[421] De Art. Poet. ℣ 220.
[422] Another Reason against it is, that Τρυγωδια never
signifies _Tragedy_, but _Comedy_ only. _Casaubon_, indeed, _de Satyr.
Poesi_, says, it originally comprehended both. But his Opinion depends
solely on the _Etymolog. Mag._ which is contradicted by all the other
Lexicographers. The Authorities he produces from _Aristotle_ and
_Athenæus_, make nothing for his Purpose. See _Bentley_ against _Boyle_,
p. 306, 307, 308. Which I mention the rather, because the ingenious Mr.
_Crusius_ has not in this, and some other Instances, profited by that
learned Author's Observations.
[423] See _Vossius_ Inst. Poet. L. II. c. XI.
[424] Περι Ποιητικης, cap. VI.
[425] Inst. Poet. L. II. c. XI.
[426] Besides the Chorus, the Monologues, call'd _Cantica_, were set
to Music; the Dialogues in a Kind of Recitative. See _Crusius_, _ubi
supra_, § IV.
[427] Art. Poet. ℣ 179.
[428] Ibid.
[429] Art. Poet. ℣ 89.
[430] ℣ 231.
[431] Trist. L. II. ℣ 381.
[432] C. XIV.
[433] Ep. III. L. I. ℣ 14.
[434] Act. III. Scen. I.
[435] Inst. Poet. Lib. II. c. XIV.
[436] Art. Poet. ℣ 93.
[437] Sat. VI. ℣ 635.
[438] Art. Poet. ℣ 338.
[439] Ad Aug. ℣ 210.
[440] Lib. II. c. XIII. p. 68.
[441] I am at a Loss here to know what _Vossius_ means, who seems to
intimate, that in the _Hecuba_ of _Euripides_, the Death of _Ægisthus_
added to the Terror and Distress of the Play. But as _Agamemnon_
himself is one of the Persons in the Drama, there could be no Thoughts
of revenging a Death, which had not happen'd. In the _Electra_, there
is an account of _Ægisthus_'s Death; but that Incident is not of so
much Consequence there, as _Vossius_ seems to make it in the Tragedy
he alludes to. It is therefore most probable, that what is here said
relates to the _Electra_ of _Sophocles_; where the concluding Scene
represents the meeting of _Orestes_ and _Ægisthus_, and the latter is
conducted off the Stage, only to be put to Death in the same Place where
he kill'd _Agamemnon_. A short Sentence has probably been originally
left out in _Vossius_, which would have clear'd this Matter, in Words to
this Effect; _Sic tristis exitus in Sophoclis Electra, ubi Ægisthus_,
&c. It is much our Author, who, upon many other Occasions, has censur'd
_Vossius_, should pass over a Mistake of this Nature.
[442] _Vossius_ guards against all the Inconsistence he is here charg'd
with, which is no more than this; That it is _essential_ to a Tragedy,
form'd κατα την τεχνην, to end unfortunately, but not so to
one made _ad populum_. He borrow'd his Sentiment from _Aristotle_, De
Arte Poetica, εστιν δε ουχ ἁυτη απο τραγωιδιας ἡδονη, αλλα
μαλλον της κωμωιδιας οικεια _this is not a Pleasure that arises from
Tragedy, but rather of the Nature of Comedy_, c. XIV. Ed. Heins. al.
XIII.
[443] Epist. Ded. to the _Spanish Fryar_.
[444] Inst. Poet. L. II. C. XIII. p. 61.
[445] Those Tragedies that are writ according to the _nicest Rules
of Art_, he said before, upon the Authority of _Aristotle_, do NOT
end happily: And upon the same Authority he says, in _such_ Plays
the Characters are neither extremely wicked, nor perfectly virtuous.
_Aristotle_, as a Heathen, was right in his Opinion, according to
Dr. _Trapp_'s Theory; _Vossius_, who follows him throughout, is not
inconsistent. As to the Opinion in general, I will not pretend to
determine, since it is _dignus vindice nodus_.
[446] They are very easy to be found in c. XIV. of _Aristotle_'s Art
of Poetry, according to _Dan. Heinsius_'s Edition; c. XIII. in others.
All that _Vossius_ has advanc'd above, is only a Comment on that
Chapter. Does _Vossius_ say the BEST Tragedies are conformable to these
Rules? So does _Aristotle_, ἡ μεν κατα την τεχνην καλλιστη
τραγωδια εκ ταυτης της συστασεως εστι, p. m. 270, _&c._ That we are
not affected with Compassion or Terror at the Sufferings of the Wicked?
so does _Aristotle_, ουτε ελεεινον, ουτε φοβερον φαινεται το
συμβαινον, p. 269. That a middle Character is to be chosen? so does
_Aristotle_, ὁ μεταξυ αρα τουτων λοιπος, εσι δεγοιουτος, _&c._
[447] _Ratio_ in _Vossius_, is not us'd for _prudentia_, as Dr. _Trapp_
seems to take it, but in the same Sense with that noted Saying, _ratio
ultima regum_, the last Expedient, or Resort of Kings. The Instances
alledg'd illustrate this: _Medea_ is forc'd to kill her Brother
_Absyrtus_, to secure her own Escape; and her Children afterwards, to
prevent them from falling into such Hands as would execute greater
Cruelties upon them. The Circumstance of _Oedipus_, made unfortunate not
by real Crimes, is very well describ'd by Mr. _Lee_:
To you, good Gods, I make my last Appeal,
To clear my Virtues, or my Crimes reveal:
If in the Maze of Fate I blindly run,
And backward trod those Paths I ought to shun,
Impute my Errors to your own Decree;
My Hands are guilty, but my Heart is free.
