It is a well-known fact that nectar secretion is very sensitive to
weather conditions. However, the same conditions are not most favorable
for all plants.
J. L. Strong, a beekeeper of Clarinda, Iowa, kept a careful record
of weather conditions in connection with the daily gain or loss of a
colony on scales for 29 years, from 1885 to 1914. In his locality,
in southwestern Iowa, white clover is the principal source of honey.
While the bees begin the season with the willows, maples, fruit bloom
and dandelion, there is little surplus stored until the blooming of
clover. Leslie A. Kenoyer, of the Iowa College of Agriculture, made a
careful study of the Strong records and prepared a bulletin outlining
his conclusions. While the records kept by Mr. Strong for a long period
give material for fairly accurate conclusions regarding the effect
of the weather on nectar secretion in white clover, it can hardly be
expected that the same conclusions will apply to all other plants.
(Bulletin 169, Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa.) From the
foregoing the following conclusions are extracted:
Rain.
Abundant rain seems essential to stimulate plants to the vigor
necessary to nectar production and to furnish the water contained in
the secretion.
Some honey years are poor because of excessive rain. In June, 1902,
there was 11.64 inches of rainfall. June, 1911 represents the opposite
extreme, with .76 inch, and was also poor. Abundant rain in advance of
the honeyflow is of great importance, particularly in the month of May.
When there is 5 inches or more of rain in May an abundant honey harvest
seldom fails.
It is also shown that a heavy fall of snow during the previous winter
tends to favor a good yield of honey. The abundance of snow provides
both available moisture and protection to the clover plants during the
cold months.
A rainy day is, of course, unequal to a clear one for honey production,
and the fact is shown that best yields are gathered on the days just
preceding and following the rains. A gradual increase in honey stored
is apparent each day following a rain, until the fourth day, when it
begins gradually to decline.
Wind.
An average of results for 200 days shows that south winds are slightly
more favorable, probably due to the warmer and clearer weather. East
winds are shown to be somewhat unfavorable, probably due to the clouds
and rains which frequently accompany them. (This does not apply
everywhere.)
Temperature.
It is generally recognized among beekeepers that hot weather is most
favorable for nectar secretion. The above records show that the hot
months do yield better than the cooler ones, this being especially
noticeable in the months of May and September, which are often too cool
in Iowa for best production. It was found that little honey was stored
at a temperature below 70 degrees and that 90 per cent of the entire
amount gathered was at temperatures between 80 and 100 degrees. Days
attaining a maximum between 80 and 90 degrees are the best yielding
days, being slightly better than those with higher temperatures. A
variation in the temperature seems to favor nectar secretion. Mr.
Kenoyer was able to show experimentally that low temperatures favor the
accumulation of nectar. Days, then, with a wide range of temperature
favored the bees.
A cold winter previous to the honeyflow cannot be said to be
beneficial, yet it is shown that it is not detrimental. A warm March,
however, often favors a good season. This is explained as due to the
favorable conditions for building up the colonies of bees in spring as
well as to the increased vigor of the clover plants through lack of
severe weather at the start of the growing season.
=Kenoyer’s Conclusions.=
“Mr. Kenoyer concludes that, 1. June yields 56 per cent of the annual
hive increase in honey, with about half the remainder gathered in
July. 2. A large June increase indicates a good year. 3. There is
an evident alternation between good and poor years. 4. A good year
has a rainfall slightly above the average, the honey season being
preceded by an autumn, winter and spring with more than the average
precipitation. 5. A rainy May scarcely fails to precede a good honey
season. 6. South wind seems favorable and east wind unfavorable. 7.
The yield shows a gradual depression preceding and a gradual increase
until about the fourth day following a rainy day, after which it
remains fairly constant until about the fourteenth day following a
rain. 8. Good honey months average slightly higher in temperature
than poor, this being especially true of the spring and fall months.
9. Clear days are favorable to the production of honey. 10. Yield is
best on days having a maximum temperature of 80 to 90 degrees. 11. A
wide daily range of temperature is favorable for a good yield. 12. A
low barometer is favorable for a good yield. 13. The fluctuations in
the yield for a producing period seem to be closely correlated to the
temperature range and the barometric pressure, acting jointly. 14. A
cold winter has no detrimental effect on the yield of the succeeding
season, but a cold March reduces it. 15. A winter of heavy snowfall
is, in the great majority of cases, followed by a larger honey yield.
WEST VIRGINIA--Honey Sources of.
Willows, pollen and some nectar.
