THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THE SPECIAL SENSES
Diseases of this system and its specialized end organs of sense in the
eye, ear and nose are recognized by veterinarians as occurring among
domesticated animals, in which however they are by no means so common as
in human beings. Because of the natural reserve of wild beasts and
because their habits and manners are not so familiar to the observer, it
would seem that clinical evidences of disease of the nervous system are
rarest among them. The brain, cord and nerves of our specimens have not
been studied with the minuteness accorded to the examination of other
viscera since we have not had the personnel to devote the time to this
really colossal undertaking, our work with these tissues being directed
toward the accumulation and preservation of apparently normal brains
from every species; there are now some nine hundred brains on the
shelves. However, whenever the history of the animal before death has
suggested that disturbance in the nerve organs might exist, they have
been dissected grossly and examined microscopically. Had we subjected
all our material to microscopic study it is quite possible that we might
have discovered more lesions. This is still possible by reason of our
gross material and autopsy protocols.
We have been fortunate in having Dr. W. B. Cadwalader, Secretary of the
Society, and Dr. J. H. W. Rhein with their broad experience in
neurology, take interest in this phase of the subject and study our
material. The number of cases in which definite lesions have been found
is surprisingly small, so that no generalizations can be attempted
except perhaps in a negative sense. After the study of thirty-nine
brains and cords from animals in whose history some suggestion of
nervous system disease existed, Doctor Cadwalader could find
abnormalities in only twenty-two cases, mostly however of a very
indefinite character. This observer further points out that in his
experience with our material, his observations of our animals and a
review of the literature, he is unable to find satisfactory instances of
the so-called system or tract diseases such as tabes and lateral
sclerosis. This he suggests is due to the absence of arterial sclerosis
in the lower types of brain, intimating further that perhaps the
relation of syphilis to human arteriosclerosis and degenerative nervous
system disease is thereby strengthened. These facts being true it is not
astonishing that massive cerebral apoplexy and cerebral softening do not
occur[56]. The lesions that have been found were either definitely
infectious, as encephalitis or acute septicemia, tuberculosis,
poliomyelitis, meningitis, or the minute hemorrhages and vague
granularities or vacuolizations of nerve cells in toxemic conditions.
The material being limited and broad statements being impossible, the
important cases will be cited individually or in small groups.
CONVULSIONS.
Before entering upon the special subjects, a word might be added
concerning the clinical evidences of neurologic conditions as seen in
the Garden. Perhaps the most common and certainly the most definite
clinical sign of nervous disturbance is the convulsion. General spasms
or fits are fairly common among the carnivores and monkeys, in the
former most often associated with intestinal parasitism, in the latter
with no especial relationship unless it be renal disease. The
convulsions have been general, with and without the preservation of
consciousness. No cases of focal or Jacksonian spasms are recorded
although we shall cite two instances of tuberculoma reasonably near the
motor area in the cerebrum. The exact cause of many cases cannot be set
down since intracranial disease does not often exist.
Intoxication from chemical products of disturbed digestion or from worms
themselves is the usual explanation of spasms associated with intestinal
parasitism; if this be true, intoxication in the absence of demonstrable
parasites may also be the cause in certain cases of enteritis. However
we have seen fits when enteritis, parasites and renal disease were not
found. If these were true epilepsy, they are instances of perhaps the
rarest disease of animals, which I do not presume to diagnose.
Convulsive seizures in herbivorous animals are exceedingly rare although
I have seen clonic movements of a spasmodic character in antelopes and
deer shortly before death from gastroenteritis. Ataxia and
incoördination are much more common. Birds, notably parrots and soft-
billed insectivorous varieties, are not uncommonly afflicted with fits
but as they are rarely observed except by the keeper the exact nature is
difficult to describe. Those seen by the writer have been of two kinds.
The first and more common consists of falling from the perch in a dazed
and stiff condition, with dilated fixed eyes, stiffened and spread-out
legs and wings. Recovery follows shortly and the bird resumes its perch
either in excitement, or slowly and uncertainly, perhaps to have another
attack in a few minutes. These cases, in the few instances in which they
could be followed, were due to faulty feeding and enteritis and showed
either nothing or a mild congestion of the brain. The other variety of
fit is epileptiform, a rapidly developing clonic spasm of all parts of
the body with a tendency to opisthotonos. In one case of this character,
a parrot, no lesions were found in the brain, an enteritis existing
however. Another case concerned a pet Indian Shama I had at my home. He
had been doing well and singing loudly, until one evening he was allowed
to remain in a tobacco-smoke-filled room whereupon next morning he
stopped eating and singing. Later that day the clonic form of
convulsions appeared, growing worse for thirty-six hours or until death.
At autopsy no food was found in the alimentary tract. The brain and cord
were congested grossly, while minutely, perivascular hemorrhages and
marked vacuolization and diffuseness of staining were found in ganglion
cells of the bulb, pons, anterior spinal horns and in the pyramidal
cells of the cerebellum. Happening so promptly after exposure to tobacco
smoke, when the bird was doing well, I venture to associate the two.
ATAXIA.
Incoördination and ataxia are so often observed and under so many
conditions that it is well nigh impossible in any individual case to
give an adequate explanation before death. They are in all probability
the expression of sickness and nothing more in the vast majority of
instances. When they are observed in such cases as the tyromata of the
cerebrum or in certain of the ungulates, they may mean something
definite. In this latter order and to a less extent in carnivores, one
frequently sees weakness and uncertainty of gait in the hind quarters,
the legs being usually coördinate but tending to give way under the
weight of the body.
From a study of veterinary literature and our own material it would seem
that this may have many explanations. In the first place, it may simply
indicate weakness expressing itself in the heaviest part of the body,
the animal inclining its femora forward to assist in supporting the
heavy abdomen. It may be an expression of abdominal pain, the recti
becoming rigid and the quadriceps of the thigh participating in the
protection of the belly. Almost any of the intra-abdominal conditions,
gastroenteritis, mesenteric thrombosis, peritonitis, or diseases of the
psoas muscle and lumbar vertebra, might occasion this attempt at
support. Disease of gluteal muscles, as hemoglobinuric fever, may
produce a palsy of the whole pelvic girdle with weakness of the hind
legs. There may be associated with the weakness of the hind legs a
humped-up condition of the lumbar spine and retraction of the abdomen,
sometimes called “tucked in;” in two definite cases of this last sort we
have found renal pelvic stones and once intestinal sand. Some instances
are undoubtedly due to meningomyelitis or to poliomyelitis and at the
place for this subject a few cases will be discussed. Meningitis has not
been found in the ungulates showing this weakness. There have been
however cases of ataxia in the hind legs of deer and antelopes, which
did not have a ready explanation fitting in with the foregoing. Two of
these we thought might be due to certain grasses in the enclosures and
have changed the exhibition spaces. No conclusion can be drawn from this
as yet. No enterocolic disease could be found nor any lesion of the
sciatic nerve and lumbar enlargement of the cord. We have however
discovered sciatic neuritis in a case like hemoglobinuric fever in a
Burchell’s zebra. The history of the animal is similar to that of this
disease in domestic animals in so far as symptomatology is concerned; in
so far as confinement in a stall is concerned no data is at hand but
death occurred on December 26th in the zebra house whereas he had been
accustomed to go out into the yard all summer and autumn.
MENINGITIS.
The coverings of the brain and cord have not been the seat of the well
known acute inflammations seen in domestic horses and cattle. Eleven
instances of disease in the meninges are recorded but, with very few
exceptions, have been accompanied by other lesions offering a ready
etiological explanation. These cases are however not very instructive
except perhaps three in monkeys where the meningitis seemed to be
secondary to gastroenterocolitis. In one case a colon bacillus was
apparently responsible, in a second no bacteriology was undertaken and a
third was too rotten for the results to be dependable. A focus of
infection aside from the intestinal area could not be found. The only
noteworthy finding was the scantiness of the cerebrospinal fluid and the
almost exclusive subpial exudate; these facts would seem to strengthen
the thought that the virus came through the blood stream. Another case
was due to extension, through the temporal bone to the lateral sinus, of
a necrotizing process beginning in the buccal muscles or parotid gland;
the necrosis bacillus and a host of Gram-positive cocci were found. A
Canadian porcupine suffered with a mucopurulent nasopharyngitis which
involved the deep sinuses, the middle ear and the temporal bone; smears
from the pus over the corresponding cerebral hemisphere and from the
nasal pus showed pneumococcus forms; the lungs were not affected. The
llama which showed the intracapsular fracture of the femur (page 344)
had also hemorrhage into a fibrinous exudate in the mastoid cells with
deep opaque congestion and edema of the pia above the petrous portion of
the temporal bone. Decomposition precluded satisfactory bacteriology but
it is suggested that probably injury in falling started a hemorrhage in
the ear upon which a secondary infection was implanted. What seems a
true meningitis secondary to otitis media and mastoid suppuration was
seen in a marmoset.
