HOLY WELLS AND STREAMS
I have thought it most important to look up this subject with a view of
seeing whether any clues were available which could help us to associate
the introduction of the well ceremonials with the worshippers of the May
or of the Solstitial year. For shortness I will call the ceremonial
“baptism,” not necessarily baptism in the modern sense, but as implying
the use of water for purifying or other religious purpose.
That baptism was pre-Christian is shown by John the Baptist using the
Jordan for this purpose before Christ’s ministration began. (Matt. 3.
6.)
There is a tremendous literature[53] dealing with the folklore of holy
wells and streams. The number of holy wells and streams in Britain is
legion; there are 3,000 in Ireland alone, and the first thing which
strikes us in a casual study of the folklore is the close association of
the wells with sacred trees. Almost equally distinctly we gather that
both were situated near holy stones, and that the worship included
ceremonials connected with all three.
The folklore dealing with holy wells and well-worship is so various that
it will be useful for our present purpose to classify the portions we
need under the following headings.
1. Well-worship outcome of pre-Christian days and customs.
2. Wells generally situated near circles, dolmens, cromlechs or cairns,
or churches which have replaced them.
3. Association with sacred trees.
4. Well-worship and offerings.
5. Time of the chief festivals.
1. _Pagan origin._--It seems to be accepted now that well-worship in
Britain originated long before the Christian era; that it was not
introduced by the Christian missionaries, but rather they found it in
vogue on their arrival, and tolerated it at first and utilized it
afterwards, as they did a great many other Pagan customs.
With regard to this point Wood-Martin writes:[54]
“In many Irish MSS. there are allusions to this pre-Christian worship.
For example, Tirehan relates that St. Patrick, in his progress through
Ireland, came to a fountain called Slaun, to which the Druids offered
sacrifices, and which they worshipped as a God; and in Adamnan’s _Life
of St. Columkille_ it is recounted that this saint, when in the country
of the Picts, heard of a notable fountain to which the Pagans paid
divine honour.”
He adds (p. 50):
“It evidently did not originate in the blessing of wells by early saints
and thus spread downwards, until it became almost, if not quite,
universal; on the contrary, it began from the people, who were being
Christianized, and thence permeated the entire system of Irish
Christianity.”
Baring-Gould tells us much concerning the transitional state (pp. 28 _et
seq._). Wood-Martin divides holy wells into three classes: (1) those
which “derive their reputed virtues from Pagan superstition”; (2) those
which were “transferred from Pagan to so-called Christian uses,” and (3)
“a few which may lay claim to a merely Christian origin.”[55]
It is very easy to understand how the purely devout custom developed in
course of time, in the case of some wells at any rate, into a more
superstitious one, how some wells came to be called “wishing-wells” and
others were regarded as prophetic. Rhys gives us several instances of
these two classes in Wales.[56]
Wishing-wells are known all over the United Kingdom; many authors give
accounts of them.[57]
There can be no doubt that in the most ancient times magical practices
were carried on at wells or at the religious centre of which the well
formed a constituent part. Local practices of witchcraft would be a
natural survival of these. Gomme (p. 87) thus refers to the well of St.
Aelian, not far from Bettws Abergeley, in Denbighshire.
“Near the well resided a woman who officiated as a kind of priestess.
Anyone who wished to inflict a curse upon an enemy resorted to this
priestess, and for a trifling sum she registered, in a book kept for the
purpose, the name of the person on whom the curse was wished to fall. A
pin was then dropped into the well in the name of the victim, and the
curse was complete.”
The magical associations with wells appear in the following extract
(given by Quiller-Couch, p. 134) of a letter from Dr. O’Connor, the
author of the letters of Columbanus, to his brother.
