DOWNFALL OF STRAFFORD AND LAUD
1640-1641
Opening of the new Parliament.--The king's speech.--Attacks on
Strafford and Laud.--Speeches against them.--Feelings of
hostility.--Bill of attainder.--Mode of proceeding.--The
trial.--Proceedings against Strafford.--Arrest of Strafford.--Usher of
the black rod.--Laud threatened with violence.--Arrest of Laud on the
charge of treason.--Laud's speech.--His confinement.--Trial of
Strafford.--Unjust conduct of the Commons.--Arrangements at
Westminster Hall.--Charges.--Imposing scene.--Strafford's able and
eloquent defense.--The charge of treason a mere pretext.--Vote on the
bill of attainder.--Interposition of the king.--Clamor of the
populace.--Condemnation.--The king hesitates about signing the
bill.--The Tower.--Strafford's letter to the king.--The king signs the
bill.--Strafford's surprise.--The king asks mercy for
Strafford.--Mercy refused.--Strafford's message to Laud.--Composure of
Strafford.--His execution.--Execution of Laud.--His firmness.
The Parliament assembled in November, 1640. The king proceeded to
London to attend it. He left Strafford in command of the army at York.
Active hostilities had been suspended, as a sort of temporary truce
had been concluded with the Scots, to prepare the way for a final
treaty. Strafford had been entirely opposed to this, being still full
of energy and courage. The king, however, began to feel alarmed. He
went to London to meet the Parliament which he had summoned, but he
was prepared to meet them in a very different spirit from that which
he had manifested on former occasions. He even gave up all the
external circumstances of pomp and parade with which the opening of
Parliament had usually been attended. He had been accustomed to go to
the House of Lords in state, with a numerous retinue and great parade.
Now he was conveyed from his palace along the river in a barge, in a
quiet and unostentatious manner. His opening speech, too, was
moderate and conciliatory. In a word, it was pretty evident to the
Commons that the proud and haughty spirit of their royal master was
beginning to be pretty effectually humbled.
Of course, now, in proportion as the king should falter, the Commons
would grow bold. The House immediately began to attack Laud and
Strafford in their speeches. It is the theory of the British
Constitution that the king can do no wrong; whatever criminality at
any time attaches to the acts of his administration, belongs to his
_advisers_, not to himself. The speakers condemned, in most decided
terms, the arbitrary and tyrannical course which the government had
pursued during the intermission of Parliaments, but charged it all,
not to the king, but to Strafford and Laud. Strafford had been, as
they considered, the responsible person in civil and military affairs,
and Laud in those of the Church. These speeches were made to try the
temper of the House and of the country, and see whether there was
hostility enough to Laud and Strafford in the House and in the
country, and boldness enough in the expression of it, to warrant their
impeachment.
The attacks thus made in the House against the two ministers were
made very soon. Within a week after the opening of Parliament, one of
the members, after declaiming a long time against the encroachments
and tyranny of Archbishop Laud, whose title, according to English
usage, was "his Grace," said he hoped that, before the year ran round,
his grace would either have more grace or no grace at all; "for," he
added, "our manifold griefs do fill a mighty and vast circumference,
yet in such a manner that from every part our lines of sorrow do meet
in him, and point at him the center, from whence our miseries in this
Church, and many of them in the Commonwealth, do flow." He said, also,
that if they must submit to a pope, he would rather obey one that was
as far off as the Tiber, than to have him come as near as the Thames.
Similar denunciations were made against Strafford, and they awakened
no opposition. On the contrary, it was found that the feeling of
hostility against both the ministers was so universal and so strong,
that the leaders began to think seriously of an impeachment on a
charge of high treason. High treason is the greatest crime known to
the English law, and the punishment for it, especially in the case of
a peer of the realm, is very terrible. This punishment was generally
inflicted by what was called a bill of attainder, which brought with
it the worst of penalties. It implied the perfect destruction of the
criminal in every sense. He was to lose his life by having his head
cut off upon a block. His body, according to the strict letter of the
law, was to be mutilated in a manner too shocking to be here
described. His children were disinherited, and his property all
forfeited. This was considered as the consequence of the _attainting_
of the blood, which rendered it corrupt, and incapable of transmitting
an inheritance. In fact, it was the intention of the bill of attainder
to brand the wretched object of it with complete and perpetual infamy.
The proceedings, too, in the impeachment and trial of a high minister
of state, were always very imposing and solemn. The impeachment must
be moved by the Commons, and tried by the Peers. A peer of the realm
could be tried by no inferior tribunal. When the Commons proposed
bringing articles of impeachment against an officer of state, they
sent first a messenger to the House of Peers to ask them to arrest the
person whom they intended to accuse, and to hold him for trial until
they should have their articles prepared. The House of Peers would
comply with this request, and a time would be appointed for the trial.
The Commons would frame the charges, and appoint a certain number of
their members to manage the prosecution. They would collect evidence,
and get every thing ready for the trial. When the time arrived, the
chamber of the House of Peers would be arranged as a court room, or
they would assemble in some other hall more suitable for the purpose,
the prisoner would be brought to the bar, the commissioners on the
part of the Commons would appear with their documents and their
evidence, persons of distinction would assemble to listen to the
proceedings, and the trial would go on.