A case of the well known but obscure condition known as chronic
productive pachymeningitis was observed in a badger. Although it cannot
be explained it is cited as a matter of record and interest.
American Badger (_Taxidea taxus_). Pachymeningitis externa. The dura
is fast to the skull and cannot be removed. Scattered irregularly over
the entire inner surface of the skull are pale pinhead sized hard
nodules. It is impossible to tell if they are in the dura or the bone.
The brain shows engorged vessels but is otherwise negative.
Two instances of hemorrhagic pachymeningitis associated with cretinism
were seen in wolf cubs. The following notes illustrate both cases.
American Gray Wolf (_Canis mexicanus_). Cretinism. Hemorrhagic
external pachymeningitis with craniotabes. Upon removing the calvarium
a marked craniotabes of the under surface is found and with it a deep
red and purple staining of outside of dura and inner table of skull.
These changes are most marked along the longitudinal sinus at internal
occipital protuberance and along left parietal region. Dura on left
side is distinctly congested. This is also true of pia. The brain and
its base seem normal.
Cyst of the brain. A sooty mangabey (_Cercocebus fuliginosus_) had been
in the Garden for about four months and was apparently an adult normal
animal. It died rather suddenly after a distinct convulsion with
semiconsciousness. At autopsy in addition to a nephritis, a large cyst
was found to occupy the posterior third of the left hemisphere. Its
walls were composed of a thin (one-sixteenth inch) rim of cerebral
substance and the meninges; its contents were clear. The notes do not
record any examination for parasites. This monkey showed no localizing
signs.
TUBERCULOSIS.
Gross tuberculous lesions have been found in the brain in several
specimens with generalized disease but only two cases are of special
interest. A Rhesus macaque (_Macacus rhesus_) suffering with generalized
but chiefly lymphatic tuberculosis, showed a large plaque on the
external surface of the dura over the vertex where it was adherent to a
yellow, fairly firm nodule about ten mm. across. This nodule was deeply
imbedded in the brain substance, barely projecting above the surface,
generally spherical and not encapsulated. There was no peripheral
reactive zone. The meninges were not altered anywhere except as above.
The blood vessels were not especially congested. The pia arachnoid
contained no excess of fluid but the summits of the convolutions were
flattened. The mass was located in the posterior frontal convolution,
near the longitudinal fissure, occupying nearly its whole breadth and
penetrating about one centimetre. It did not enter the fornicate gyrus.
There was a completely degenerated core about two mm. across. The
adjacent bone was beginning to erode. No localizing signs were reported.
The other case, that of a young Drill baboon (_Papio leucophæus_), was
studied with Dr. J. H. W. Rhein and can be reported in the following
condensed notes.
The baboon appeared to be perfectly well until October 18, 1906, when
some lameness in the anterior and posterior extremities on the right
side was observed. This gradually increased, and was associated with
general convulsions. On November 30th, I made an examination and found
the following condition: The right upper and lower extremities were
weaker than on the left side. On the left side the power seemed to be
fair. He was able to hold on to an iron bar with the fingers of the
upper and lower extremities on the right side but in withdrawing the
bar it was not difficult to overcome his grasp and the power on this
side was distinctly less than on the left. The movements of the right
arm were somewhat ataxic, as observed when he made efforts to grasp
the bar. The knee jerks were increased on both sides and appeared to
be equally so. There was no evidence of facial palsy. He moved both
sides of the face equally well at times when he expressed anger or
fear in the facial expression. The tongue seemed to be retracted
equally well on both sides. Tests for hemianopsia were, of course,
unsatisfactory, but he seemed to recognize readily the approach of the
iron bar from both sides. There was no disturbance of the rectal or
bladder functions, although at autopsy the bladder was full. Death
occurred on December 2, 1906. At the autopsy the brain and spinal
cord, with the other organs were examined. The dura was adherent to
the left side of the brain, in the prefrontal region, in the upper
third and when the brain was removed it was observed that an area of
softening lay beneath this point. A small caseous mass was also
observed at the base of the right lung, and beneath the diaphragm on
the right side was a large abscess, partly involving the liver. The
tubercle bacillus was found in the pus removed from the area of
softening beneath the left cortex. A study of the brain revealed the
presence of three foci of softening. The largest one was situated in
the left hemisphere in the prefrontal region, and extended from just
beneath the cortex in the upper third of the region, downward almost
to the base of the brain. This area was cylindrical in shape and
measured 2.5 cm. in its greatest diameter. The area of softening
consisted of caseated material and pus, in which the tubercle bacillus
was found present. The second area of softening was found on the right
side of the brain, much smaller in extent and measuring 1.5 cm.
diameter. There was no pus present in this area, but it consisted of a
circumscribed mass of caseous material. The apex of this area of
softening was just beneath the cortex in the prefrontal region on the
right side, and in the removal of the brain the cortex was torn just
above this area of caseation. This point was .5 cm. in front of the
central fissure and about 1 cm. below the superior surface of the
brain. A third area of softening was observed posteriorly, in the
white substance, in the parieto-occipital region, and measured about 6
mm. in diameter. A study of the sections of the brain shows
beautifully the extent of the destruction of the brain tissue. The
optic thalamus and the lenticular nucleus, and the posterior limb of
the internal capsule, on the left side, are destroyed in part. The
anterior limb of the internal capsule in one section, is preserved,
notwithstanding the fact that the optic thalamus on the same side has
been in large part destroyed. In spite of the fact that the posterior
limb of the internal capsule has been destroyed at some levels, it is
interesting to note that the degeneration of the pyramidal tracts of
the pons and medulla on the opposite side and the lateral columns of
the spinal cord are not intensely—although distinctly—degenerated. It
is very interesting to note that in view of the severe damage to the
posterior limb of the internal capsule on the left side, there was not
more paralysis, for it will be remembered that there was considerable
power of prehension in the right upper and lower extremities.
ENCEPHALOMYELITIS, POLIOMYELITIS.
While, as has been stated, no well defined cases of the recognized
meningocephalic infectious diseases have been observed in the Garden,
there have been several animals in whose cord and brain changes were
found comparable to the infections disease known in man as
poliomyelitis. On several occasions since this disease was recognized as
occurring in epidemic form it has been observed that domestic mammals
and fowls suffered from a similar condition. The general vicinity of
Philadelphia had a low grade epidemic among children during the years
from 1907 to 1912 and it is during this time that most of the cases of a
comparable character were observed among our animals. It is to be
emphasized that attacks were entirely sporadic and the cases did not
appear to bear a relation to one another. This character is quite in
accord with certain of the outbreaks in man. However we cannot state
that the disease is exactly the same as seen in the human being for, as
will be noted in the cited examples, all the pathological features were
not fulfilled.
It is not always possible to differentiate between myelitic disease and
polyneuritis of man or animals. Studied symptomatically the cases in our
records which proved to have degenerative and infiltrative lesions
comparable to poliomyelitis showed gradual but progressive paralysis
expressed by inability to move rather than disinclination—in other words
loss of power rather than restriction because of pain. None of the
animals in which poliomyelitis was demonstrated have exhibited the
ataxia of the hind legs discussed on a previous page nor have we found
myelitic lesions in the few cords from animals suffering with this
weakness. The nearest approach to a cerebrospinal explanation for
weakness and palsy was in a zebra which died with constipation, acute
nephritis, and hepatic perilobular fibrosis. In this animal a pronounced
subpial mononuclear infiltrate was observed, in places involving the
superficial parts of the cerebral gray matter, especially about the
congested vessels of this area. This condition was present to a slight
degree in the cord. There was then a low grade meningoencephalitis but
no nerve cell changes. So far as is known to me no animal showing a
definite local paresis or paraplegia recovered from the attack; had this
occurred we might have observed residual palsies.
In so far as lesions are concerned they are perhaps best illustrated by
the appended cases, but since even in them there is a lack of
uniformity, it may be well to discuss the basic changes of all. The
outstanding abnormality in the microscopic anatomy is the richness of
small mononuclear cells beneath the pia, both spinal and cerebral,
around the smaller blood vessels and to a lesser extent around the
multipolar cells of the gray matter. These do not present the dense
colonization often seen in the acute cases of infantile paralysis in man
but are prominent in comparison to normal nervous tissue. Hemorrhages or
at least small groups of erythrocytes outside of blood vessels are seen
here and there. Vacuolization of ganglion cells is variable, being
prominent in some, trifling or absent in others. Glial proliferation is
often quite marked, and in one case to be cited seems the prominent
lesion.
The animals in which meningopoliomyelitis has been found were three
monkeys, two Canadian lynx, a bear and a raccoon; about a score of cords
from other animals with some kind of palsy have been studied
microscopically without discovering it. The following cases illustrate
our material. The only instance of two cases in close relation concerns
the lynx (_Felis canadensis_). They occupied the same cage and died
twelve days apart. No symptoms were recorded until a few days before
death when a general paralysis appeared, deepening to completeness on
the day of death. No case occurred in neighboring cages. Doctor Rhein
studied all these cases, and his notes are used for these records.