[448] Inst. Poet. L. II. c. XI. p. 47.
[449] Inst. Poet. L. II. c. XIII. p. 65.
[450] Ter. And. Act I. Scen. I.
[451] Inst. Poet. L. II. c. XI. p. 47.
[452] Poet. Lib. III. p. 373.
[453] Both borrow their Solution from _Aristotle_, c. IV. who tells
us, that the _Pleasure_ the Mind takes is, in _learning_ the Likeness
between the Representation and the Original.
[454] Lib. II. ℣ 1.
[455] See this beautifully illustrated, in Mr. _Pope_'s _Ethic
Epistles_, III. 270, _&c._
[456] Mr. _Addison_ has treated this Subject with great Accuracy, in
_The Spectator_, Vol VI. No. 418.
LECTURE XXIX, _&c._
_Of_ EPIC, _or_ HEROIC POETRY.
We are, at length, by just Degrees, advanc'd to the last, as it is
the best, and most perfect Kind of Poetry: And no Wonder we should
finish our Dissertations here, where the utmost Bounds are set to human
Compositions. What _Scaliger_ said of _Buchanan_, tho' in a Strain of
excessive Flattery, when applied to a _Man_; may be justly true of a
_Thing_, of Epic Poetry in particular:
_Namque ad supremum perducta Poetica culmen
In te stat; nec quo progrediatur, habet._
Nature's great Efforts can no farther tend,
Here fix'd her Pillars, all her Labours end.
For Mr. _Rapin_ has very justly observ'd, An Epic, or Heroic Poem,
properly so call'd, is, undoubtedly, the greatest Work which the Soul
of Man is capable of performing. We have already observ'd, in our first
Lecture, that all the other Branches of this divine Art are summ'd up,
and included in this one: And in a Dissertation which I have written in
another Language[457], I have attempted to give a short Account of the
Reason of it. What I have now to say upon this Subject, which is so
much superior to all others, for the Excellence and Extent of it, is not
so much as the Dignity of it deserves; because I have already enter'd
into many Particulars, which belong to it, as the Nature of the Subject,
I undertook to discuss, made it necessary; particularly, when I gave a
View of Poetry in general, and the several particular Branches of it;
when I treated of the _Poetic Style, the Beauty of its Thoughts, or the
Elegance and Sublimity of them, of the Drama in general, and Tragedy_, a
Species of it. For these Sorts of Poetry have many Things in common:
----_Alterius sic
Altera poscit opem res, & conjurat amice._
And several Things, which have a Relation to this Subject, I have
consider'd more at large elsewhere, in another[458]Language. What I
mean, will, perhaps, be better understood in the Progress of this
Discourse; for nothing, Gentlemen, can be more disagreeable to you and
me, than a needless Repetition of the same Things, and saying what has
been said a thousand Times over.
Mons. _Bossu_, a _French_ Gentleman, and an excellent Critic, has given
us a Discourse upon Epic Poetry, in his own Language, which is well
known; a Treatise every Way worthy of the Applause which the Learned
have bestow'd upon it. But it had been no Derogation to its Merit, if
some Parts of it had been a little more concise: For the Author, how
eminent soever for Penetration of Thought, Soundness of Judgment, and
Variety of Erudition; seems to pursue his Observations too minutely,
and gives us Distinctions without End. And too many Distinctions must
obscure, rather than explain the Meaning of a Writer. An Epic, or
Heroic Poem, may be thus defin'd: _It is a Poem express'd in Narration,
form'd upon a Story partly real, and partly feign'd; representing, in
a sublime and flowing Style, some glorious and fortunate Action, that
is distinguish'd by a Variety of great Events; to form the Morals, and
inflame the Mind with the Love of heroic Virtue._ This Definition is
more regular in Form, and more comprehensive, as to the Matter of it,
than Mons. _Bossu_'s: He, following the Method of his own Definition,
divides his whole Work into six Books; the first treats of the Nature of
an Epic Poem, which includes the Fable; the second, the Matter, or the
Action of the Poem; the third, the Form, or the Narration; the fourth,
the Moral, or the Characters of the Persons concern'd; the fifth, the
Machinery, or the Appearance and Influence which the Gods have in it;
the sixth, concludes with the Thoughts, and the Style.
He pursues each of these Articles at large, and discusses them with
a great deal of Wit, Learning, and Judgment; but the Method he has
chosen, seems not so proper. The _Nature_ of the Thing defin'd contains
all the Particulars of it, and therefore ought not to have been a
distinct Branch of his Division, which should (as is usual) have been
so form'd, as to have distinguish'd only three different Parts of the
Definition, namely, the Matter, the Form, and the End: The _Matter_
includes the Action and the Fable, under which are rang'd the Incidents,
Episodes, Characters, Morals, and Machinery; the _Form_ comprehends the
Way, or Manner of the Narration, whether by the Poet himself, or by
any of the Persons introduc'd, whose Discourses are related: To this
Branch, likewise, belongs the moving of the Passions, the Descriptions,
Discourses, Sentiments, Thoughts, Style, and Versification; and beside
these, the Similes, Tropes, Figures, and, in short, all the Ornaments
and Decorations of the Poem. The _End_ is to improve our Morals, and
increase our Virtue, which is of itself so plain and obvious, that there
is no Occasion to say much about it.