“I have often inquired of your tenants what they themselves thought of
their pilgrimages to the wells of _Kill-Aracht_, _Tobbar Brighde_,
_Tobbar Muir_, near Elphin, _Moor_, near _Castlereagh_, where multitudes
annually assembled to celebrate what they, in broken English, termed
_Patterns_ (Patron’s days); and when I pressed a very old man, Owen
Hester, to state what possible advantage he expected to derive from the
singular custom of frequenting in particular such wells as were
contiguous to an old blasted oak, _or an upright hewn stone_, and what
the meaning was of the yet more singular custom of _sticking rags_ on
the branches of such trees and spitting on them, his answer, and the
answer of the oldest men, was that their ancestors always did it, and
that it was a preservation against _Geasa Draoidecht_, _i.e._, the
sorceries of the Druids, and that their cattle were preserved by it from
infectious disorders; that the _daoini maithe_, _i.e._, the fairies,
were kept in good humour by it; and so thoroughly persuaded were they of
the sanctity of these Pagan practices that they would travel bareheaded
and barefooted from ten to twenty miles for the purpose of crawling on
their knees round these wells, upright stones, and oak trees, westward,
as the sun travels, some three times, some six, some nine, and so on in
uneven numbers until their voluntary penances were completely
fulfilled.”
2. _Wells generally situated near stone monuments or churches which have
replaced them._--We find many instances of wells near stone circles and
dolmens.
It may even be that the existence of the spring determined the position
of the circle, for the officiating astronomer-priest must like other
mortals have had a water supply available. “Where a spring or a river
flows,” says Seneca, “there should we build altars and offer sacrifices”
(Hope, p. 47). The following shows how closely connected they were.[58]
“Closely associated with the circles, and occupying an equally important
position in the religious rites and ceremonies of the ancient
inhabitants, were sacred wells. These were more numerous than circles,
no doubt owing to the fact that their acquisition was more easily
accomplished: but amongst sacred wells we find some, as we find certain
circles, occupying a position of pre-eminence in the religious cult of
their votaries, and these, as a rule, in close proximity to sun and moon
temples. At Tillie Beltane, in Aberdeenshire, in close proximity to the
remains of a larger and smaller circle, is a well which was held sacred
by the people. According to Col. Leslie, on Beltane and Midsummer days,
those on whom the dire hand of disease had fallen, or those desirous of
averting that calamity, went seven times round the sacred wells sunwise
(deasil)[59] and then proceeded to the circles, where a like ceremony
was performed.”
“In Stenness we find the same association of the well and the circles.
But in harmony with the unrivalled completeness of these monuments... we
find the sacred well here in a closer and deeper connection with the
circles than elsewhere.”
“In the parish of Stenness there is a district called Bigswell, in the
centre of which is a sacred well, and from which the district takes its
name, Big(s)well.... Be that as it may, we know from tradition that down
to the time when the Stone of Odin was demolished, parents came to the
well with children, on Beltane and Midsummer, passed round it sunwise,
and having bathed their little ones (a healthy ordeal), carried them
thence to the Stone of Odin, and passed them through the hole as a
divine protection against the malignant influences of the evil one.”
Borlase records an instance of a well near a stone-circle in Ireland in
the Townland of Ballyferriter, in County Kerry.[60]
The same author also gives examples in Ireland of wells near dolmens,
and of wells _covered_ by dolmens.[61]
It may be remarked that in Cornwall Chapel Euny well is associated with
the circles at Bartinné and Carn Euny; St. Cleer with the three circles
at the Hurlers, and Alsia well is near the Bolleit circle. Mr. Horton
Bolitho is my authority for these statements.
A well is often found near a cell, cairn or _keeill_. Rhys gives us two
examples in the Isle of Man.[62] At Ardmore Bay the holy well is within
the ruined chapel of the saint.[63] A vast pile of stones surrounds the
holy well in Glencolumbkille in Donegal.[64]
It might be useful to add here that it is a very common thing to find a
well by a so-called tomb of a saint.
Let us turn now to wells situated near churches.
It is very generally known that many churches have been built on the
sites of stone-circles, menhirs, &c. This leads us to think that some
form of worship must have taken place at the “ancient-stones”
originally. The following extract from Wilson’s _Archæology_ (page 110)
is given in _Stonehenge_ by Sir Henry James (page 17):
“The common Gaelic phrase--Am bheil thu dol don chlachan--Are you going
to the stones?--by which the Scottish Highlander still enquires at a
neighbour if he is bound for church, seems in itself no doubtful
tradition of ancient worship within the monolithic ring.”
Rhys[65] gives us many instances of wells near churches, and here it may
be useful to add that the Welsh for well is Ffynnon.