Red maple, pollen and some nectar.
Arbutus, slight value.
Peach, important for nectar.
Cherry, important for nectar and pollen.
Redbud (Judas tree), contributing nectar and pollen.
June berry, slight value.
Hawthorn, or haw, pollen and nectar.
Apple, occasional surplus.
Dandelion, valuable pollen and nectar.
Azalea (pink), some nectar and pollen.
Huckleberry, nectar and pollen.
Tupelo, pepperidge, sour or black gum, valuable source of nectar,
yields surplus.
Wild raspberry, valuable for surplus.
Tulip-tree or poplar, extremely valuable as a surplus plant.
Black locust, important surplus plant.
Sumac, yields nectar abundantly.
Strawberry, important in nectar.
Alsike clover, very valuable to beekeepers, increasing in popularity.
Holly, important source of pollen.
White clover, chief surplus in certain sections.
Chestnut, some nectar and pollen.
Chinquapin, yields, but of poor flavor.
Basswood or linn, heavy yielder of excellent surplus.
Sourwood, very important, yields extra abundant.
Swamp milkweed, surplus in some localities.
Sweet clover, dependent for surplus.
Blue devil, or viper’s bugloss, important.
Buckwheat, excellent yielder in certain years.
Goldenrod, contributory.
Asters, yield surplus.
Willowherb, yields surplus in abundance.
--Chas. A. Reece, Bulletin No. 33, W. Virginia Department of
Agriculture.
WHITE ALDER, see Pepperbush.
WHITE BRUSH (Lippia ligustrina).
White brush is a very common shrub throughout south Texas. It has some
resemblance to the Indian currant of the Northern States, except that
it is larger in size. It has long sprays of fragrant white flowers
which appear several times during the year, following rains. According
to H. B. Parks, it yields little honey during the regular blooming
period of spring, but during the rain-induced bloom, in late fall, it
yields heavily.
In the lower Rio Grande Valley, beekeepers reported to the author that
the blooming period is short, but that it usually yields well, while
the bloom lasts. In many localities similar reports are received. Most
beekeepers regard the honey as of good quality, but the plant not
dependable. In seasons when there are frequent heavy rains considerable
honey is harvested, as it blooms after every heavy rain.
[Illustration: Fig. 144. Blossom and leaf of white clover.]
WHITE CLOVER (Trifolium repens).
White clover undoubtedly holds first place as a honey plant in America.
It is important as a source of nectar from Maine to Nebraska and
south to Kentucky and Missouri. In all the Northeastern States it is
one of the principal sources of nectar and, in many localities, it
stands alone as the source of marketable surplus. Remove white clover,
and beekeeping would be a poor dependence in a large portion of this
great area. Alsike is similar in yield and quality of its honey, but
it is not so widely spread. The white clover plant is a perennial and
establishes itself in pastures, along roadsides and in waste places
everywhere. It is a good lawn plant and holds its own with bluegrass in
a way that few plants will do.
It yields more heavily in the northern part of its range. One Minnesota
beekeeper reports that a yield of less than 200 pounds per colony from
white clover is uncommon. The author kept bees in southern Iowa for
many years, and it was a rare season when the yield in that locality
totaled 200 pounds per colony. In northern Iowa the average yield is
much better than in the southern part of the State.
Best yields come in seasons following a year of excessive rainfall. In
wet years the conditions favor the rooting of thousands of new plants,
which are ready to produce a crop of nectar the following summer.
Most readers of beekeeping literature are familiar with Dr. C. C.
Miller’s phenomenal crop harvested in 1913. From 72 colonies of bees
he harvested more than 19,000 finished sections of honey, or more than
an average of 266 sections per colony. His best colony produced 402
sections of white clover honey. The crop was due to a favorable season,
combined with expert management. The flow was unusually long, lasting
from early June to late August.
White clover yields best when the weather is hot, with plenty of
moisture in the soil.
Honey from white clover is of the best quality. It is mild in flavor,
light in color and commands the highest prices in most markets. It is
the one honey of high quality produced in sufficient quantity to fill a
distinct demand for long periods of time.
Most people prefer white clover honey to the somewhat more spicy
flavors of alfalfa or sweet clover, though in color they are similar.
Alfalfa grown in southern California is of a different color and flavor
from that grown in the Mountain States of Idaho, Utah, Colorado, etc.
WHITE IRON BARK, see Eucalyptus.
WHITE SNAKE-ROOT, see Boneset.
WHITEWOOD, see Basswood, also Tulip-Poplar.