I thought it requisite just _to mention_ the several Parts of Epic
Poetry, tho' I do not design to _enlarge_ upon all of them: Because,
in the Course of these Lectures, I have already touch'd upon several
of them, as they fell in with Arguments of the same Kind; many of
them have been particularly consider'd, _viz._ the Action, and the
Fable, (for these are almost the very same, both in Epic and Dramatic
Poetry) the Morals, Characters, the different Kinds of Narration, the
Passions, Descriptions, Sentiments, the Sublimity of Style and Thought,
the Versification, Comparisons, Tropes, Figures, and all the other
Embellishments of Poetry: What remains, therefore, is only to offer some
scatter'd Observations upon those Heads, which relate more especially
to Epic Poetry, with such Remarks, as have not yet been taken Notice
of. And, after all, this will look more like the Gleanings, than the
Harvest. When I have done this, I propose to translate one Chapter of
_Bossu_ where he explains the Nature and Origine of Epic Poetry. It is a
short one, but remarkable for its Elegance and Perspicuity. And, lastly,
I shall add some Reflections upon the most celebrated Writers of Epic
Poetry, both ancient and modern.
_Aristotle_, in his Book of Poetry, the only one that is now left, has
allotted only two Chapters for the Consideration of Epic separately;
tho' he often mentions it, in shewing the Relation it bears to Tragedy:
The Reason of which is very evident, because most of what he said of
the one, might be applied to the other; and therefore, in those two
Chapters, he has done very little more than adjust the Rules of the
Drama to Epic Poetry, observing, all along, that Distinction between
these two Sons of Poetry, which the Nature of them required; and
interspersing, now and then, the Praises of _Homer_. I might (if you
would excuse the Comparison) say the same Thing of these Dissertations,
which is one Reason why I have not treated this Subject more at large.
There is the same Difference between the Fable and the Action, both
in Epic and Tragic Poetry, namely, the Action is an Achievement of
some eminent Person, which produc'd some great and memorable Event.
The Fable is the Complication of all those Incidents, Episodes, and
other Circumstances, which promote the Action, and carry it to its
proper Period, or else which serve to illustrate, or to embellish and
adorn it. Episodes are either absolutely necessary, or very requisite:
All Episodes are not Incidents[459], tho' all Incidents are Episodes;
because some Incidents are not _adventitious_ to the Action, (which,
as the Etymology of the Word implies, is essential to an Episode) but
make up the very Form and Series of it: Or (to use a more harsh and
inelegant Expression) they are not _collateral_, but _direct_ Parts of
it; these, and many other Particulars of this Sort, for the Reason so
often mention'd, will not be enlarg'd upon at present.
The Action, in Epic Poetry, must, of Necessity, be _one_, as well as
in Tragedy; tho' it may, and ought to be more comprehensive. As to
the Place of Action, there is no confining it to any certain Bounds;
Epic has certainly a much larger Range than Tragedy; but the more it
keeps within Compass, the more perfect and entire the Action seems to
be. _Aristotle_ expressly says, that as to Time, there is no fixing it
to any determin'd Period. _Homer_'s _Iliad_ does not contain above the
Space of forty-seven Days[460]; the _Odyssee_ (as _Bossu_[461], and,
after him, _Dacier_, are of Opinion) takes up eight Years, and six
Months; the _Æneid_ almost seven Years. But, in this Point, these great
Criticks seem not to have made so just a Determination; for not every
Thing that is related by the Poet, or the Persons he has introduc'd,
makes, strictly speaking, a Part of the Action, but that, only, which is
perform'd by the Hero, and his Associates, from that Place, where you
enter upon the Poem, to the Conclusion of it. For Instance; the Action
of the _Æneid_, in a strict and proper Sense, does not begin at the
building of the wooden Horse:
----_Fracti bello, fatisque repulsi._ Æn. II. 13.
But from the Time that _Æneas_ set Sail from one of the Ports of
_Sicily_:
_Vix è conspectu Siculæ telluris in altum._ I. 38.
And taking the Question in this View, Mons. _Segrais_, in the Preface to
his admirable _French_ Translation of the _Æneid_, has demonstrated,
that the Action of that divine Poem falls within the Compass of one
Year. And we may observe almost the same Thing of _Homer_'s _Odyssee_.
I think _Dacier_ has mistaken the Meaning of _Aristotle_ in another
Place, tho' there, also, he follows _Bossu_; and that is, with Regard to
the Actions or Adventures of the Persons. Epic (says that Philosopher)
is μιμησις σπουδαιων, which _Dacier_ translates thus; _the
Imitation of the Actions of illustrious Persons_, not of illustrious
Actions. And perhaps that is not amiss: But I cannot be of his Opinion,
when he declares, that if the Persons are illustrious, it is of no
great Moment, whether the Actions are so, or not. He very justly
affirms, that the most glorious Actions of private Men are not a proper
Subject for an Heroic Poem; but then the other Point must be given
against him, that it is necessary, that _not the Person only, but the
Action, should be illustrious_. All the Actions, even of _Alexander_ or
_Cæsar_, _Achilles_ or _Æneas_, are surely not proper for Epic. I agree,
therefore, that _Aristotle_ must be understood to mean the Actions of
Heroes; but then he would also imply, the Actions of Heroes, as Heroes.