Ffynnon Faglan is described as being near a church, also Ffynnon Fair, a
wishing-well. Criccieth Church is supposed to have had a well near it at
one time. Again, Ffynnon Beris is near the parish church of Llanberis
(p. 366), and Ffynnon Elian near to the church of Llanelian,
Denbighshire. Then there are St. Teilo’s Church and Well at Llandeilo
Llwydarth, near Maen Clochog, North Pembrokeshire.
Wood-Martin[66] refers to the rites at the well of Tubberpatrick, part
of the ceremony taking place in the church near by.
3. _Association of sacred wells with sacred trees._--Rhys, and many
other authors, give us several instances of a tree by the side of a
well.[67]
When we come to deal with well offerings we shall find, in fact, that in
almost every case a tree has been a necessary companion of the well, as
the well offerings were hung on them.
In many cases, of course, the kind of tree is not specified. When it is,
it is almost invariably the rowan or hawthorn. Rhys tells us: “The tree
to expect by a sacred well is doubtless some kind of thorn.”[68]
Then again, with reference to Ireland, Rhys, p. 335, quotes a passage
from a letter by the late Mr. W. C. Borlase, on Rag Offerings and
Primitive Pilgrimages in Ireland, to the effect that a hawthorn almost
invariably stands by the brink of the typical Irish “holy well.”
There are also many references to thorn trees in the same position in
Wales.
There are thorn trees at St. Madron’s well in Cornwall, and at Chapel
well St. Breward in the same county near Bodmin, there is a thorn tree
over the well.
Not only are wells often recorded as near sacred trees, but in the case
of some we learn that at the chief annual festival they were decked with
flowers and garlands, and “encircled with a jovial band of young people
celebrating the day with song and dance.” This is recorded of the
“blessing of the Brine” at Nantwich (Hope, p. 7).
4. _Well worship and offerings._--Although the traditions and
superstitions connected with wells are fast becoming things of the past,
in certain parts they are still believed and practised.
Gomme[69] informs us that well-worship prevails in every county of the
three kingdoms. He finds it “most vital in the Gaelic countries,
somewhat less so in the British, and almost entirely wanting in the
Teutonic south-east. In some cases wells were resorted to for the cure
of diseases; in others to obtain change of weather or good luck.
Offerings were made to them to propitiate their guardian gods and
nymphs. Pennant tells us that in olden times the rich would sacrifice
one of their horses at a well near Abergelen to secure a blessing upon
the rest.[70] Fowls were offered at St. Tegla’s Well, near Wrexham, by
epileptic patients,[71] but of late years the well spirits have had to
be content with much smaller tributes--such trifles as pins, rags,
coloured pebbles and small coins.”
In consequence of this dwindling down of the offering we have chiefly to
do with rags, but I think we may learn from the traditions that
originally it was an offering of a garment, and to the officiating
priest, at the well, or temple with which the well was connected. It is
also a question whether the almost universal association of pins with
the garment or part of it might not have originated at a time when such
an offering--it was probably originally a skin--to a priest without a
pin (of bone) to fasten it on would not have been complete. In Kent’s
cavern pins of bone have been found associated with bones of palæolithic
mammals.
Mr. Gomme tells us,[72] “In the case of some wells, especially in
Scotland, at one time the whole garment was put down as an offering.
Gradually these offerings of clothes became less and less till they came
down to rags.” He also points out, as we have already seen, that “the
geographical distribution of rag-offerings coincides with the existence
of monoliths and dolmens.”
As has been noted, almost invariably by the side of every well there
grows the “sacred tree,” a rowan or thorn for the most part; on this
tree the rags are hung, then the bent pin is dropped in. If there
happens to be no tree, or if it is so old that only the stump is left,
then the rags may sometimes be seen wedged in between the stones of the
well.
Quiller-Couch (p. 135) tells us that at Ahagour in Mayo is a well much
frequented by pilgrims, for penance chiefly, where among other offerings
they cut up their clothes, be they ever so new, and tie them to the two
old trees growing near, “lest, on the day of judgment,” thinks the
superstitious peasant, “the Almighty should forget that he came there,
and in order that the tokens should be known, when St. Patrick should
lay them before the tribunal.”
When the original well-worship in relation with the temples became
disestablished, if the well-worship were kept up at all, reasons other
than the old one would soon be invented, and many of these would
naturally be connected with magic and sorcery. In the oldest days the
priest would be a physician as well as an astronomer and a magician, and
his advice might be good for various disorders, but after he had
disappeared there was only magic to depend upon; and this atmosphere is
reflected in the traditions.