WILD ALFALFA or DEER CLOVER (Lotus glaber).
Wild alfalfa is also known as wild broom, deerweed and tanglefoot. In
California it is regarded as an important source of honey over a large
part of the State. It is a plant growing two to three feet high, with a
woody stem at the base. The flowers are yellow, later turning red. Some
years the plant is very abundant, then it dies out for a time, so that
it varies greatly from year to year. The blooming season is from June
to September.
We quote Richter as follows:
“A very erratic honey producer. Some years, in some sections,
yielding twice as much as the sages; this is true for either the
coast or the valley side of the coast ranges, yet a good wild alfalfa
flow on the east coast does not necessarily mean such is the case on
the west side. Beekeepers report wild alfalfa honey as being white,
light amber and at times with a characteristic greenish tinge. This
is one of the main honey plants of the Coalinga district. This
plant, according to Mr. Z. Quincy, of Ramona, upon reaching its
second year of growth, after a mountain fire, is said to give us a
great amount of nectar.”
WILD BALSAM APPLE, see Wild Cucumber.
WILD BERGAMOT, see Horsemint.
WILD BUCKWHEAT, see Eriogonum, also Bindweed.
WILD CHERRY (Prunus serotina).
The wild cherries are widely distributed over the North American
Continent, and beekeepers who live in timbered sections may expect to
find one or more species within reach. The photograph shown herewith,
Figure 145, is of the wild black cherry, which is a large tree with
reddish-brown branches and oblong taper-pointed leaves. This tree is
common in the woods of Newfoundland, Ontario and Manitoba, south to
Florida and Arizona. There is a smaller tree with very similar flowers,
the choke cherry (=P. virginiana=) to be found over much the same
territory, while the western choke cherry, or western wild cherry (=P.
demissa=), ranges from Dakota, Kansas and New Mexico west to California
and British Columbia.
[Illustration: Fig. 145. Blossoms and leaves of wild cherry.]
The larger tree =P. serotina=, is also said to occur in Mexico, Peru
and Columbia. There is also a varietal form known as the mountain black
cherry, found in southwestern Virginia, Georgia and Alabama. It is
found on the open rocky summits of the higher altitudes. This form is
a tree 25 to 35 feet high, with very rough bark and drooping branches.
The wild red cherry, or pigeon cherry (=P. pennsylvanica=) is common in
the Northwestern States, and secretes nectar freely.
Both leaves and seeds of all these forms are poisonous, although the
fruit is edible. There seem to be well authenticated cases of poisoning
of cattle from eating the leaves, and of children dying from swallowing
the seeds. Pammel, in his book of poisonous plants, gives an extended
description of the chemical action in such cases. The poisonous
property of all species of cherry leaves, according to authorities
quoted there, is due to prussic acid. The poison does not exist as such
in the growing plant, but by the action of moisture and a vegetable
ferment which exist in the plant, a complicated chemical reaction takes
place when the leaves are separated from the stem. Wild cherry bark is
used to some extent in medicine.
Wild cherries are not often reported as valuable sources of nectar.
Richter lists the western choke cherry as a source of honey in
California, and Lovell mentions the wild red cherry in the Eastern
States. The writer has a sample of wild cherry honey sent to him from
the apiary of W. S. Pangburn, of Jones County, Iowa, having a distinct
cherry taste and bright yellow color. After two years it shows no trace
of granulation, although subject to all changes of temperature of Iowa
climate, both summer and winter. All but few of the samples of honey in
the collection have candied under similar conditions.
Since in the Northern States it blooms after the domestic fruits
and just before the opening of white clover, it should prove of
considerable value where present in quantity.
WILD CHINA (Sapindus drummondi). See also CHINA TREE.
The wild China tree, also known as chinaberry, soapberry, or umbrella
tree, is a common shade tree in the Southeastern States. It is also
found in the Southwestern States to some extent. In Alabama it is a
conspicuous feature of the grounds about the homes of rich and poor
alike, quantities of the amber colored berries hanging after the leaves
have fallen. It is cultivated to a less extent in Texas and California
as an ornamental. It also occurs commonly in New Mexico and Arizona.
The Spanish name for this tree is “jaboncillo.”
It is frequently mentioned as a honey plant in the Southern States, but
is probably not sufficiently common in many places to be important. It
is sometimes confused with the China tree (=Melia azedarach=), which
see.
WILD CRAB APPLE, see Crab Apple.
WILD CUCUMBER (Echinocystis lobata).