And, no doubt, _Horace_ was of the same Opinion, (tho' _Dacier_ brings
him in as an Evidence on his Side) when he says,
_Res gestæ regumque, ducumque._
_i.e._ considering them as Kings and Generals; for the Words immediately
following, which _Dacier_ takes no Notice of, are,
----_& tristia bella._
What _Bossu_ further advances[463] in Support of his Opinion, is of
no great Moment, _viz._ that the little Enmities in the _Iliad_, and
in the _Odyssey_ the Return of an Exile into his Country, are Actions
equally suitable to private Men and Heroes. I confess, (and so does
he) that _Æneas_'s restoring his Country, as it were, and laying the
Foundation of a new Kingdom; are much more heroical: But even those
above-mention'd, as they are set off by _Homer_, with their heroical
Circumstances, could not but have been great, tho' they had been done
by private Men. In the _Iliad_, indeed, and more especially in the
_Odyssey_, some Things are related below the Majesty of Epic; as for
Instance, what the Poet tells us of _Ulysses_'s Herdsman and Swineherd;
which _Ovid_ has thought fit to copy in _Penelope_'s Epistle to that
Chief:
_Hoc faciunt custosque boum, longævaque nutrix,
Tertius immundæ cura fidelis haræ._
Thus the old Nurse, the Hind, and Hogherd pray,
True Servants all, and faithful in their Way.
_Rhymer._
These, I own, are not represented as the Actions of the Hero himself;
but still are unworthy to be mention'd in an Heroic Poem. The Simplicity
of ancient Times is alledg'd, in Excuse for Things of this Nature; and,
for my Part, I am willing to admit it: But, certainly, let the Men live
in what Age you please, they stood in Need of some Excuse. _Virgil_ has
nothing of this Kind; who has a much better Right than _Homer_ to that
Encomium of _Horace_[465],
----_Qui nil molitur inepte._
Throughout the _Æneid_ there is nothing mean, nothing dishonourable,
nothing that is not truly heroic. As to the forming of a Hero, he is not
to be represented adorn'd with every Virtue, as a Character entirely
perfect, because there is no such Thing in Nature; but he may advance as
near as possible to that Perfection. _Ulysses_ and _Æneas_, indeed, are
at no great Distance from it; but what Sort of a Hero is _Achilles_!
_Impiger, iracundus, inexorabilis, acer,
Jura negat sibi nata, nihil non arrogat armis._
Impatient, rash, inexorable, proud,
Scorning all Judges, and all Laws, but Arms.
_Roscommon._
These are heroical Virtues, no doubt! an admirable Image of a Demi-god!
But more of this in another Place.
There are two Things which chiefly distinguish Epic from Tragedy, the
_Manner of the Representation_, and the _Event_, or _Catastrophe_. As to
the former, it is certain, that Tragedy is form'd upon Action, and Epic
upon Narration. For what _Aristotle_ says of Epic,[467] ὁτι δει
τους μυθους καθαπερ ἑν ταις τραγωδιαις συνισταναι δραματικους, _that
the Fable, as in Tragedy, ought to be dramatical_, it is plain, from
the very Words, must be understood of the _Fable_, which ought to be
active, _i.e._ lively, full of Motion, and growing warmer, as it comes
nearer the Conclusion; and has no Relation to the _Form_, or _Manner of
representing_, or _imitating_, which, as every Body knows, in Heroic
Poetry is, and always was, narrative, and not dramatic.
They differ, also, in the Event, or Conclusion. In Tragedy, the
Conclusion is _generally_ unfortunate, but _never_ so in Epic; the
Reasons of which Rule are, _First_, The Examples of _Homer_, and
_Virgil_, who are, and ought te be our Guides, and Masters; even
_Achilles_, the Hero of the Poem as he is, tho' very undeservedly, comes
off with Success; and much more should _Ulysses_ and _Æneas_. In this
Particular these Writers have been universally follow'd by all, who
wou'd be thought Epic Writers; for which Reason, _Statius_ (as _Bossu_
has observ'd) rather chose to break the Unity of the Action, than make
his _Thebais_ end unfortunately, after the miserable Fratricide of
_Eteocles_ and _Polynices_. And not only the Authority of these Poets,
but the very Reason of the Thing, supplies us with Arguments for this
Rule. _First_, Altho' in Tragedy (where the Action is much shorter, more
simple, and finish'd, as it were, at a Heat) an unfortunate Conclusion
may be so far from displeasing, that it may be agreeable to the
Audience; yet in Epic, after such a Series and Variety of Adventures,
after sustaining so many, and so great Difficulties, the Reader must be
out of Humour with the Poet, unless the whole should conclude happily
at last. _2dly_, The chief End of Tragedy is, to purge the Passions,
especially those of Terror and Pity, by a short and brisk Emotion; but
the Design of Epic Poetry is, by more slow and leisurely Operations, to
remove bad Habits, and restore good ones; to subdue Vice, and recommend
Virtue; which would be done with a very ill Grace, if the Hero of the
Poem, or the Prince endu'd with heroic Virtue, (for such he either is,
or ought to be) should come to a deplorable End. _3dly_, An Epic Poem,
properly so call'd, is, and always must be written in Honour of the
Country, or the Religion of the Author; between which, and the Hero,
there is a near Relation; and therefore he ought to come off in Triumph
at last. _Bossu_ inclines to this Opinion, nay, _expressly_ determines,
that this is the _truer_ Conduct. I have ventur'd to advance a Step
further, being of Opinion, for the Reasons now alledg'd, it is not only
proper, but essential to Heroic Poetry; and, in Consequence of that
Opinion, have made a happy Conclusion Part of the Definition. The two
Differences, therefore, that we spoke of, between Tragedy and Epic, are
(as the Schools term it) _specific_ Differences, the others are only
_accidental_; those are Differences in _Nature_, these only in _Degree_,
_Extent_, or _Greatness_.
[Sidenote: _Thirtieth Lecture._]
The Moderns seem to mistake that Part of Epic and Tragedy which
contains the το θαυμασον, or the _wonderful_, confounding
the _wonderful_ with the _improbable_, and using those two Words
promiscuously. If it was really so, the το θαυμασον would
always be faulty; for that is always faulty, which is improbable.