I will now give a few extracts to show what goes on at present in
certain localities with regard to the offerings, and the frame of mind
of the devotees.
With reference to the reasons for the offerings made in the present day,
Wood-Martin writes:[73]
“Wells were the haunts of spirits that proved to be propitious if
remembered, but were vindictive if neglected, and hence no devotee
approached the sacred precincts empty-handed, the principle being no
gift no cure; therefore the modern devotee, when tying up a fragment
from the clothing, or dropping a cake, a small coin, or a crooked pin
into the well, is unconsciously worshipping the old presiding spirit of
the place.”
Rhys[74] gives us a great deal of information on this. The ritual varies
at some of them. People came from far and near; it is the custom to make
some sort of offering, rags and pins being the most modern, and about
these we have most information as a matter of course.
Rhys quotes statements he has received about three wells in the county
of Glamorgan (Vol. 1, p. 356). At the first it was the custom “that the
person who wishes his health to be benefited should wash in the water of
the well, and throw a pin into it afterwards.” At another “the custom
prevails of tying rags to the branches of a tree growing close at hand”;
and at the third, “it is the custom for those who are healed in it to
tie a shred of linen or cotton to the branches of a tree that stands
close by; and there the shreds are almost as numerous as the leaves.”
Further (p. 363) we read of another Ffynnon Faglan, and of this Rhys
says, “One told me his mother used to take him to it when he was a child
for sore eyes, bathe them with the water, and then drop in a pin. The
other man, when he was young, bathed in it for rheumatism.” Of this well
it is recorded that when it was cleaned out about fifty years ago “two
basinfuls of pins were taken out,” which were all bent, but no coins
were found in it.
Wood-Martin[75] also gives an interesting account of the rite performed
at a certain well in Ireland; it is a little more elaborate than at
some, but affords an idea of what was probably at one time a very usual
ceremony in connection with stones in other places.
“In a statistical account of the parish of Dungiven, written in 1813, it
is stated that at the well of Tubberpatrick, after performing the usual
rounds, devotees wash their hands and feet with the water and tear off a
small rag from their clothes, which they tie on a bush overhanging the
well; from whence they all proceed to a large stone in the River Roe,
immediately below the old church, and having performed an oblation they
walk round the stone, bowing to it, and repeating prayers as at the
well. Their next movement is to the old church, within which a similar
ceremony goes on, and they finish this rite by a procession and prayers
round the upright stone.”
5. _Time of the chief festival._--On this point there is not a great
quantity of precise information, but what we have points to May 1 as
being about the time when the holy wells are most frequented and
considered most efficacious.
This lack of information arises from the fact that the existence of the
May year in prehistoric times has not been even dreamt of by those who
have compiled the various accounts of the fast fading traditions, and in
very many instances a reference to an unknown saint’s day is the only
information given as to the time of the annual celebration. Wide
generalisation, therefore, from the material at hand is risky.
I will refer in the first instance to the May worship, and begin with
the famous Madron well in Cornwall, the walls of which I found to be
oriented to the May sunrise, so that the priest officiating at the altar
would face the sunrise. Quiller-Couch (p. 137) thus refers to what
happened there.
“Children used to be taken to this well on the first three Sunday
mornings in May to be dipped in the water, that they might be cured of
the rickets, or any other disorder with which they were troubled. Three
times they were plunged into the water, after having been stripped
naked; the parent, or person dipping them, standing facing the sun;
after the dipping they were passed nine times round the well from east
to west; then they were dressed and laid on St. Madern’s bed; should
they sleep, and the water in the well bubble, it was considered a good
omen. Strict silence had to be kept during the entire performance, or
the spell was broken. At the present time the people go to the well in
crowds on the first Sunday in May, when the Wesleyans hold a service
there, and a sermon is preached; after which the people throw in two
pins or pebbles to consult the spirit, or try for sweethearts; if the
two articles sink together, they will soon be married.
“Here divination is performed on May morning by rustic maidens anxious
to know when they are to be married. Two pieces of straw about an inch
long are crossed and transfixed with a pin. This, floated on the waters,
elicits bubbles, the number of which, carefully counted, denotes the
years before the happy day.”