The wild cucumber, or wild balsam apple (Fig. 146) is a climbing vine
common along streams from New England to Texas. It is also commonly
cultivated as a shade for arbors and porches. The plant is an annual
and comes from the seed each year. There are few localities where it
is sufficiently abundant to be of value to the beekeeper, and it is
seldom mentioned among honey plants. However, in a few localities along
the Mississippi River it is reported as quite an important source of
nectar in mid-summer. On river bottoms it is sometimes to be found in
great abundance. The honey is reputed to be white and of good flavor.
[Illustration: Fig. 146. Blossom, fruit and leaf of wild cucumber.]
WILD CURRANT, see Currant, also Barberry.
WILD HOLLYHOCK (Sidalcea malvaeflora). CHECKER-BLOOM.
The wild hollyhock is common in the valleys and plains of California,
where it is of some importance as a honey plant. It is reported as of
special importance in the Imperial Valley. Related species occur in New
Mexico and north to Utah.
WILD LIME-TREE, see Tupelo.
WILD OLIVE, see Oleaster.
WILD PARSNIP (Pastinaca sativa).
The wild parsnip, introduced from Europe, has spread over a wide area
from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. (Fig. 147). It is common along
railroads and highways everywhere. The small yellow flowers, which are
borne in clusters like an open umbrella, are attractive to a large
variety of insects. The nectar, apparently, is never very abundant,
hence it is not an important source of honey, although the plant is
sometimes very plentiful. (See Parsnip).
[Illustration: Fig. 147. Wild parsnip.]
WILD PENNYROYAL (Satureja rigidi).
Wild pennyroyal (Fig. 148) is a square-stemmed plant of the mint family
that grows abundantly on the sandy pine lands of the south half of
Florida. It begins blooming in December in the southern part of its
range, and blooms till early in March. Weather conditions are too
uncertain during the winter months to favor storing much surplus honey.
However, according to Poppleton (Review, Jan., 1893), it is the source
of some surplus, and from it the bees are stimulated to begin heavy
brood-rearing about Christmas. In an occasional season a fair amount
of surplus was secured, sometimes as much as 50 pounds per colony.
The honey is said to be light in color, good flavor and heavy body--a
first-class article.
Blooming as it does in the winter months, it is invaluable to the
beekeeper whose bees have access to it. If no surplus is secured, it
serves to fill the hives with bees and honey at an important season and
to prepare for the later crops to follow.
[Illustration: Fig. 148. Wild pennyroyal.]
WILD RADISH, see Radish.
WILD SUNFLOWER, see Sunflower.
WILD SWEET POTATO VINE, see Bluevine.
WILD THYME, see Thyme.
WILLOW (Salix).
In the Northern States the blooming of the pussy willow (=Salix
discolor=) is among the first signs of spring. It is a small tree,
growing along streams and on wet lands. Furnishing as it does about the
first honey of the season, as well as pollen in abundance, it is highly
regarded by the beekeepers.
There are about 160 species of willows, mostly confined to the cooler
and temperate regions of North America. Some species extend their
ranges into the Arctic regions, where the vegetation is sparse. While
the number of varieties is not so great in the Southern States, it
is regarded as valuable in the Gulf States and in California. As an
example of the comparative abundance of willows North and South, it may
be mentioned that four species are recorded for Alabama and eighteen
for Connecticut. The willows bloom too early in the spring in the
Northern States for the bees to store surplus from this source, but
both nectar and pollen are supplied for early brood-rearing.
In Richter’s “Honey Plants of California” I find reference to numerous
localities where surplus has been secured from the willows. It is
said to be “a dark amber and bitter honey.” In a few other southern
localities surplus yields from willow are reported. The flowers on one
tree will be staminate and on another pistillate. Unlike most plants,
the organs of both sexes are not found on the same plant.
[Illustration: Fig. 149. The pussy willow is one of the first trees to
bloom in the North.]
WILLOW HERB, see Fireweed.
WINTER HUCKLEBERRY, see Farkle-Berry.
WISCONSIN--Honey Flora of.
The more important honey plants of Wisconsin, named in the order they
bloom, are: Dandelion, May 1 to June 1; white and alsike clover,
furnishing most of the surplus honey, June 1 to August 1; basswood or
linden, July 1 to July 20; sweet clover, July 15 to August 15; willow
herb, or fireweed, buckwheat, goldenrod, Spanish needle, asters and
many fall flowers, in late summer and fall.--N. E. and L. V. France,
Bulletin 264, Agr. Ex. Sta. Wisconsin.