These poetical Prodigies would be improbable, if they were represented
to be perform'd by any human Power: But the Case is quite different.
The Divine Power, and the Agency of the Gods, make all this agreeable
to Reason. Thus, in _Homer_, that the Horses should speak; and, in
_Virgil_, that the Myrtle Roots should drop Blood, is wonderful, but
not improbable: For our most ingenious Translator of _Homer_ seems
to be mistaken, when he asserts, that these were perform'd without
the Interposal of the Gods. As to the latter, _Virgil_[468] expresly
declares it to be a Prodigy:
_Horrendum, & dictu video mirabile monstrum._
And a little after,
[469]----_Nymphas venerabat agrestes,
Gradivumque Patrem, Geticis qui præsidet arvis,
Rite secundarent visus, omenque levarent._
I implore the rural Nymphs,
And _Mars_, who o'er the _Getic_ Field presides,
The Omen to avert, and grant Success.
But plainer still, in what follows:
_Monstra deum refero._
As to _Homer_, he, in express Terms, asserts, that _Juno_ made the Horse
speak[471]:
Αυδηεντα δο εθηκε θεα λευκωλεν Ἡρη.
Then, strange to tell, (so _Juno_ will'd) he broke
Eternal Silence, and portentous spoke.
_Pope._
In such Cases as these, whatsoever is possible, is probable: If you
determine otherwise, Poetry is depriv'd of one of its best Ornaments,
its greatest Fund of Surprize. And the same Observation extends to some
Parts of the wonderful, which are not accounted for by a divine Power:
As in the Instance of _Polyphemus_, and the other _Cyclops_, in _Homer_
and _Virgil_. That there were really Giants, is an Opinion, which not
only the Ancients believ'd, but the Scriptures have confirm'd: But
whether _such_ Giants were ever in Being, as are there describ'd, is a
Point of no Moment. Therefore _Virgil_'s Description of _Polyphemus_ is
very injudiciously censur'd by some Criticks:
[472]----_Graditurque per æquor
Jam medium, nec dum fluctus latera ardua tinxit._
Then stalk'd along
Thro' the mid Ocean; nor did yet the Waves
Tinge his tall Sides.
And afterwards:
_Clamorem immensum tollit; quo pontus, & omnes.
Intramuere undæ, penitusque exterrita tellus
Italiæ, curvisque immugiit Ætna cavernis._
He rais'd a hideous Yell; at which the Sea
Trembled, and all its Waves: _Italia_ quak'd;
And _Ætna_ bellow'd thro' its winding Caves.
This is so far from being improbable, or carrying the Hyperbole too far,
that nothing can be more elegant and sublime; especially if we consider
the Nature of Fear, which always enlarges what is great, and raises a
Train of Horrors upon one another. It is, indeed, very hyperbolical; but
the Nature of the Thing describ'd, not only excuses, but demands that
Boldness. I own _Homer_ has a few Examples of the improbable; and there
is one Instance of this Kind in _Virgil_; I mean where _Camilla_ is
describ'd in those most elegant Verses,
_Illa vel intactæ segetis per summa volaret
Gramina, nec teneras cursu læsisset aristas;
Aut mare per medium fluctu suspensa tumenti
Ferret iter, celeres neque tingeret æquore plantas._
She o'er the Tops of untouch'd Corn wou'd fly,
Skimming along, nor hurt the tender Grain;
Or run, supported on a swelling Wave,
Thro' the mid Sea, nor tinge her nimble Feet.
The Lines are exceeding beautiful, and therefore the more is the Pity
that the Thing is impossible.
In my Definition of Epic Poetry, I inserted this Clause, _that it must
be form'd upon a Story partly real, and partly fictitious_: For both
these are equally necessary. In Tragedy, which is so much shorter, the
Performance may not only be excusable, but commendable, tho' the whole
Fable should be fictitious: But in a long Work, such as an Heroic Poem
is, the Reader will be tir'd, unless he has the Pleasure of finding some
Truth interwoven with the Fable. Besides, an Heroic Poet writes, or
ought to write after the Examples of _Homer_ and _Virgil_, in Honour
of the Country he belongs to, or the Religion he professes; and then it
must be necessary that he should have some Regard to popular Opinions,
or true History. This is requisite, at least to the well-being, if not
the very being of an Heroic Poem.
Little need be said about the Machinery, which, among the ancient
Heathens, was the Agency of their false Gods, and of Angels and Demons
among us _Christians_; its Beauty and Magnificence being well known. The
Dignity of an Heroic Poem would scarce be kept up without it, especially
since the το θαυμαστον or the Marvellous, depends upon it. I
shall say no more, but refer the Reader to the fifth Chapter of _Bossu_.
The Versification of Heroic Poetry is what no Body is a Stranger to,
which, among the _Greeks_ and _Romans_ consisted of Hexameters. This
Kind of Verse is so peculiar to Epic, that when it is us'd upon other
Occasions, it is commonly call'd Heroic Verse. It is needless to observe
how numerous, and sublime, and beautiful, in all Respects, it is, and
how much it has tended to ennoble those Languages: Our _English_ Verse
comes nearest to it, both in Gravity and Majesty, but at how great
Distance? which yet, is, at least, both in Strength and Energy, far
superior to the _French_ and _Italian_.
I have made these few scatter'd Reflections upon Heroic Poetry, and
propose to add no more, at present, for a Reason I have hinted before.
As to the Nature and Origin of it, I shall only offer the following
clear and succinct Account from the second Chapter of the first Book of
the learned _Bossu_.