Portions of the lumbar and cervical enlargements and of the thoracic
regions of the cord were stained with hemalum and acid fuchsin and with
thionin. The pia was slightly infiltrated. There was some cellular
infiltration of the anterior septum, and the vessels here showed an
increase in the nuclei of the walls and a slight perivascular
infiltration. The pial infiltration seemed to be equally distributed in
the entire circumference of the cord, although perhaps a little more
marked over the anterior and posterior septa. The vessels of the gray
matter were congested and the walls of the vessels in most part showed a
proliferation of the nuclei. There were a few small hemorrhages into the
gray matter, probably agonal. As compared with the human cord and the
cords of monkeys, antelopes and dogs, there was an unusually large
number of glia nuclei, which, if found in the human cord, would be
looked upon as a proliferation process. In some cases these nuclei were
heaped together in masses, and were evidently pathological. There was
also, about the ganglion cells, some pericellular round cell
infiltration, and this was more marked around a few cells which were
almost entirely destroyed. The ganglion cells themselves were swollen.
Some showed eccentric nuclei, and many of them stained poorly, while one
or two showed distinct vacuolization. In one field a ganglion cell was
partly destroyed by a recent hemorrhage. There were, however, a number
of cells which appeared normal. This process seemed to be fairly
distinct in the lumbar and cervical enlargements, but was not clearly
demonstrated in the sections from the dorsal region. The cellular
infiltration of the horns was evidently not leucocytic, but presented
the appearance of a connective tissue proliferation. Although these are
not the exact lesions found in poliomyelitis in the human animal, they
are at least suggestive of the same process since the infiltrating cells
are of the lymphatic or connective tissue types. There is no acute
inflammatory leucocytic infiltrate.
A weeper cebus (_Cebus capucinus_) ever since he was received acted in
such a peculiar manner, seeming to have only partial control of his
movements, that he was known as the “Crazy Monkey.” There was no history
of illness before death. Pathological diagnosis: Chronic enterocolitis,
chronic adhesive pericarditis, early interstitial change in kidney,
edema of lungs, meningitis and poliomyelitis. The pia of the paracentral
cortex was thickened and was the seat of a round cell infiltration of
moderate degree, the cells being of the mononuclear type. The blood
vessels of the cortex were congested and the nuclei of the walls were
increased. The round cell infiltration of the pia had in some places
extended into the cortical layers. The pia surrounding the medulla
oblongata was also the seat of a slight round cell infiltration. The pia
of the spinal cord, however, did not show any cellular infiltration. The
cells of the anterior horns of the spinal gray matter were extensively
diseased, being swollen in places, some surrounded by a glia
proliferation and many with marked vacuolization.
A common raccoon (_Procyon lotor_) was observed in the laboratory to
have complete paralysis of the anterior and partial paralysis of the
posterior extremities. This latter was almost complete in muscles
controlling the feet, while the thigh and hip muscles showed some
irregular incoördinate movements. Respiration shallow but regular.
History shows that the power of the extremities began to fail about a
month before death and was absolutely lost in the fore extremities three
days before the animal was killed. Diagnosis: Poliomyelitis. Examination
of the central nervous system showed the presence of marked round cell
infiltration of pia of cortex and of spinal cord, more particularly in
the lower thoracic and lumbar regions. Ganglion cells in the lumbar
region were markedly diseased. There were numerous old and fresh
hemorrhages and a moderate degree of round cell infiltration in the
anterior horns. Two young of this animal, born three months before its
death, showed weakness and gradual increasing paralysis of their
extremities beginning when three months old (that is at the time of the
death of their mother), and lasting until their death, one in the
seventh and one in the eighth month of life. These were found not to
have changes in the central nervous system, but there was sufficient
rachitis to account for this paralysis.
The only tumor of the central nervous system found among these animals
occurred in an Undulated Grass Parrakeet (_Melopsittacus undulatus_).
The gross notes are very vague but the microscopy is suggestive of a
glioma. The growth in the brain consists of large irregular masses of
large cells with vesicular nuclei and pale homogeneous protoplasm.
“Scattered between these accumulations are irregular strands of spindle
cells, with spindle-shaped nuclei, taking the hematoxylin very deeply.
The supporting tissue is almost without cells, taking the eosin faintly,
and is quite loosely arranged. No fibrils are seen among the cells. The
blood vessels are congested, and at one place there is a small
hemorrhage. The vessel walls are the same as the rest of the connective
tissue. There is a slightly atypical metastasis in the liver.”
A case, the identity of which is still undecided, was observed in a
Green Monkey (_Cercopithecus callitrichus_); it may belong among the
gliomata or glioses. There was in the middle of this monkey’s cerebrum a
gray area about 3 × 2 × 1 cm. with a softened centre, the more solid
parts being found under the microscope to consist of glia tissue, blood
vessels and degenerated cells. No true gliomatous formations could be
discovered. Because of the indefiniteness of the lesion, it is not
included in the tumors or inflammations. Clinically the effect of the
change was to cause blindness and ataxia but motor power was not greatly
impaired.
A very small number of tumors of the brain in wild animals is on record
in the English and German literature, perhaps the most interesting being
what resembles in description a subdural neurocytoma reported by Wilson
in the _Proceedings of the London Zoological Society_, 1908. The mass
was separate from the cerebellum, but had hollowed out a place for
itself in this part of the hind-brain.
BRAIN WEIGHTS.
The policy of preserving the brain of all species enables us to record
in the accompanying list the weights of a large number of specimens. In
order that the figures may have a representative and comparative value
only those are given where the total body weight of the animal is also
known. The specimens were removed by the laboratory staff, most of them
by one person, and by the same technique. All brains were weighed
immediately upon removal from the body, no preservative being near the
organ. The brains were themselves externally normal. Our technician is
skillful in removing the organ, practically always getting the pituitary
body, and cutting off the brain stem at the foramen magnum, the pia
remaining but the dura removed. Because the specimens were taken, in
practically all cases, from animals that died in the Park, and because
of the shortness of the list (196), it seems wise not to attempt
conclusions referable to comparative weights of the different orders and
families. However, the data seem worthy of record because it is doubtful
if anywhere one can find so many weights taken under comparable
conditions by the same personnel. One can find a considerable list of
brain weights and values in many publications throughout the literature,
notably in an article by Ziehen in Bardeleben’s _Handbuch der Anatomie_
(Vol. IV, Abt. III 363), but from no single source are there so many
varieties or so long a list. Ziehen’s tables are compiled from the
literature and therefore represent data collected under different
conditions, many of which were probably pathological. The appended
figures are to be considered as raw material collected under uniform
conditions.
Examination of the figures bears out in a measure some of the remarks
made by Ziehen, notably those which indicate that between large and
small varieties of the same general group, the smaller has the greater
brain weight value and that the youthful animal has more brain than the
adult.
The brains at the museum are fixed in saline-formaldehyde—sufficient
strength of the former to suspend the organ in the container and four
percentage of the latter. When fixation is complete, as indicated by
density, preservation is done in one per cent. formaldehyde, the organ,
usually bound in gauze, being laid in cotton. A list of important
references is added to the weight tables—some antedating Ziehen’s
articles, but principally those that have appeared since the publication
of his monograph.
PRINCIPAL REFERENCES TO THE RELATIVE WEIGHT OF THE BRAIN
ZIEHEN: In _Bardeleben’s Handbuch der Anatomie des Menschen_, Vol. 4,
pt. 3.
ZIEHEN: _Handbuch der Anatomie des Nervensystems_, Jena, 1903.
GIRARD: _Bulletin de l’Institut Gen. Psychologie_, Vol. 7, p. 53.
VON BUSCHAU: _Real Encyclopedie der Gesamten Heilkunde 3. Aufl._
VON BUSCHAU: _Neurologisches Zentralbl._, 1897, March.
BRANDT: _Bull. de la Soc. Imperial des Naturalistes de Moscow_, 1867,
40, pt. 2, 525.
MIES: _Verhandl. der Gesellsch. deutscher Naturforsch und Arzte_, 1898,
353.
DHERE ET LAPICQUE: _Archives de la Physiologie_, October, 1898.
LAPICQUE ET GIRARD: _C. R. des Sceances de l’Academie de Science_,
Paris, 1905, 140, 1057.
LAPICQUE: _Bulletin de Museum d’Histoire Naturelle_, 1909, No. 7, 408.
LAPICQUE: _Revue du Mois_, Paris, April, 1908, 445.
LAPICQUE: _Bulletin et Memoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_,
1907, 5, Vol. 8, No. 3, 261.
LAPICQUE: _Biologica_, Vol. 2, 1912, p. 257.
FUNK: _Inaug. Dissert. Wurzburg_, 1911.
POYNTER: _Cerebral Anthropology_, Lincoln, 1913.
