. In 1420 Queen Joanna made him her

heir, but in 1423 annulled the adoption.

1435 On death of Joanna, Alfonso besieges Gaeta. Naval battle

of Ponza. Alfonso and his brother captured by the Genoese

allies of René. They are sent as prisoners to Milan, where

Alfonso pleads his cause so successfully that Filippo Maria

Visconti, who fears the French influence, withdraws his support

from René, releases Alfonso and recognises him as the successor

to Joanna. Surrender of Gaeta to Alfonso’s brother Don Pedro.

SECOND UNION (1435-1458 A.D.)

1436 Alfonso is proclaimed king at Gaeta and other places.

1438 René is released by the duke of Burgundy and arrives at

Naples to prosecute his claim.

1440 Alfonso, having taken Aversa, lays siege to Naples.

1442 Surrender of Naples to Alfonso. He is now acknowledged by

the whole kingdom. René returns to Provence.

1443 Alfonso acknowledged by Pope Felix V. He attempts to wrest

the March of Ancona for the pope from Francesco Sforza, and

involves himself in a war with the Italian states. Florence and

Venice side with Sforza.

1447 Alfonso claims the duchy of Milan on death of Filippo

Maria Visconti.

1450 Alfonso makes peace with Florence and Venice.

1455 Alfonso joins the Holy League against the Turks.

1457 Alfonso goes to war with Genoa.

1458 Death of Alfonso. His natural son =Ferdinand I= receives

Naples. Sicily, with Aragon and Sardinia, goes to Alfonso’s

brother Juan, king of Navarre.

SECOND SEPARATION

_Naples--the Bastard Line of Aragon (1458-1503 A.D.)_

1459 Ferdinand’s cruelties cause the nobles to ask the help of

John, governor of Genoa, and son of René of Anjou, against the

king. The terms of the Peace of Lodi prevent Francesco Sforza

from lending assistance.

1460 Defeat of Ferdinand on the Sarno. The pope and Sforza now

send assistance.

1461 Scanderbeg, with a force of Albanians, comes to the

assistance of Ferdinand.

1462 Ferdinand defeats John at Troja, and forces him to give up

his attempt on Naples.

1470 Ferdinand joins the Holy League of the pope against the

Turks.

1478 Ferdinand joins Sixtus IV in his war on the Florentines.

1479 Ferdinand makes peace with Lorenzo de’ Medici, which

arouses the pope against him.

1480 The Turks capture Otranto. Sixtus and Ferdinand become

reconciled.

1481 Otranto recovered from the Turks by a general league of

Christian princes.

1485 Oppressed by taxation, the Neapolitan nobles revolt

against Ferdinand.

1486 Innocent VIII takes the side of the Neapolitan nobles.

They send for René II, duke of Lorraine, grandson of René of

Anjou, with offers of the crown. René delays acceptance and

the opportunity passes. Aragon, Milan, and Florence uphold

Ferdinand. Lorenzo de’ Medici finally reconciles the nobles to

Ferdinand, who breaks his promises and punishes them cruelly.

1492 Piero de’ Medici makes alliance with Ferdinand.

1493 Alarmed at this alliance, Lodovico (Il Moro) Sforza

invites Charles VIII of France to invade Naples in the

interests of the Angevin claim.

1494 Death of Ferdinand as he is preparing to resist the French

invasion. His son =Alfonso II= succeeds. Charles enters Italy.

The Neapolitan fleet is defeated off Genoa.

1495 Alfonso abdicates in favour of his son =Ferdinand II=

and retires to a monastery. Charles enters Naples; Ferdinand

flees. Lodovico now becomes alarmed at Charles’ progress and

forms a league against him. Charles leaves Naples in charge of

a viceroy and hurriedly returns to France. Ferdinand returns to

Naples. Most of his kingdom returns to his allegiance.

1496 The viceroy dies and the French garrison leaves Naples.

Venice seizes Brindisi and Otranto for debt. Death of

Ferdinand, succeeded by his uncle =Frederick II=.