"The most considerable Difference my Subject presents me with, between
the Style of the Ancients and Moderns, is, that our Way of Speaking is
plain, proper, and without Circumlocution; whereas theirs was full of
Mysteries and Allegories: The Truth was generally conceal'd under those
ingenious Inventions, which, for their Excellence, are call'd _Fables_,
or _Sayings_; as if there was as much Difference between those fabulous
Discourses of the Wife, and the ordinary Language of the Vulgar, as
there is between the Language proper to Men, and the Sounds which Beasts
use, to express their Passions and Sensations.
"The first Use of Fables was to speak of the divine Nature, according to
the Notions they had of it. This sublime Subject caused the first Poets
to be styl'd _Divines_, and Poetry _the Language of the the Gods_. They
divided the divine Attributes, as it were, into so many Persons, because
the Weakness of the Human Mind could not well conceive or explain so
much Power and Action in a Simplicity so great and indivisible, as that
of God is. And perhaps they were jealous of the Advantages they receiv'd
from such excellent and refin'd Learning, which they thought the vulgar
Part of Mankind were not worthy of.
"They could not tell us of the Operations of this Almighty Cause,
without speaking, at the same Time, of its Effects: So to _Divinity_
they added _Physiology_, and treated of it in the same Manner, without
quitting the Umbrages of their allegorical Expressions.
"But _Man_ being the chief, and most noble of all the Effects which God
produc'd, and nothing being so proper, or so useful to _Poets_, as this
Subject, they added it to the former, and treated of _Morality_ in the
same Way that they did of _Divinity_ and _Physicks_. And from Morality
thus discours'd of, Art has form'd that Kind of _Poem_ and Fable which
we call _Epic_.
"The Poets did the same Thing in _Morality_, which
the Divines did in _Theology_. That infinite Variety in the divine
Actions and Operations, so much above our Understanding, forc'd them,
as it were, upon dividing the single Idea of the one, and uncompounded
divine Essence, into several Persons, under the Names of _Jupiter_,
_Juno_, _Neptune_, and the rest: On the contrary, the Nature of _Moral
Philosophy_ being such as never lays down Rules for any particular
Thing, has oblig'd the _Epic Poets_ to unite in one single idea, in one
and the same Person, and into one Action, which appear'd extraordinary,
all that look'd like it in different Persons, and in different Actions,
which might be thus contain'd as so many _Species_ under their _Genus_.
"Therefore, when _Aristotle_ says[475], φιλοσφωτερον, και σπουδαιοτερον
ποιησις ιστοριας ισιν, _That Poetry is more
philosophical, and more serious, than History_, he says this, not so
much to magnify the Excellence of this Art, as to explain the Nature of
it. _Poetry_, says he, _teaches Morality, not by a bare Recital, as an
Historian, who tells us what_ Alcibiades _did, or suffer'd_, (which is
_Aristotle_'s own Instance;) _but by proposing all that a Person, let
the Poet call him by what Name he pleases, ought either necessarily,
or most probably to have said, or done, upon such an Occasion_. It
is in this Manner, that it lays down either the unhappy Consequences
of ill-judg'd Designs, and wicked Actions; or else the Rewards of
good Actions, and the Satisfaction one receives from a Design form'd
by Virtue, and conducted by Prudence. Thus in _Epic_, according to
_Aristotle_, let the Names be what they will, yet the _Persons_ and the
_Actions_ are feign'd, _allegorical_, and _universal_, not _historical_
and _particular_.[476] Ἡ μεν Ποιησις μαλλον τακαθολου, ἡ δ'
ιστορια τα καου ἑκαστον; λεγει, i.e. _Poetry represents Things rather
in general, but History in particular._ _Horace_ is likewise of the same
Mind, who is not satisfy'd with saying, that Poets teach _Morality_ full
as well as _Philosophers_; but prefers _Homer_ to all of them:
_Qui quid sit pulchrum, quid turpe, quid utile, quid non,
Plenius, ac melius Chrysippo, & Crantore dicit._
Who has what's base, what's decent, just and good,
Clearer than _Crantor_, or _Chrysippus_ show'd.
_Creech._
"The Reason why _Poets_ excel _Philosophers_ in this Respect is, that
every Sort of _Poem_ is an _Imitation_. Now Imitation is extremely
natural, and pleases every Body; and therefore nothing is more likely
to engage the Passions, and the Attention, of an Audience. Besides,
Imitation is Instruction by Examples, and Examples are the most proper
Methods of Persuasion; because they prove that such or such a Thing is
feasible. In short, Imitation is so much the Essence of Poetry, that the
Art it self, as _Aristotle_ informs us, owes its very Original to it.
And _Horace_ recommends it very particularly to the Poet, which he is
forming:
_Respicere exemplar vitæ, morumque, jubebo
Doctum imitatorem, & veras hinc ducere voces._
Those are the likeliest Copies, which are drawn
By th' Original of Human Life.
_Roscommon._
"But tho' the _Poets_ become _moral Philosophers_, they do not cease
to be _Divines_; on the contrary, the _Morality_ they treat of, does
indispensably oblige them to have a Vein of Theology run thro' all their
Works: Because the Knowledge, the Fear, and the Love of God, in a Word,
Piety and Religion are the chief, and most solid Foundations or the
other Virtues, and of all _Morality_.
The _Presence of the Deity_, and the Superintendence which so august a
Cause has over the Action, obliges the _Poet_ to represent this _Action_
as great, important, and manag'd by _Kings_ and _Princes_. Hence
_Horace_:
_Res gestæ regumque, ducumque._
To write of great Commanders, and of Kings.