MOLLISON: _Arch. für Anthropologie_, 1914, XIII, 388.
HULTGREN: _Das Hirngewicht des Menschen_, Upsala, 1912.
WEBER: _Festschrift für Karl Gegenbauer_, 1898.
DUBOIS: _Bulletin de la Soc. Anthropologie_, Paris, 1897, 337.
DUBOIS: _Archiv. für Anthropologie_, Vol. 25, 1898.
DUBOIS: _Proc. Sci. K. Acad. Wet., Amsterdam_, 1914, 16, 647.
DUBOIS: _Zeitschrift für Morph. und Anthropologie_, 1914, Vol. 18, 323.
MARCHAND: _Hirngewicht des Menschen_, Leipsig, 1902.
RUDOLPH: _Beiträge zur Path. Anatomie_, Jena, 58, 1914, 48.
KRAEMER: _Mitt. der Deutsch. Landwehrgesell_, 29, 1914, 55.
TABLE 18.—_Giving the Actual Weight of the Brain and the Relation of this to that
of the Body in 196 Animals._
════════════════════╤═══╤══════╤═══════════╤══════╤═════════╤════════╤══════╤══════
Order Family │Sex│Known │Development│ Time │Condition│ Body │Brain │Grams
│ │Age at│ │ in │ │ Weight │Weight│Brain
│ │Death │ │Garden│ │in Grams│ in │ Per
│ │ │ │ │ │ │Grams │ Kilo
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ of
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Body
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Weight
Genus Species │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „
Common Name │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „
────────────────────┼───┼──────┼───────────┼──────┼─────────┼────────┼──────┼──────
PRIMATESA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
SIMIADÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Simia satyrus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Orang utan │ ♂ │ │Immature │4 yrs.│Good │ 15,500.│ 405.│ 26.1
│ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
Orang utan │ ♀ │ │Immature │4 yrs.│Thin │ 22,178.│ 300.│ 13.4
│ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │
Hylobates │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
hainanus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Hainan Gibbon │ ♂ │ │Mature │4 yrs.│Good │ 5,900.│ 115.│ 19.4
│ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │
Hylobates │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
leuciscus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Silver Gibbon │ ♀ │ │Mature │14 │Very thin│ 3,030.│ 75.│ 24.7
│ │ │ │days │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
CERCOPITHECIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Presbytis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
cephalopterus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Ceylon Entellus │ ♂ │ │Mature │1 mo. │Good │ 4,080.│ 58.│ 14.2
Cercopithecus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
sabæus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Grivet Monkey │ ♀ │ │Mature │14 │Good │ 3,530.│ 65.│ 18.4
│ │ │ │yrs. │ │ │ │
Cercopithecus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
patas, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Red Monkey │ ♂ │ │Mature │2 yrs.│Good │ 5,060.│ 105.│ 20.7
│ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │
Cercocebus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
fuliginosus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Sooty Mangabey │ ♀ │ │ │3 mo. │Good │ 3,342.│ 105.│ 31.4
Macacus arctoides,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Brown Macaque │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 3,161.│ 100.│ 31.7
│ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
Macacus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
nemestrinus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Pigtailed │ ♀ │ │ │4 yrs │Very Thin│ 4,560.│ 100.│ 21.9
Macaque │ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │
Pigtailed │ ♀ │10 mo.│Baby │10 mo.│Good │ 1,390.│ 67.│ 48.2
Macaque │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Macacus rhesus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Rhesus Macaque │ ♂ │6 mo. │Baby │6 mo. │Good │ 462.│ 67.│ 145.
Papio porcarius, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Chacma Baboon │ ♂ │ │Mature │1 wk. │Thin │ 12,300.│ 180.│ 14.6
Papio │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
cynocephalus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Yellow Baboon │ ♂ │ │Mature │4 yrs.│ │ 8,942.│ 140.│ 15.6
│ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
CEBIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Ateles ater, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Black Spider │ ♀ │ │ │1 mo. │Good │ 1,790.│ 125.│ 70.
Monkey │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Black Spider │ ♀ │ │ │2 mo. │Good │ 2,475.│ 105.│ 42.5
Monkey │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Black Spider │ ♂ │ │ │2 mo. │Good │ 3,630.│ 125.│ 34.4
Monkey │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Lagothrix │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
lagotricha, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Woolly Monkey │ ♀ │ │ │9 mo. │Thin │ 1,634.│ 82.│ 50.3
Cebus fatuellus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Brown Cebus │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Thin │ 1,500.│ 60.│ 40.
Cebus albifrons, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
White fronted │ ♂ │ │ │ │ │ 1,750.│ 61.│ 34.8
Cebus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Aotes vociferans, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Noisy │ ♂ │ │ │2 wks.│Good │ 480.│ 20.│ 41.7
Douroucouli │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
CALLITRICHIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Callithrix │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
pencillata, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Black eared │ ♂ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 135.│ 10.│ 73.
Marmoset │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Black eared │ ♂ │ │ │6 mo. │Good │ 250.│ 15.│ 60.
Marmoset │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Leontocebus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
œdipus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Pinche Marmoset │ ♂ │ │ │1 wk. │Good │ 167.│ 14.│ 84.
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
LEMURES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
LEMURIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Lemur catta, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Ring tailed │ ♀ │Mature│ │7 yrs.│Good │ 1,470.│ 30.│ 20.4
Lemur │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Ring tailed │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 1,240.│ 20.│ 16.
Lemur │ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │
Lemur mongoz, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Mongoose Lemur │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 1,457.│ 20.│ 13.8
Galago maholi, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Maholi Galago │ ♂ │5 yrs.│Mature │5 yrs.│Good │ 100.│ 4.│ 40.
│ │3 mo. │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
CARNIVORA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
FELIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Felis viverrina, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Fishing Cat │ ♂ │ │ │10 mo.│Good │ 7,000.│ 60.│ 8.5
Felis chaus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Jungle Cat │ ♀ │ │Mature │5 yrs.│Good │ 3,640.│ 45.│ 12.2
│ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │
Felis ruffus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
American Wild │ ♀ │ │ │4 yrs.│Thin │ 4,402.│ 50.│ 11.1
Cat │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Felis onca, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Jaguar │ ♀ │20 │Mature │15 │Very thin│ 29,500.│ 170.│ 5.7
│ │yrs. │ │yrs. │ │ │ │
Felis eyra, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Eyra │ ♂ │ │ │3 mo. │Good │ 5,000.│ 44.│ 8.8
Felis canadensis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Canada Lynx │ ♀ │ │Mature │4 yrs.│Very thin│ 7,270.│ 80.│ 11.
│ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
Felis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
chibigonazon, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Brazilian Ocelot│ ♀ │ │Young │1 mo. │Thin │ 1,350.│ 35.│ 26.
Felis pardalis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Common Ocelot │ ♀ │ │ │10 mo.│Good │ 5,800.│ 50.│ 8.6
Common Ocelot │ ♂ │ │Young │2 mo. │Thin │ 2,700.│ 45.│ 16.6
Felis concolor, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Puma │ ♂ │ │ │ │Good │ 52,700.│ 150.│ 2.8
Puma │ ♀ │ │Mature │8 yrs.│Very thin│ 29,500.│ 50.│ 1.69
│ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
Puma │ ♂ │ │Baby │ │Good │ 1,067.│ 55.│ 51.5
Puma │ ♀ │ │Baby │ │Good │ 998.│ 55.│ 55.
Felis tigris, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Bengal Tiger │ ♀ │ │Mature │12 │Fair │ 66,000.│ 250.│ 3.8
│ │ │ │yrs. │ │ │ │
Bengal Tiger │ ♂ │ │Mature │12 │Very thin│ 91,000.│ 240.│ 2.6
│ │ │ │yrs. │ │ │ │
Felis uncia, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Snow Leopard │ ♀ │ │Mature │8 yrs.│Good │ 22,700.│ 120.│ 5.3
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
HYÆNIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Hyæna hyæna, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Striped Hyæna │ ♂ │ │Mature │4 yrs.│Poor │ 27,200.│ 92.│ 3.3
│ │ │ │ 3 mo.│ │ │ │
Striped Hyæna │ ♂ │ │Mature │8 yrs.│Good │ 36,300.│ 90.│ 2.4
│ │ │ │10 mo.│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
CANIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Canis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
procyonoides, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Raccoon-like Dog│ ♀ │ │Mature │3 yrs.│Good │ 4,770.│ 25.│ 5.2
Raccoon-like Dog│ ♀ │ │ │ │Good │ 4,900.│ 35.│ 7.1
Canis familiaris, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Eskimo Dog │ ♂ │ │Mature │ │Very thin│ 36,300.│ 100.│ 2.7
Canis cinereo │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
argenteus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Gray Fox │ ♀ │ │Mature │3 yrs.│Good │ 2,652.│ 40.│ 15.
Canis cinereus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
argenteus scotti, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Scott’s Gray Fox│ ♀ │ │Mature │2 yrs.│Good │ 2,200.│ 53.│ 25.
│ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
Canis chama, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Silver Fox │ ♂ │ │ │7 mo. │Good │ 3,325.│ 40.│ 12.
Canis mesomelas, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Blackbacked │ ♂ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 6,000.│ 60.│ 10.
Jackal. │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
Blackbacked │ ♀ │ │ │ │ │ 3,500.│ 70.│ 20.
Jackal │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
MUSTELIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Mustela foina, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Beech Marten │ ♀ │ │Mature │3 yrs.│Good │ 810.│ 15.│ 18.3
Mustela americana,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Pine Marten │ ♂ │ │Mature │4 yrs.│Good │ 680.│ 13.│ 19.
Gulo gulo, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Wolverine │ ♀ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 5,700.│ 75.│ 13.1
│ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │
Galictis barbara, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Tayra. │ ♂ │ │ │7 mo. │Good │ 1,480.│ 55.│ 37.
Mephitis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
mephitica, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Common Skunk │ ♀ │ │ │6 mo. │Good │ 1,755.│ 6.│ 3.4
Common Skunk │ ♀ │ │ │2 wks.│Good │ 1,700.│ 7.│ 4.1
Meles meles, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
European Badger │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 7,473.│ 46.│ 6.
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
PROCYONIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Procyon lotor, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Common Raccoon │ ♂ │ │Mature │7 yrs.│Good │ 9,000.│ 42.│ 4.6
│ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │
Common Raccoon │ ♀ │ │Mature │9 yrs.│Good │ 5,450.│ 37.│ 6.9
│ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │
Procyon lotor │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
hernandezi, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Mexican Raccoon │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 6,130.│ 40.│ 6.5
Nasua nasua, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Ring tailed │ ♂ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 1,600.│ 40.│ 25.
Coati │ │ │ │4 mo. │ │ │ │
Ring tailed │ ♂ │ │ │10 mo.│Good │ 1,600.│ 35.│ 24.3
Coati │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Nasua narica, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
White nosed │ ♂ │Mature│ │8 yrs.│Very thin│ 5,000.│ 44.│ 8.8
Coati │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Potos │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
caudivolvulus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Kinkajou │ │Mature│ │3 yrs.│Good │ 1,440.│ 35.│ 24.2
│ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
URSIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Ursus malayanus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Sun Bear │ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 41,000.│ 125.│ 3.5
│ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │
Ursus beringiana, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Kamchatkan Bear │ ♀ │ │ │ │Very thin│ 31,800.│ 315.│ 9.9
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
PINNIPEDIA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
OTARIIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Eumetopias │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
stelleri, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Steller’s Sea │ ♂ │ │ │4 yrs.│Very thin│120,400.│ 515.│ 4.27
Lion │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Zalophus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
californianus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
California Hair │ ♂ │ │Mature │6 yrs.│Very good│ 94,000.│ 420.│ 4.46
Seal │ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
RODENTIA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
MURIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Peromyscus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
leucopus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
White footed Mouse│ ♀ │5 yrs.│Mature │5 yrs.│Good │ 39.│ 1.│ 25.6
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
CASTORIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Castor canadensis,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
American Beaver │ ♀ │ │ │8 yrs.│Good │ 10,000.│ 40.│ 4.
│ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
OCTODONTIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Myocastor coypus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Coypu │ ♀ │ │ │ │Good │ 2,000.│ 20.│ 10.
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
HYSTRICIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Hystrix │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
longicauda, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Malaccan │ ♀ │ │Mature │18 │Thin │ 6,000.│ 26.│ 4.3
Porcupine │ │ │ │yrs. │ │ │ │
Erethizon dorsatus│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
dorsatus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Canada Porcupine│ ♀ │ │ │2 mo. │Good │ 4,065.│ 20.│ 4.9
Coendon │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
prehensilis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Brazilian Tree │ ♀ │ │ │1 wk. │Good │ 480.│ 14.│ 29.1
Porcupine │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
CAVIIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Cavia porcella, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Wild Guinea-Pig │ ♂ │ │Mature │6 yrs.│Good │ 320.│ 4.│ 12.5
│ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │
Hydrochœrus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
hydrochœrus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Capybara │ ♂ │ │ │1 mo. │Good │ 19,000.│ 50.│ 2.63
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
PROBOSCIDEA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Elephas maximus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Asiatic Elephant│ ♂ │3 yrs.│Young │1 mo. │Good │241,000.│3,432.│ 14.1
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
HYRACOIDEA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
HYRACIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Procaria capensis,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Cape Hyrax │ ♂ │ │ │8 mo. │Good │ 1,800.│ 15.│ 8.3
Cape Hyrax │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 2,170.│ 20.│ 9.2
│ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
UNGULATA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
TAPIRIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Tapirus indicus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Malayan Tapir │ ♀ │ │Mature │7 yrs.│Thin │250,000.│ 300.│ 1.2
│ │ │ │4 mo. │ │ │ │
Malayan Tapir │ ♂ │ │Young │3 mo. │Good │ 80,000.│ 225.│ 2.8
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
EQUIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Equus prjivalskii,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Wild Horse │ ♀ │1 wk. │Baby │1 wk. │Good │ 22,700.│ 330.│ 14.
Equus burchelli, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Burchell’s Zebra│ ♂ │ │Mature │6 yrs.│Good │341,000.│ 645.│ 1.9
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
BOVIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Strepsiceros │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
capensis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Greater Kudu │ ♂ │ │ │4 mo. │Thin │285,000.│ 290.│ 2.2
Cobus leche, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Leche Antelope │ ♀ │ │Mature │10 │Good │ 52,700.│ 200.│ 3.8
│ │ │ │yrs. 6│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │mo. │ │ │ │
Damaliscus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
albifrons, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Blessbok │ ♂ │ │Mature │11 │Good │ 58,100.│ 245.│ 4.2
│ │ │ │yrs. │ │ │ │
Boselaphus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
tragocamelus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Nylghaie │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │136,300.│ 310.│ 2.3
│ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │
Poephagus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
grunniens, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Yak │ ♂ │3 yrs.│Young runt │3 yrs.│Runt │114,000.│ 290.│ 2.5
│ │6 mo. │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
Yak │ ♀ │ │Mature │5 yrs.│Thin │177,000.│ 385.│ 2.2
Taurotragus oryx │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
livingstonii, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Livingstone’s │ ♀ │ │Old │13 │Good │327,000.│ 415.│ 1.3
Eland │ │ │ │yrs. │ │ │ │
Hemitragus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
jemlaicus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Himalayan Thar │ ♂ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 31,800.│ 165.│ 5.2
│ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │
Himalayan Thar │ ♂ │9 mo. │Young │9 mo. │Good │ 9,100.│ 130.│ 16.
Ovis tragelaphus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Aoudad │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 77,200.│ 233.│ 3.
│ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │
Aoudad │ ♀ │ │Old │3 yrs.│Good │ 41,000.│ 195.│ 4.8
│ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
GIRAFFIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Giraffa │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
camelopardalis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Giraffe │ ♀ │ │ │5 yrs.│Good │500,000.│ 630.│ 1.2
│ │ │ │8 mo. │ │ │ │
Giraffa capensis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Giraffe │ ♂ │ │Old │7 mo. │ │383,000.│ 670.│ 1.7
(Southern) │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
CERVIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Cervus duvanceli, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Barasingha Deer │ ♀ │1 mo. │Baby │1 mo. │Good │ 9,500.│ 121.│ 13.
Cervus eldi, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Eld’s Deer │ ♂ │ │ │ │Good │ 59,000.│ 225.│ 3.8
Cervus elaphus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Red Deer │ ♀ │ │ │ │Good │ 72,700.│ 310.│ 4.4
Cervus porcinus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Hog Deer │ ♂ │11 mo.│Young │11 mo.│Good │ 25,000.│ 130.│ 5.2
Hog Deer │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 41,000.│ 125.│ 3.