1501 Louis XII of France and Ferdinand of Spain and Sicily

agree by Treaty of Granada to conquer Naples and divide it

between them. The conquest is easily accomplished by the duke

of Nemours and Gonsalvo de Cordova. Frederick surrenders his

rights to the French king and is given the duchy of Anjou.

1502 France and Spain begin to quarrel over the partition of

Naples.

1503 Ferdinand adds Naples to the kingdom of Sicily.

_Sicily--the Royal Line of Aragon (1458-1503 A.D.)_

1458 =Juan of Aragon=, hitherto known as king of Navarre,

receives Sicily “beyond the Pharos,” as part of his dominions

on death of his brother Alfonso. Henceforth it is ruled by

viceroys.

1479 Death of Juan, succeeded by his son =Ferdinand the

Catholic=.

1501 Treaty of Granada and conquest of Naples by Ferdinand and

Louis XII.

1502 Quarrel of France and Spain over the division of Naples.

The pope and Cesare Borgia side with France.

1503 Gonsalvo de Cordova wins several victories over the

French, and finally utterly defeats them at Mola. The kingdoms

of Sicily “on this side the Pharos” (Naples) and Sicily “beyond

the Pharos” are united under Ferdinand, and the king is known

as =Ferdinand III=.

THIRD UNION

_The Royal Line of Spain (1503-1516 A.D.)_

1504 Peace between France and Spain. Louis gives up all claim

on Naples.

_The Austro-Spanish Dynasty (1516-1700 A.D.)_

1516 Death of Ferdinand. Succeeded by his grandson =Charles IV=

(V of Germany). A revolt in Sicily is put down the following

year. Sicily is used as a starting-point for the African wars.

1554 Charles gives his son Philip the title of king of Naples,

on Philip’s marriage to Mary of England.

1556 Abdication of Charles V. =Philip I= (II of Spain) receives

the Two Sicilies as part of his dominions. The kingdom becomes

merely a Spanish province. Pope Paul IV wishes to drive the

Spaniards from Naples and makes a league with Henry II of

France for that purpose. Francis, duke of Guise, grandson of

René II of Lorraine, plans to obtain the crown of Naples.

1557 The duke of Guise marches on Naples and lays siege to

Civitella. The duke of Alva, Philip’s viceroy, defeats him, and

he retreats northward. Henry II recalls him to France.

1565 The Inquisition is in full force throughout Philip’s

dominions. Reformed opinions have spread rapidly in Naples.

1598 Death of Philip, succeeded by his son =Philip II= (III of

Spain). The national assemblies are suppressed.

1618 Osuna, viceroy of Naples, plots with the governor of Milan

and Spanish ambassador at Venice, to seize the throne of the

Two Sicilies and destroy Venice. The Venetian Council of Ten

frustrates the plot.

1621 Death of Philip, succeeded by his son =Philip III= (IV of

Spain). The people are heavily taxed.

1647 Insurrection of Masaniello at Naples over a tax on fruit.

The duke of Arcos, the viceroy, is driven into the castle of

St. Elmo. Insurrection at Palermo. The duke of Arcos makes

terms with the people. Assassination of Masaniello. The revolt

subsides, but soon breaks out again. Don John of Austria sent

to preserve order, but is forced to withdraw. The popular

leader, Gennaro Annese, sends for the duke of Guise, who

readily responds. But he ignores Annese, and the latter betrays

Naples to Don John. Guise is sent a prisoner to Spain. Annese

put to death.

1665 Death of Philip, succeeded by his young son =Charles V=

(II of Spain) under the regency of his mother, Maria Anna of

Austria.

1672 Rising in Messina against the oppressions of the Spanish

governor. He is driven from the city.

1674 The people of Messina send to Louis XIV (whom Spain has

taken sides against in the Dutch war) and proclaims him king

of Sicily. Louis sends a fleet to Sicily. His troops occupy

Messina.

1676 French naval victories over the Dutch allies of Spain off

Stromboli, Catania, and Palermo.