_Roscommon._
Upon the same Account he is oblig'd to think and speak in an elevated
Way, above the Vulgar, and in a Style that may, in some Measure, keep up
the Character of the divine Persons he introduces. To this End serves
the poetical and figurative Expression, and the Majesty of _Heroic
Verse_. As _Horace_ again:
----_Cui mens divinior atque os
Magna sonaturum, des nominis hujus honorem._
No, he alone can claim that Name, that writes
With Fancy high, and bold and daring Flights.
_Creech._
"But all this being divine and marvellous, may quite ruin all
_Probability_, without which an Action is not likely to persuade.
Therefore the Poet should take special Care, as to this Point, since his
chief Business is to instruct Men, and _form them to Virtue_.
"To all this the _Poets_ are oblig'd, by the very Nature of these
Things, which they propose for the Subjects of their Poems and
Instructions. The Manner of teaching them usefully and methodically, has
likewise oblig'd them to add several other Rules.
"Epic Poetry is directed to the _Morals_ and the _Habits_, rather than
the _Passions_. These rise on a sudden, and their Heat is soon over;
but the _Habits_ are more calm, and come on, and go off more leisurely:
Therefore the _Epic Action_ cannot be contain'd in one single Day, as
the _Dramatic_. It must have a longer, and more just Space allow'd it,
than the Action of _Tragedy_, which is directed to the _Passions_.
"This Distinction makes _Tragedy_ and _Epic_ differ very much: The
Violence of _Tragedy_ requires a great deal more lively and brisk
Representation than a bare _Recital_. It is all Action, the Poet never
speaks, as he does in _Epic_, where there are no Actors.
"But if, in this Respect, _Epic_ is inferior to _Tragedy_, yet it is
superior both to _Philosophy_ and _History_; because it is a great deal
more active than bare _Philosophy_, and the Recitals of _History_: And
tho' it does not, like _Tragedy_, represent the Action to the Eyes
of the Spectators, yet it ought, more frequently than _History_, to
break off the Narration, by intermixing the Speeches of the Persons
represented. This _Aristotle_ directs, when he says, that _the Narration
of Epic ought to be dramatic_, _i.e._ active." [I differ from the
learned Author in the Meaning of this Passage, and agree with _Dacier_,
as I said before: But it is a Matter of no great Moment. The Speeches
of the Persons may be _included_ in this Rule of _Aristotle_'s; but it
seems more applicable to the _Fable_, which is the _Matter_ of the
Poem, than to the _Form_, which is the Way of representing it. But
_Bossu_ adds,]
"_Epic_ has, likewise, its _Passions_, which give it no small Advantage
over _Philosophy_ and _History_; but in this it is still inferior to
_Tragedy_: For tho' it has a Mixture of all the _Passions_, yet _Joy_
and _Admiration_ are the most essential to it. These, indeed, contribute
most towards the making us wise Men: _Admiration_ and _Curiosity_ are
the Cause of _Sciences_; and nothing engages the Mind so forcibly as
_Pleasure_; so that these two Passions must never be wanting in a Work
invented with a View to teach us what we are indispensably oblig'd to
know.
"To conclude: Because Precepts ought to be concise, that they may be
more easily understood, and more strongly retain'd in the Memory; and
because nothing can be more effectual to this Purpose than the proposing
one single Idea, and collecting all Things so well together, that they
may be present to the Mind at once; the _Poets_ have reduc'd all to
one single Action, under one and the same Design, and in a Body whose
Members and Parts should be homogeneous. Hence arise two of _Horace_'s
Rules: The one,
_Quicquid præcipies, esto brevis, ut cito dicta
Percipiant animi dociles, teneantque fideles._
Let all your Precepts be succinct and clear,
That ready Wits may comprehend them soon.
_Roscom._
the other,
_Denique sit quod vis simplex duntaxat, & unum._"
Be what you will, so you be still the same.
_Roscom._
This is _Bossu_'s Account of the Origin and Nature of Epic Poetry.
[Sidenote: _Thirty-first Lecture._]
Under this Head there is very little Room to make any Comparison
between the Ancients and the Moderns; for these latter Ages have scarce
produc'd any Thing that deserves the Name of an Epic Poem. We know
our Countryman, Mr. _Dryden_'s Judgment, about a Poem of _Chaucer_'s,
truly beautiful, indeed, and worthy of Praise; namely, that it was not
only equal, but even superior to the _Iliad_ and _Æneid_: But we know,
likewise, that his Opinion was not always the most accurate, nor form'd
upon the severest Rules of Criticism. What was in Hand, was generally
most in Esteem; if it was uppermost in his Thoughts, it was so in his
Judgment too. I am sure, the Opinion is too monstrous to deserve a
serious Refutation. But even among the Ancients themselves, if you
except _Homer_ and _Virgil_, you will scarce find one that is truly an
Epic Poet. The heroic Laurels are due to them only; nor has the World
produc'd _two more such Heroes_, no, nor one. How far a Comparison is to
be made between this immortal Pair, and what, in my Opinion, is to be
determin'd, _with Regard to their different Merits_, I have declar'd at
large in another Place[483], and given some Reasons for my Sentiments;
namely, that _Virgil_ is much indebted to _Homer_; but that _Homer_'s
Works are inferior to _Virgil_'s.