│ │ │ │4 mo. │ │ │ │
Cervus sika │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
manchuricus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Manchurian Sika │ ♂ │ │Mature │6 yrs.│Good │ 56,800.│ 265.│ 4.6
Deer │ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │
Cervus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
cashmirianus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Kashmir Deer │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Fair │ 56,800.│ 275.│ 4.6
│ │ │ │4 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
CAMELIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Camelus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
bactrianus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Bactrian Camel │ ♂ │ │Mature │11 │Fair │430,000.│ 610.│ 1.4
│ │ │ │yrs. │ │ │ │
Camelus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
dromidarius, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Common Camel │ ♀ │ │Mature │5 yrs.│Fair │472,700.│ 465.│ .98
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
HIPPOPOTAMIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Hippopotamus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
amphibius, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Hippopotamus │ ♂ │1 mo. │Baby │1 mo. │Good │ 40,000.│ 195.│ 4.87
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
SUIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Macrocephalus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
africanus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Wart Hog │ ♀ │ │Mature │7 yrs.│Good │ 59,000.│ 151.│ 2.5
│ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │
Wart Hog │ ♂ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 82,700.│ 150.│ 1.8
│ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │
Wart Hog. │ ♂ │ │ │ │Good │ 90,000.│ 158.│ 1.7
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
TAYASSUIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Tayassu tajacu, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Peccary │ ♀ │ │Mature │6 yrs.│Good │ 19,650.│ 95.│ 4.8
│ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
Peccary │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 22,700.│ 75.│ 3.3
│ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
ENDENTATA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
DASYPODIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Tatu novemcinctus,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Nine banded │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 1,840.│ 10.│ 5.4
Armadillo │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
MYRMECOPHAGIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Myrmecophaga │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
tetradactyla, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Tamandua Anteater │ ♀ │ │ │1 wk. │Good │ 3,300.│ 24.│ 7.3
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
MARSUPIALIA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
DIDELPHYIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Didelphys │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
virginiana, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Common Opossum │ ♂ │ │ │2 wks.│Good │ 2,500.│ 6.5│ 2.6
Common Opossum │ │ │Young │3 mo. │Good │ 351.│ 6.│ 17.
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
DASYURIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Sarcophilus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
ursinus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Tasmanian Devil │ ♂ │ │Mature │4 yrs.│Thin │ 2,950.│ 8.│ 2.7
│ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
Dasyurus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
viverrinus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Common Dasyure │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 680.│ 4.5│ 6.6
│ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │
Common Dasyure │ ♂ │ │ │8 mo. │Good │ 1,130.│ 5.5│ 4.8
Common Dasyure │ ♂ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 1,430.│ 7.│ 4.9
│ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
PHASCOLOMYIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Phascolomys │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
mitchelli, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Wombat. │ ♂ │ │Mature │9 yrs.│Excellent│ 25,900.│ 70.│ 2.7
│ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
MACROPODIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Macropus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
giganteus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Great Gray │ ♂ │ │Mature │3 yrs.│Good │ 34,000.│ 65.│ 1.9
Kangaroo │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │
Macropus rufus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Red Kangaroo │ ♂ │ │Mature │5 yrs.│Good │ 63,600.│ 70.│ 1.1
│ │ │ │8 mo. │ │ │ │
Macropus unguifer,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Nailtailed │ ♂ │ │ │2 wks.│Good │ 4,600.│ 12.│ 2.6
Wallaby │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Macropus thetidis,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Thigh striped │ ♂ │ │ │2 wks.│Good │ 5,150.│ 25.│ 4.8
Wallaby │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Macropus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
ualabatus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Black Wallaby │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 8,170.│ 35.│ 4.2
│ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
Aepyprymnus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
rufescens, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Rufous Rat │ ♀ │3 yrs.│Mature │3 yrs.│Good │ 1,130.│ 15.│ 13.3
Kangaroo │ │1 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │
Rufous Rat │ ♀ │6 yrs.│Mature │6 yrs.│Good │ 1,485.│ 15.│ 10.+
Kangaroo │ │9 mo. │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
PASSERES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
ICTERIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Quisculus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
quiscula, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Purple Grackle │ ♂ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 115.│ 2.7│ 23.4
│ │ │ │7 mo. │ │ │ │
Icterus icterus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Common Troupial │ ♂ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 53.│ 2.│ 27.7
│ │ │ │7 mo. │ │ │ │
Common Troupial │ ♂ │ │ │4 yrs.│Thin │ 68.│ 2.│ 29.4
│ │ │ │7 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
PLOCEIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Amadina │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
erythrocephala, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Red headed Finch│ ♀ │ │ │4 yrs.│Good │ 25.│ 1.2│ 48.
Munia malacca, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Black headed │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 13.│ .7│ 52.6
Finch │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
TANAGRIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Euphonia violacea,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Violet Tanager │ ♀ │ │ │2 days│Good │ 15.│ 1.│ 66.6
Violet Tanager │ ♂ │ │ │2 days│Good │ 16.│ 1.│ 62.5
Tanagra cana, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Silver blue │ ♂ │ │ │6 mo. │Good │ 29.│ 1.│ 34.5
Tanager │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Silver blue │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 30.│ 1.│ 33.3
Tanager │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
FRINGILLIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Zonotrichia │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
albicollis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
White throated │ ♂ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 35.│ 1.5│ 42.8
Sparrow │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
White throated │ ♂ │ │ │6 mo. │Good │ 32.│ 1.5│ 46.9
Sparrow │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
White throated │ ♂ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 23.│ 1.3│ 56.5
Sparrow │ │ │ │8 mo. │ │ │ │
Eophona melanura, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Black tailed │ ♂ │ │ │2 mo. │Good │ 31.│ 2.│ 64.5
Hawfinch │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Black tailed │ ♂ │ │ │1 mo. │Good │ 30.│ 1.7│ 56.6
Hawfinch │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Java Sparrow │ ♂ │ │ │ │Good │ 28.│ 1.2│ 42.8
Passerina ciris, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Nonpareil │ ♂ │ │ │9 mo. │Good │ 15.│ .5│ 33.3
Bunting │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Pipilo │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
erythropthalmus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Towhee │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 16.│ 1.2│ 75.
│ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
TURDIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Turdus iliacus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Red winged │ ♀ │ │ │5 yrs.│Good │ 55.│ 1.5│ 27.2
Thrush │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
PITTIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Pitta strepitans, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Noisy Pitta. │ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 92.│ 2.5│ 27.
│ │ │ │8 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
CRATEROPODIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Garrulax │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
leucolophus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
White crested │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 105.│ 2.7│ 25.7
Jay Thrush │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
PICARIÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
RHAMPHASTIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Rhamphastos │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
cuvieri, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Cuvier’s Toucan │ ♀ │ │ │11 │Thin │ 356.│ 8.│ 22.4
│ │ │ │yrs. 9│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
BUCEROTIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Lephoceros │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
flavirostris, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Yellow billed │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 177.│ 6.│ 33.8
Hornbill │ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
STRIGES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
ALUCONIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Aluco pratincola, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Am. Barn Owl │ ♂ │ │ │1 mo. │Good │ 470.│ 11.│ 23.4
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
BUBONIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Bubo virginianus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Great Horned Owl│ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 1,415.│ 12.│ 8.4
Otus asio asio, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Screech Owl │ ♂ │ │ │1 day │Good │ 122.│ 6.│ 49.
Strix varia varia,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Barred Owl │ ♀ │ │ │11 │Good │ 1,022.│ 12.│ 11.6
│ │ │ │yrs. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
PSITTACI: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
PSITTACIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Conurus cactorum, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Cactus conure │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 64.│ 4.│ 62.5
│ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
Chrysotis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
leucocephala, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
White fronted │ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 251.│ 8.5│ 33.8
Amazon │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Chrysotis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
levaillanti, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Levaillant’s │ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 300.│ 12.│ 40.
Amazon │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
ACCIPITRES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
SERPENTARIIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Serpentarius │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
serpentarius, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Secretary │ ♂ │ │ │2 wks.│Good │ 3,768.│ 15.│ 4.
Vulture │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
FALCONIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Haliæetus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
leucocephalus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Bald Eagle │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 2,860.│ 15.│ 5.2
│ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
COLUMBÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
COLUMBIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Ocyphaps lophotes,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Crested Pigeon │ │ │ │3 mo. │Thin │ 142.│ 2.│ 14.
Lophophaps │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
leucogaster, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Plumed Pigeon │ ♂ │ │ │ │Good │ 52.│ 1.2│ 23.
Phaps chalcoptera,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Bronze winged │ ♀ │ │ │4 yrs.│Good │ 219.│ 1.5│ 6.8
Pigeon │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │
Columba phæonata, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Dark backed │ ♂ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 360.│ 2.│ 5.05
Pigeon │ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │
Scardapella │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
squamosa, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Ground Dove │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 23.│ 1.7│ 64.
│ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │
Zenaidura macroura│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
carolinensis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Carolina Dove │ ♂ │ │ │2 yrs.│Thin │ 92.│ 1.│ 10.8
│ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
GALLI: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
PHASIANIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Coturnix │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
pectoralis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Stubble Quail │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 70.│ .7│ 10.
Lophortyx │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
californica │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
californica, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
California Quail│ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 180.│ 1.5│ 8.33
│ │ │ │4 mo. │ │ │ │
Arboricola │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
atrogularis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Black throated │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 151.│ 2.5│ 16.
Hill Partridge │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │
Meleagris │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
gallopavo │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
silvestris, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Eastern Wild │ ♂ │ │ │ │Good │ 6,340.│ 12.│ 1.9
Turkey │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
CRACIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Ortalis vetula, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Mexican Guan │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Thin │ 442.│ 5.│ 11.3
│ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
MEGAPODIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Catheturus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
lathami, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Brush Turkey │ ♂ │ │ │3 mo. │Good │ 1,487.│ 5.│ 3.37
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
ALECTORIDES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
GRUIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Grus lilfordi, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Lilford’s Crane │ ♂ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 3,790.│ 18.│ 4.7
│ │ │ │4 mo. │ │ │ │
Tetrapteryx │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
paradisea, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Stanley Crane │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 4,450.│ 13.│ 2.9
│ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
STEGANOPODES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
ANHINGIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Anhinga anhinga, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Darter │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 251.│ 8.5│ 33.8
Darter │ ♀ │ │ │7 yrs.│Good │ 998.│ 6.│ 6.
│ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
HERODIONES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
ARDEIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Nycticorax │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
nyctanassa, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Yellow crowned │ ♂ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 620.│ 7.│ 11.3
Night Heron │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
CICONIIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Leptoptilus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
dubius, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Adjutant Stork │ │ │ │ │ │ 7,873.│ 36.│ 4.5
Leptoptilus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
crumeniferus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Marabou Stork │ │ │ │ │ │ 4,580.│ 24.│ 5.2
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
PLATALEIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Carphibis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
spinicollis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Straw necked │ │ │ │ │ │ 1,665.│ 89.│ 4.8
Ibis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
PALAMEDES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Palmadea derbiana,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Derbian Screamer│ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 2,730.│ 10.│ 3.6
Derbian Screamer│ ♂ │ │ │1 wk. │Thin │ 1,700.│ 8.│ 4.7
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
ANSERES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
ANATIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Cygnopsis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
cygnoides, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Chinese Goose. │ ♂ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 2,740.│ 15.│ 5.5
│ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
Plectropterus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
niger, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Black Spurwinged│ ♂ │ │ │9 yrs.│Good │ 2,735.│ 13.│ 4.7
Goose │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Cereopsis novæ- │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
hollandiæ, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Cereopsis Goose │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 2,370.│ 9.│ 3.6
│ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │
Cereopsis Goose │ ♂ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 2,748.│ 11.│ 4.
Anser domesticus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Sebastopol Goose│ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 3,106.│ 19.│ 6.1
│ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │
Anser fabalis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Bean Goose │ ♂ │ │ │12 │Good │ 2,640.│ 13.│ 4.9
│ │ │ │yrs. 6│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │mo. │ │ │ │
Chloephaga │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
magellanica, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Upland Goose │ ♂ │ │ │2 wks.│Thin │ 1,822.│ 8.│ 4.4
Coscoroba │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
coscoroba, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Coscoroba Swan │ ♂ │ │ │1 mo. │Good │ 1,915.│ 9.│ 4.7
Anas │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
platyrhynchos, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Mallard Duck │ ♀ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 1,471.│ 8.│ 5.4
Mallard Duck. │ ♀ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 525.│ 6.│ 11.4
Dafila acuta, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Pintailed Duck. │ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 489.│ 6.│ 12.2
Fuligula ferina, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Pochard │ ♂ │ │ │4 yrs.│Good │ 600.│ 6.│ 10.
│ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
STRUTHIONES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
STRUTHIONIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Struthio │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
molybdophanes, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Samoli Ostrich │ ♀ │ │ │9 yrs.│Thin │ 60,000.│ 37.│ .65
│ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
CASUARIIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Casuarius │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
papuanus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │
Papuan Cassowary│ ♂ │ │ │8 yrs.│Good │ 24,000.│ 30.│ 1.3
────────────────────┴───┴──────┴───────────┴──────┴─────────┴────────┴──────┴──────
SECTION XIII-PART II
THE EYE
INFLAMMATIONS.
Conjunctivitis is rather rare but does occur in all varieties of
animals, seldom however, to the extent that the specimen has to be
sacrificed. So far as the daily reports can be relied upon we have had
no epidemic inflammations of the eye. The parrots and monkeys are the
only animals that can be handled enough for treatment, and in them the
applications have not seemed very efficacious. Two cases of
conjunctivitis and iritis have had a tuberculous basis and two other
specimens have had tuberculosis in the eye. Two parrots had, in
association with generalized tuberculosis, semisolid masses in the orbit
which dislocated the bulb, thickened the lids and presented as yellowish
granulating tumors under the conjunctiva; a Swainson’s long-tailed jay
(_Calocitta formosa_) had this lesion on both sides. The only case in a
mammal concerned an Anubis baboon (_Papio anubis_) in which one eye had
been enucleated, two weeks before death, for purulent ophthalmitis. The
other eye became affected shortly after the extraction and the animal
was killed; it was found to have caseous pneumonia. The tuberculous
process had probably begun in the region of the optic nerve and involved
the whole bulb. Secondary infection with pyogenic cocci had been
superimposed upon the original process. Keratomalacia, encountered on a
few occasions, will be discussed by Doctor White.
Iridocyclitis was found in a white browed guan (_Penelope
superciliaris_) the notes of which are condensed as follows:
The internal organs show nothing of value pathologically. The right
eye shows moderate conjunctivitis and a marked thickening of the
cornea with complete opacity. The lens is destroyed and the retina
infiltrated by gelatinous material. Humors are watery, non-
suppurative, but the fundal portion of the retina shows several poorly
circumscribed, yellowish white, gelatinous collections. Microscopical
section of cornea shows replacement of normal bundles by wavy ones
intermixed with small numbers of nuclei. These are never of
inflammatory type, but always of connective tissue type. Conjunctival
mucosa defective in centre, puckered but shows no subjacent
inflammatory features. Ciliary body richly infiltrated by lymphocytes
and vessels distinctly congested. This condition extends over whole
anterior surface of iris and for a short distance over posterior.
Sclera shows much bone formation. Chronic interstitial keratitis,
subacute interstitial iritis and cyclitis.
CATARACT.
Opacities of the cornea are quite common among our specimens, most often
due we believe, to local trauma; ungulates exhibit them more than other
varieties. Cataractous opacities of the lens are frequently observed in
senile animals but, while I have no figures for the statement, I believe
they are not as common among our specimens as can be observed in
domestic horses and dogs. No record has been made of streaky clouds or
spots in the lens but only of complete opacities. There are three only,
an aoudad (_Ovis tragelaphus_) a macaw (_Ara macao_) and a summer duck
(_Aix sponsa_) the last of which alone is interesting. This bird, a
fully developed adult female, was killed because of total blindness and
found to have a low grade chronic pancreatitis and a bilateral
Morgagnian cataract, the lens capsule containing a thin cloudy fluid
with the nucleus quite freely movable in it.
AMBLYOPIA.
A very interesting case of amblyopia in a young monkey was studied and
reported by Dr. H. M. Langdon and Doctor Cadwalader in the _Journal of
Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics_, Vol. XXVIII, Part 4. Because of
its unusual character and careful investigation, the report is
reproduced here:
Pigtailed macaque (_Macacus nemestrinus_) was born June 9, 1913, in
the monkey house, a well developed baby. He thrived and was as good as
any for his age. He was never known to have anything wrong with him
until on the morning of June 3, 1914, when he was found on the bottom
of the cage in the monkey house. He had clenched hands and feet, jaws
tightly closed, lips drawn back, eyes staring and glassy, with
convulsive shaking of the extremities. At intervals he would become
limp, with fists still clenched, and with only occasional jerks in the
extremities. This would last about a minute, and then convulsive
movements would be resumed. The entire “fit” lasted about ten minutes.
He was immediately removed from the large cage in the monkey house to
a small one in the back room of the laboratory. When put in the small
cage he staggered as if dazed, and groped about apparently blind. He
never recovered his sight entirely, but at times seemed to see better
than at others. He was not seen in a “fit” in the laboratory. On June
24th, a small piece of banana was offered by a person who stood
directly in the sunlight. The monkey came to the front of the cage,
reached out and grasped very firmly the thumb of the hand holding the
banana but did not take the banana although he very plainly wanted it.
The banana was thrown into the cage, hitting the monkey on the back.
He turned very quickly, then smelled over the floor of the cage until
he found the banana. On June 30th, he was examined by Doctor Langdon
and the following condition was noted:
“Pupils react to the light of the ophthalmoscope. Optic discs are
normal. Arteries possibly a little small. No other fundus changes.” On
July 1, a cloudy day, he was laid facing a window. A coat sleeve was
laid over his eyes for a minute and then quickly removed. His pupils
were seen to react slowly but distinctly to the light. His gaze would
not follow a finger moved in front of his eyes. When put back in the
cage he climbed up on the wire at the back and then tried to climb the
plain sheet-iron side. He groped and felt for a support and then fell.
This he did several times. About August 1, when the eyes were
examined, there seemed to be more visual perception and very
distinctly prompter pupillary reflex, which condition remained about
the same when examined October 1. He died October 10, 1914, of a
compound fracture of the right femur inflicted by a monkey in the
adjoining cage.
At autopsy the viscera appeared normal throughout. The animal was
fairly well nourished. There was about 5 cc. clear, pale yellow fluid
under the dura. It escaped upon removal of the brain. There were
adhesions of the dura over the temporal lobe (inferior surface),
posterior and external to the optic tract, so firm as to remove some
periosteum and superficial bone. Rest of dura seemed normal.