Chapel Euny in Cornwall, near the Bartinné circle, has a wishing (lucky)
well near it. It was used on one of the three first Wednesdays in May.
Children suffering from mesenteric disease are dipped three times
“widderschynnes,” that is contrary to the sun’s motion, and dragged
round the well three times in the same direction.[76]
Edmunds[77] thus refers to this well:--
“Some years since I had the curiosity to go with a friend to Chapel Euny
on one of these Wednesdays, and, whilst watching at a distance, we saw
two women come to the well at the appointed hour, and perform this
ceremony on an infant.”
_Alsia Well_, in the parish of Buryan, same parish as Bolleit circle,
has its well ceremonials on the first three Wednesdays in May.
In Cornwall the May bathing ceremonial is even carried out in salt
water.[78] The time chosen is the same as that at Madron and Chapel
Euny, the first three Sundays in May.
This Sunday in May celebration is not confined to Cornwall. At Eden
Hall, Giant’s Cave, water with sugar is drunk on the third Sunday in
May. A vast concourse of both sexes is present.[79]
At Rorrington, a township in the parish of Chirbury, was a holy well at
which a wake was celebrated on Ascension Day.
In the account of this well given by Gomme (p. 82) we get a glimpse of
many associated usages.
“The well was adorned with a bower of green boughs, rushes, and flowers,
and a may-pole was set up. The people walked round the well, dancing and
frolicking as they went. They threw pins into the well to bring good
luck and to preserve them from being bewitched, and they also drank some
of the water. Cakes were also eaten; they were round flat buns from
three to four inches across, sweetened, spiced, and marked with a cross,
and they were supposed to bring good luck if kept.”
The legend given by Quiller-Couch (p. 55) respecting St. Cuthbert’s well
in North Cornwall is that “in olden times mothers on Ascension Day
brought their deformed or sickly children here, and dipped them in, at
the same time passing them through the aperture connecting the two
cisterns; and thus, it is said, they became healed of their disease or
deformity. It would seem that other classes also believed virtue to
reside in its water; for it is said that the cripples were accustomed to
leave their crutches in the hole at the head of the well.”
At the village of Tissington, near Ashbourne, in Derbyshire, the custom
of well-flowering is still observed on every anniversary of the
Ascension (Hope, p. 48).
We may gather from these associated observances at different places that
the wells themselves were situated near circles, for the worshippers
would not be distributed at such a time. This argument is strengthened
by the custom of “waking the well” which took place on the patron
saint’s day.
With regard to the time of the day or night at which well-worship took
place, there seems little doubt that for the most part it was carried on
at night. The practices connected with the “waking of the well” indicate
this clearly, and when it is remembered that these ancient worships were
carried on at a time when marriage had not been instituted, we can
understand that many ‘pagan’ rituals savoured of sensualism as we should
now think and call it.
The particular times when it was considered most propitious for the
_sick_ to visit the wells appear anciently to have been at daybreak or
sunrise.
At the well at Farr, in Sutherlandshire, it is held that the patient,
after undergoing his plunge, drinking of the water, and making his
offering, “must be away from the banks so as to be fairly out of sight
of the water before the sun rises, else no cure is effected.” At Roche
Holywell, in Cornwall, before sunrise on holy Thursday was the appointed
time.
Sometimes the moment of sunrise is chosen. To bathe in the well of St.
Medan, at Kirkmaiden in Wigtonshire, as the sun rose on the first Sunday
in May was considered an infallible cure for almost any disease.
On the other hand, in some cases, as at St. Madron’s well, noon is
chosen on the first three Sundays in May, “not believing that these
waters have any virtue if resorted to on any other days of the year, or
at any other hour of the day.”
With regard to the August festival, there is a holy well at St. Cleer,
near the Hurlers; the festival is held on August 9th.[80] I have no
special references to August wells in Ireland, but there is evidence
given by Piers[81] that at that time cattle were bathed.