1678 The Dutch war settled by the peace of Nimeguen. Louis

withdraws his troops from Sicily. The Sicilians are now more

oppressed than ever.

1693 Great earthquake in Sicily. Messina, Catania, and Syracuse

nearly destroyed by a violent eruption of Mount Etna.

1694 Great earthquake at Naples.

1700 Death of Charles. End of the Austro-Spanish dynasty. The

Two Sicilies acknowledge =Philip IV= (V of Spain) grandson of

Louis XIV.

_From the End of the Austro-Spanish Dynasty to the Peace of Utrecht

(1700-1713 A.D.)_

1701 The emperor Leopold claims the Two Sicilies for the

archduke Charles. The war of the Spanish Succession begins.

1702 Philip arrives at Naples and marches northward.

1706 After the battle of Turin the French are driven out of

Italy and =Charles VI= is proclaimed king of the Two Sicilies.

1708 Pope Clement XI invests Charles with the kingdom of the

Two Sicilies.

THIRD SEPARATION (1713-1720 A.D.)

1713 Peace of Utrecht. Charles VI (now emperor Charles VI)

receives the dominions of Sicily on this side the Pharos

(Naples) together with Milan and Sardinia. The island of Sicily

is given to =Victor Amadeus= of Savoy with the title of king.

1717 Philip V takes Sardinia from the Austrians.

1718 Philip invades Sicily. Victor Amadeus sides with him,

hoping to acquire Lombardy. Formation of the Quadruple Alliance

against Philip.

1719 Philip is driven from Sicily by the allies and negotiates

for peace.

FOURTH UNION (1720-1806 A.D.)

1720 Philip accepts the terms of the alliance. Victor Amadeus

is compelled to exchange Sicily for Sardinia. Charles VI is

once more king of the Two Sicilies, which becomes part of the

German Empire.

1733 War of the Polish Succession begins. Philip V leagues with

France and Sardinia to drive the Austrians from Italy. Philip’s

son Don Charles, the duke of Parma and heir to Tuscany, is to

receive the Two Sicilies.

_The Bourbons (1734-1806 A.D.)_

1734 Don Charles enters Naples and is proclaimed king. An army

arrives from Spain to his assistance. Defeat of the Austrians

at Bitonto and capture of Gaeta by Don Charles.

1735 Don Charles crosses to Italy. The island surrenders to him

and he is crowned as =Charles VII=.

1738 The war is settled by the Treaty of Vienna. Charles VII

acknowledged king of the Two Sicilies and gives up his claim to

Tuscany and to Parma.

1740 Charles joins the alliance against Maria Theresa in the

struggle for the Austrian succession.

1743-1748 The Two Sicilies compelled to remain neutral in the

war of the Austrian Succession by the presence of a British

fleet.

1759 Charles inherits the throne of Spain and resigns the Two

Sicilies to his young son =Ferdinand IV=.

1767 The Jesuits are expelled from the kingdom.

1782 The Inquisition is abolished.

1796 Ferdinand makes a treaty of peace with the French Republic.

1798 The French army invades Neapolitan territory.

1799 Surrender of Naples. Ferdinand flees to Sicily. Naples

is formed into the Parthenopæan Republic by the French. The

English fleet under Nelson appears and assists a Calabrian army

under Cardinal Ruffo to regain Naples and restore Ferdinand.

Ruffo works a barbarous vengeance on the republicans.

1805 The emperor Napoleon makes a treaty of neutrality with

Ferdinand. Terrible earthquake at Naples.

FOURTH SEPARATION

_The Kingdom of Naples (1806-1815 A.D.)_

1806 Napoleon forces Ferdinand to flee and makes his brother

=Joseph Bonaparte= king of Naples. He makes many reforms and

starts to suppress the brigands, who under the Bourbons have

overrun the kingdom. Ferdinand remains ruler of Sicily. The

French defeated by the British at Maida. Queen Caroline of

Sicily organises an insurrection in Calabria.

1808 Joseph Bonaparte is transferred to the throne of Spain and

=Joachim Murat= is made king of Naples. He calls himself king

=Joachim Napoleon=. He takes Capri from the British.