The Poems of _Lucan_ and _Silius Italicus_, are rather historical, than
heroic; their Actions are _real_, not _fictitious_; _particular_, not
_universal_: But partake, in some Measure, of the Nature of Epic; as
they are Poems of a considerable Length, express'd in Narration, and
written in Heroic Verse; each of them have their Heroes; the Thoughts
and Language are sublime, or they would have us think so, and there
are some Degrees of Fiction interwoven with Truth. They are reducible,
therefore, to this Class, and their Authors have a Right to be mention'd
in it. _Lucan_, however liable to Censure in some Things, is, upon the
whole, far from being a mean Writer, and deserves a very considerable
Character. He is sometimes harsh, and over-stoical; sometimes cold,
and too nearly allied to Prose; and, again, on the other Hand, he is
swelling, bombast, and affects a Way of Expression ridiculously lofty;
and yet, in many Things, very elegant and sublime, and full of an heroic
Spirit. As to _Silius Italicus_, _Pliny_, in one of his Epistles[484],
has given the following Character: _Scribebat carmina majore cura, quam
ingenio. Virgilii natalem, religiosius quam suum, celebrabat; Neapoli
maxime, ubi monumentum ejus adire, ut templum, solebat_ "He wrote
Verses with more Pains, than Genius; he observ'd _Virgil_'s Birth-Day
more religiously than his own, especially at _Naples_, where he us'd to
frequent his Monument as if it had been a Temple." And since he lov'd
_Virgil_ so passionately, that he almost ador'd him, it is strange
he should not have come nearer to his Style. The same may be said of
_Lucan_. How much unlike to _Virgil_'s! It is, also, as evident, that
_Statius_ rather admir'd _Virgil_ than imitated him. He therefore says
very justly,
----_Nec tu divinam Æneida tenta._
But what follows is not so well:
_Sed longe sequere, & vestigia semper adora._
For this, with an Appearance of Modesty, insinuates, that he follow'd
_Virgil_: But at how great a Distance! with what unequal Steps! How
unlike is his Way of Writing, and Thinking! But even _Statius_ is not
without his Beauties, tho' his Poem is not properly Epic; for the Heroes
of his _Thebais_ are too much upon a Level, no one is superior to the
rest; and, besides, there are two Actions, one unfortunate; and the
other happy. _Tasso_ is, indeed, truly heroic, and has justly attain'd
no small Esteem. But, to pass by other Particulars, he is too full of
Magic, Enchantments, Machinery, and aerial Personages. Of the same Fault
our Countryman _Spencer_ is still more remarkably guilty, who treads
almost perpetually upon enchanted Ground, and the greatest Part of whose
Characters are Fairies, Ghosts, Magicians and Giants. He is all over
Allegory, pursues not one Action but several, and such as have so little
Relation to each other, that it is difficult to see any Connection.
But, in other Respects, this most ingenious Writer was born a Poet, if
any one ever was. If we consider his Versification, and especially his
Copiousness of Invention, he is justly celebrated, among the Poets of
the first Class.
If _Milton_ did not write an Heroic Poem, properly so call'd, yet he
certainly wrote an excellent one, such as deserves, or rather is above
all Commendation. He is no slavish Imitator of _Homer_ and _Virgil_,
he opens a Way entirely new, and entirely his own: In Fruitfulness
of Invention, Sublimity of Genius, in the Weight and Lustre of his
Thoughts and Words, and, lastly, in the Perfection of his Judgment,
he is, perhaps, equal to either of them, tho' he wrote in a Language
much inferior to both theirs, especially _Homer_'s; and is particularly
much less correct than _Virgil_. Let other Moderns imitate _Milton_,
by imitating _Homer_ and _Virgil_ less: Let them improve and form
themselves, as much as possible, by their Genius, their Judgment, and
their Way of Writing and Thinking: To do this, is to imitate; but to
transcribe their Poems, or, at least, a great Part of them, into their
own, is not Copying, but Stealing.
_Nec circa vilem, patulumque moraberis orbem
Nec verbum verbo curabis reddere, fidus
Interpres._
Nor think it essential to an Heroic Poem, to describe the Anger of some
great General, the Return of a King into his own Country, a Colony
transplanted from one Region to another, the Description of _Æolia_, and
the Winds, the solemn Celebration of Funeral Games, a Descent into Hell,
or a Hero furnish'd with celestial Armour: But rather avoid these, and
many other Subjects, which are treated of by _Homer_ and _Virgil_; and
for that very Reason, because they are so. Whoever attempts an Heroic
Poem, must form a new Plan, and guard against the Stroke of _Horace_'s
Satire:
_O imitatores, servum pecus._
Let him strike out with that noble and daring Spirit of _Lucretius_;
_Avia Pieridum peragro loca, nullius ante
Trita solo; juvat integros accedere fontes,
Atque haurire; juvatque novos decerpere flores,
Insignemque meo capiti petere inde coronam,
Unde prius nulli velarunt tempora Musæ._
I feel, I rising feel poetic Heats,
And now inspir'd, trace o'er the Muses Seats,
Untrodden yet: 'Tis sweet to visit first
Untouch'd and Virgin Streams, and quench my Thirst.
I joy to crop fresh Flow'rs, and get a Crown,
For new and rare Inventions of my own.
So noble, great, and gen'rous, the Design, }
That none of all the mighty tuneful Nine }
E'er grac'd a Head with Laurels like to mine. }
_Creech._
Besides the Writers I have mention'd, there are many others of an
heroical Genius, tho' they never wrote an Heroic Poem. Among the
_Latius_, _Claudian_, a Writer of the middle Age, is the most eminent;
upon whose Beauties and Defects I have already made a few Observations:
And among those of our own Country, the late Mr. _Dryden_; besides
others now alive, who, for that Reason, cannot so well be mention'd
without Offence.