“On the first Sunday in harvest, viz., in August, they will be sure to
drive their cattle into some pool or river and therein swim them; this
they observe as inviolable as if it were a point of religion, for they
think no beast will live the whole year thro’ unless they be thus
drenched. I deny not but that swimming cattle, and chiefly in this
season of the year, is healthful unto them, as the poet hath observed:--
“Balantemque gregem fluvio mersare salubri.”--_Virg._
In th’ healthful flood to plunge the bleating flock.
but precisely to do this on the first Sunday in harvest, I look on as
not only superstitious but profane.”
I next come to the solstice in June.
There is evidence concerning wells quite akin to that furnished by the
astronomical use of the circles, that the May year festivals were
subsequently changed to solstitial dates. The well worship does not
appear to have been carried on in the cold weather--hence the absence of
references to February and November; for the same reason we have only
now to do with the summer solstice.
Hazlitt quotes the following from the Irish Hudibras (1689) concerning
June worship at a well in the North of Ireland:--
“Have you beheld, when people pray
At St. John’s well on Patron-Day,
By charm of priest and miracle,
To cure diseases at this well;
The valleys filled with blind and lame,
And go as limping as they came.”
At Barnwell (Beirna-well = youths’ well), near Cambridge, the festival
took place on St. John’s Day.[82]
Brand, in his history of Newcastle (ii. 54), refers to a well still
called Bede’s Well, near Jarrow. “As late as 1740 it was a prevailing
custom to bring children troubled with any disease or infirmity; a
crooked pin was put in, and the well laved dry between each dipping. My
informant has seen twenty children brought together on a Sunday, to be
dipped in this well, at which also, on Midsummer Eve, there was a great
resort of neighbouring people, with bonfires, music, etc.”
Hope gives references to seven wells dedicated to “St. John,” one to
“St. John the Baptist,” and four to St. Peter. These _may_ have been
solstitial wells, but the information given is very slight and not to
the present point. He states (xxii) that the most important celebrations
were first held in May and at the summer solstice. He then adds, “later
Easter and Ascensiontide were the favoured seasons.” May, Summer
Solstice and Easter was, I think, the true order.
Finally, I may refer to the earliest holy well known to history. This is
the famous well at Heliopolis where Rā used to wash himself, and
Piankhi, B.C. 740, went and washed his face in it. At this same well the
Virgin sat and washed her Son’s swaddling bands in it. Its water made
the balsam trees to grow. It is now called by the Arabs “The Fountain of
the Sun” ‘Êyn ash-Shems.
[53] The literature that I have chiefly consulted is as follows:--
R. C. Hope _Holy Wells; their Legends and Traditions._
R. L. Quiller-Couch _Ancient and Holy Wells of Cornwall._
W. G. Wood-Martin _Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland._
G. L. Gomme _Ethnology in Folklore._
Prof. Rhys _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh._
W. C. Borlase _Dolmens of Ireland._
S. Baring-Gould _A Book of the West._
[54] _Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland, A Folklore Sketch_, ii., p.
47.
[55] Pp. 11, 47.
[56] _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh_, ii., p. 366.
[57] Wood-Martin, _loc. cit._, ii., p. 80.
[58] _Standing Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness_, by Magnus Spence, p.
13.
[59] That is from W. to E. through N., or E. to W. through S.; in the
same direction as the hands of a clock.
[60] _The Dolmens of Ireland_, i., p. 3.
[61] _Ibid._, pp. 95, 765.
[62] _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh_, i., p. 332.
[63] Borlase, _loc. cit._, p. 760.
[64] _Ibid._, p. 426.
[65] Rhys, _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh_, p. 363.
[66] _Pagan Ireland_, p. 160.
[67] Rhys, _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh_, i., pp. 354, 356, 357, &c.
[68] Rhys, _ibid._, p. 332.
[69] _Ethnology in Folklore_, p. 78.
[70] Sikes: _British Goblins_, p. 351.
[71] Sikes, _idem._, p. 329.
[72] _Folklore_, 1892, p. 89.
[73] _Pagan Ireland_, p. 145.
[74] _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh._
[75] _Pagan Ireland_, p. 160.
[76] Hope, p. 14.
[77] _The Land’s End District_, p. 72.
[78] Edmunds, p. 72.
[79] Hope, p. 40.
[80] St. Cleer = St. Cledod, A.D. 482. The arms of St. Cleer are the Sun
in its glory.
[81] Description of Westmeath, 1682, quoted by Vallencey, i., 121.
[82] Hazlitt, ii., 616.