Examination of the brain. Sections were made from different parts of
the cerebral cortex, all of which were more or less alike. There was
swelling of the endothelium of the pial lymph spaces, with some
separation of the fibres of the pia itself which extended into the
sulci. The perivascular lymph spaces of the larger arteries of the
cortex were dilated, and the adjacent cerebral tissue was edematous. A
well marked endothelial swelling and hyperplasia affected a number of
the arteries and capillaries producing marked general or nodular
thickening in some places. Accompanying these hyperplastic changes
there was a marked calcification of some of the arteries. This was not
confined to one tunic, but in some instances it extended almost
completely through the vessel wall, and here and there the lumen of a
vessel was nearly obliterated. The main features were endothelial
hyperplasia, edema of the pia and of the subpial cortex with some
calcification of the vessels. It was perhaps less well marked in the
occipital lobes than in other parts. The optic nerve and other
portions of the brain appeared to be normal.
MOON BLINDNESS.
It seems also profitable to repeat here a report Dr. H. M. Langdon and I
made in 1911 upon a horse with periodic ophthalmia or “moon blindness,”
a widespread condition and one upon which there is even to-day little
known and much contradictory theorizing. It is worthy of record that Dr.
J. H. W. Eyre of Guy’s Hospital, had a case to study at the same time as
ours. He did not find the protozoön-like body discussed below, but laid
weight upon the isolation of St. aureus, an organism often mentioned in
the literature about this disease. I cite the whole report since our
publication in the 1911 Report of this Garden seems not to have been
quoted in any of the reference articles on “Moon blindness.” Those who
are interested in the clinical and pathological sides of the question
will find a good summary in _Veröff. aus der-Jahres. Vet. Berichten der
beamt. Tierärzte Preussens_, 1908, and the bacteriology of the equine
eye by Karsten, _Inaug. Disser._ Giessen, 1909.
“During the latter part of 1909 and first part of 1910 we had a horse
referred to us suffering with recurrent ophthalmia or moon blindness.
This affection, suggested by its name, is supposed to have some relation
to the lunar periods. Some points in our work showed that such may be
the case. Attacks appear not infrequently at the time of the full moon,
and in our only experimental infection twenty-eight days elapsed between
inoculation and a general ocular inflammation.
“This affection manifests itself as a conjunctivitis early in the
attack, but rapidly progresses to an iridocyclitis and lastly to a
panophthalmitis. After each attack the ball is smaller until it is so
shrunken as to be sightless from chronic thickening and opacities. The
causation is not known. The disease behaves not unlike an infectious
one, remaining in a stud for years at a time. Not every horse may be
affected. It has been connected with dampness, bad fodder, overwork and
the like. Again others have connected it with malaria or rheumatism.
Potapenke, Vigezzi, Koch and others have found various microörganisms,
no two of which seem to be the same. Even an animal organism like
malaria has been described. (Whether or not malaria has anything to do
with the disease, it must be said that our horse was favorably affected
in regard to temperature as well as to the eye condition by repeated
subcutaneous injections of Quinine Bisulphate, Grain xx daily.) The
attacks last five to nine days. One or both eyes may be attacked and not
uncommonly do they alternate. One eye may cease to have attacks while
the other continues. The experiments here recorded were made with the
idea of transmitting the disease to other horses. They were only
partially successful. During eight months the affected animal referred
to us had six attacks of ophthalmia. The attack was observed for study
on the first occasion, but during the second his anterior chamber was
entered by a needle attached to a syringe, the exudate aspirated and
injected into the eye of a horse with apparently healthy eyes. The
history of this second horse will be given later. The attacks of the
first horse ranged from six to twelve days. Five of the six affected the
left eye and one the right. In January, 1910, the left eye was used for
further inoculation, and following this traumatism complete recovery
never took place. The corneal scar left by the needle tract almost
disappeared, but an inferior anterior synechia formed and was followed
by a spreading opacity of the cornea, much wrinkling of the iris and
opacity of the depths. After the fourth attack in this eye it was
completely blind. Material was obtained from this eye during its last
attack, but it was merely serous fluid containing a few blood cells and
epithelium, but no bacteria.
“In transferring the affection from this animal, the conjunctival sac
was washed with 1–5000 bichloride of mercury solution and well rinsed
with salt solution. The anterior chamber was then entered with an
aspirating needle and the exudate removed. This consisted of 0.4 cc.
slightly turbid straw colored fluid containing a few shreds of lymph.
Bacteriological cultures, moist and dry preparations were made from a
part of this, while the remainder was introduced into the anterior
chamber of the second horse. This animal’s eye showed the effects of the
traumatism for eight days, and then was normal save for a small opaque
spot in the cornea left from needle puncture. After twenty-three days a
small patch of lymph collected in the pupil. This increased slowly
accompanied by lacrymation until the twenty-seventh day, when a sudden
and violent conjunctivitis arose. The lymph in the anterior chamber
likewise suddenly increased and rapidly became pus, forming a hypopyon.
The conjunctivitis became purulent. The violent stage lasted five days
and slowly subsided, leaving an ectropion with a densely injected bulbar
conjunctiva, almost complete corneal opacity and an irregular
contraction of iris, apparently due to several small synechiæ. The
depths could not be seen because of the corneal condition. This stage of
affairs remained during the rest of the animal’s life, two months. He
was permitted to live to see if an exacerbation of this chronic process
or involvement of the other eye would appear. Such not occurring in two
months, he was killed and the eyes removed. Fluid removed from the left
eye of the first horse when killed during the last attack was injected
into the anterior chamber of a third horse. This animal’s eye received
the operation well and the trauma had entirely disappeared when the
animal died on the eighth day.
“LABORATORY EXAMINATIONS.—From fluid removed from horse eye (No. 1)
anaerobic cultures made on milk and blood serum, blood agar, glycerine
agar; cultures were made directly from the fluid, while the coagula were
dried upon slides and stained as follows: Loeffler’s, Gram’s, Giemsa. In
all there are very few recognizable bodies. They are red blood cells,
polynuclears and a very few small mononuclear cells. In regard to
microörganisms three structures present themselves. A well staining
Gram-positive, rounded end rod of fairly uniform size but tending to
grow in pairs and stain rather irregularly with Loeffler and Giemsa.
These forms are sometimes called ‘dumbbell’ in that they are bipolar, or
even seem to have a constriction in their centre. Another form is
peculiar and cannot be said to be recognized as a bacterium. It is
circular, of fairly regular size and contour and in many places looks
like a very large coccus. In Loeffler’s stain it is colored deeply in
the centre with a paler marginal zone and an unstained halo about it,
which, however, is not like a capsule. In the Gram and Giemsa method it
is deeply blue or purple with a retractile centre and very sharply
outlined contour. These forms varied from 3 to 5 microns. The third form
is a wavy delicate short mycelium-like thread. Smears from the cultures
as made above showed chiefly a Gram-positive, rounded end rod but which
did not grow on planting out. It grew on aerobic media, but was not
found on anaerobic. The Gram-positive organism would not grow beyond the
fourth generation. It was not identified with any known species by the
characters manifested during the short time we were able to keep it
alive but could be placed in the Hog Cholera group. The mycelium was
found to be an aspergillus. In regard to the large coccus-like body,
little can be added to the above description. Further examination did
not reveal characters permitting us to place it among the protozoa. No
evidences of division were seen. The body is quite uniform in
appearance, varying only in size. Whatever this is it seems to be an
organized body.”
“Cultures from pus in the anterior chamber of the second horse showed
the palely staining rod, an aspergillus and Micrococcus aquatilis. The
first was planted on horse serum bouillon, but did not grow after the
first generation. These cultures were made after death, but the cultures
made during the acute attack direct from conjunctival sac contained such
a host of organisms that no judgment could be formed of their relative
importance. The polar staining rod was found in smears. No large coccus-
like bodies were observed in the second horse. Fluid taken from the
first horse’s eye at death was sterile.”
“These observations are at variance with those of others but such
results are not unique in this respect. It seems as if the polar
staining rod deserves some consideration, and we expect to devote some
attention to it if another horse suffering from recurrent ophthalmia
come to our notice. The large coccus-like bodies are very interesting
and may be protozoa. The finding of the amœba in the cases of Potapenke,
increases their importance. Before, during and after the fourth attack
of the first horse twenty grains of quinine bisulphate were given
hypodermically daily for twenty days. The attack was very mild. Before
the drug was given his temperature had ranged from 99° to 101° F.
Immediately after the first dose the temperature fell to below 99° F.,
and remained at a very regular level during the entire twenty days. No
malarial organisms were found in the blood.”
The ear is without special interest except as a place of localization of
sarcoptes, demodex and fly larvæ. A few cases of acute catarrhal otitis
media have been found in association with nasopharyngitis both of the
nonspecific variety and that which resembles distemper. One case which
led to meningitis has been mentioned.