1810 Murat attempts to invade Sicily, but is prevented by the

British.

1811 The guerilla warfare against the brigands ends in their

almost entire extermination. This makes Murat unpopular.

1813 Murat becomes offended at Napoleon during the Russian

campaign and returns to Naples.

1814 Murat makes alliance with Austria and seizes the

principality of Benevento.

1815 Murat declares his intention of restoring the unity of

Italy. The Austrians proceed against him and he is totally

defeated at Tolentino and escapes to France. After Waterloo

he goes to Corsica and attempts to regain Naples, is taken

prisoner in Calabria and executed.

_The Kingdom of Sicily (1806-1815 A.D.)_

1806-1815 Ferdinand continues to rule in Sicily.

FIFTH UNION

_The Bourbon Dynasty (1815-1860 A.D.)_

1815 Ferdinand re-established in the Two Sicilies by the

Congress of Vienna. He now calls himself =Ferdinand I of the

Two Sicilies= and returns to his tyrannical rule.

1819 The Society of the Carbonari becomes powerful. General

Pépé joins it.

1820 Sudden revolt of the Carbonari under Pépé. Ferdinand is

compelled to grant a new constitution.

1821 At conference of Laibach, the great powers decide to

suppress the revolutionary movement in Naples. An Austrian army

invades the kingdom; Pépé is defeated and the constitutional

government overthrown.

1825 Death of Ferdinand, succeeded by his son =Francis I=.

1828 An insurrection of the Carbonari is suppressed.

1830 Death of Francis. His son =Ferdinand II=, “=King Bomba=,”

succeeds.

1840 Settlement with England of the dispute concerning the

sulphur trade.

1844 Execution of the Bandiera in Calabria.

1848 Revolutionary outbreaks begin at Palermo. Ferdinand

grants a constitutional government to his subjects. Violent

outbreaks in Naples. The national guard is almost annihilated

by the royal troops and the _lazzaroni_. The constitution is

withdrawn. A Neapolitan army under General Pépé marches to the

assistance of Charles Albert. Ferdinand bombards Messina to

bring the people to terms, and earns the sobriquet of “King

Bomba.”

1849 The French and English ambassadors attempt to mediate

between Ferdinand and the people of Sicily; the latter reject

the offered terms. Palermo surrenders. Ferdinand sends an army

to assist Pius IX, but it is badly defeated by Garibaldi at

Palestrina and Velletri. The liberal leaders arrested in Naples.

1850 The liberal leaders condemned to imprisonment for life.

1855 The allied powers--England, France, and Sardinia--protest

in vain to Ferdinand against his misgovernment.

1856 England and France withdraw their ambassadors from the Two

Sicilies. Milano attempts to assassinate the king.

1858 Amnesty granted to political offenders.

1859 Death of Ferdinand II, succeeded by his son =Francis II=.

Diplomatic relations resumed.

1860 The foreign ambassadors petition France for reform. A

revolutionary movement begins in Palermo, Messina, and Catania.

Garibaldi arrives at Marsala with five thousand volunteers

from Genoa and assumes title “Dictator of Sicily.” He takes

Palermo and defeats the royal troops at Milazzo. All Sicily

except Messina surrenders to him. Francis promises reforms.

State of siege declared at Naples. Garibaldi refuses to

obey Victor Emmanuel’s command to stop. He enters Messina,

and the Neapolitans agree to evacuate. Francis restores the

constitution of 1848. The count of Trani is proclaimed king

by the army. Garibaldi crosses to Italy and defeats the royal

army at Reggio and San Giovanni. Francis flees to Gaeta,

and Garibaldi enters Naples, assumes the dictatorship, and

institutes reforms. He defeats the royalists on the Volturno.

Victor Emmanuel enters the Abruzzi. The kingdom votes for

annexation to Piedmont. The Two Sicilies is annexed to the

kingdom of Italy.

[Illustration]

[Illustration: ITALY BEFORE 1797.

BORMAY & CO.]