It was in accordance with this routine that the Commons commenced
proceedings against the Earl of Strafford, very soon after the opening
of the session, by appointing a committee to inquire whether there was
any just cause to accuse him of treason. The committee reported to the
House that there was just cause. The House then appointed a messenger
to go to the House of Lords, saying that they had found that there was
just cause to accuse the Earl of Strafford of high treason, and to
ask that they would sequester him from the House, as the phrase was,
and hold him in custody till they could prepare the charges and the
evidence against him. All these proceedings were in secret session, in
order that Strafford might not get warning and fly. The Commons then
nearly all accompanied their messenger to the House of Lords, to show
how much in earnest they were. The Lords complied with the request.
They caused the earl to be arrested and committed to the charge of the
_usher of the black rod_, and sent two officers to the Commons to
inform them that they had done so.
The usher of the black rod is a very important officer of the House of
Lords. He is a sort of sheriff, to execute the various behests of the
House, having officers to serve under him for this purpose. The badge
of his office has been, for centuries, a black rod with a golden lion
at the upper end, which is borne before him as the emblem of his
authority. A peer of the realm, when charged with treason, is
committed to the custody of this officer. In this case he took the
Earl of Strafford under his charge, and kept him at his house,
properly guarded. The Commons went on preparing the articles of
impeachment.
This was in November. During the winter following the parties
struggled one against another, Laud doing all in his power to
strengthen the position of the king, and to avert the dangers which
threatened himself and Strafford. The animosity, however, which was
felt against him, was steadily increasing. The House of Commons did
many things to discountenance the rites and usages of the Episcopal
Church, and to make them odious. The excitement among the populace
increased, and mobs began to interfere with the service in some of the
churches in London and Westminster. At last a mob of five hundred
persons assembled around the archbishop's palace at Lambeth.[E] This
palace, as has been before stated, is on the bank of the Thames, just
above London, opposite to Westminster. The mob were there for two
hours, beating at the doors and windows in an attempt to force
admission, but in vain. The palace was very strongly guarded, and the
mob were at length repulsed. One of the ringleaders was taken and
hanged.
[Footnote E: See view of this palace on page 133.]
One would have thought that this sort of persecution would have
awakened some sympathy in the archbishop's favor; but it was too
late. He had been bearing down so mercilessly himself upon the people
of England for so many years, suppressing, by the severest measures,
all expressions of discontent, that the hatred had become entirely
uncontrollable. Its breaking out at one point only promoted its
breaking out in another. The House of Commons sent a messenger to the
House of Lords, as they had done in the case of Strafford, saying that
they had found good cause to accuse the Archbishop of Canterbury of
treason, and asked that he might be sequestered from the House, and
held in custody till they could prepare their charges, and the
evidence to sustain them.
The archbishop was at that time in his seat. He was directed to
withdraw. Before leaving the chamber he asked leave to say a few
words. Permission was granted, and he said in substance that he was
truly sorry to have awakened in the hearts of his countrymen such a
degree of displeasure as was obviously excited against him. He was
most unhappy to have lived to see the day in which he was made subject
to a charge of treason. He begged their lordships to look at the whole
course of his life, and he was sure that they would be convinced that
there was not a single member of the House of Commons who could really
think him guilty of such a charge.
Here one of the lords interrupted him to say that by speaking in that
manner he was uttering slander against the House of Commons, charging
them with solemnly bringing accusations which they did not believe to
be true. The archbishop then said, that if the charge must be
entertained, he hoped that he should have a fair trial, according to
the ancient Parliamentary usages of the realm. Another of the lords
interrupted him again, saying that such a remark was improper, as it
was not for him to prescribe the manner in which the proceedings
should be conducted. He then withdrew, while the House should consider
what course to take. Presently he was summoned back to the bar of the
House, and there committed to the charge of the usher of the black
rod. The usher conducted him to his house, and he was kept there for
ten weeks in close confinement.
At last the time for the trial of Strafford came on, while Laud was in
confinement. The interest felt in the trial was deep and universal.
There were three kingdoms, as it were, combined against one man.
Various measures were resorted to by the Commons to diminish the
possibility that the accused should escape conviction. Some of them
have since been thought to be unjust and cruel. For example, several
persons who were strong friends of Strafford, and who, as was
supposed, might offer testimony in his favor, were charged with
treason and confined in prison until the trial was over. The Commons
appointed thirteen persons to manage the prosecution. These persons
were many months preparing the charges and the evidence, keeping their
whole proceedings profoundly secret during all the time. At last the
day approached, and Westminster Hall was fitted up and prepared to be
the scene of the trial.
[Illustration: WESTMINSTER HALL]
Westminster Hall has the name of being the largest room whose roof is
not supported by pillars, in Europe. It stands in the region of the
palaces and the Houses of Parliament at Westminster, and has been for
seven centuries the scene of pageants and ceremonies without number.
It is said that ten thousand persons have been accommodated in it at a
banquet.[F] This great room was fitted up for the trial. Seats were
provided for both houses of Parliament; for the Commons were to be
present as accusers, and the Lords as the court. There was, as usual,
a chair of state, or throne, for the king, as a matter of form. There
was also a private gallery, screened from the observation of the
spectators, where the king and queen could sit and witness the
proceedings. They attended during the whole trial.
[Footnote F: It is two hundred and seventy feet long, seventy-five
wide, and ninety high.]
One would have supposed that the deliberate solemnity of these
preparations would have calmed the animosity of Strafford's enemies,
and led them to be satisfied at last with something less than his
utter destruction. But this seems not to have been the effect. The
terrible hostilities which had been gathering strength so long, seemed
to rage all the more fiercely now that there was a prospect of their
gratification. And yet it was very hard to find any thing sufficiently
distinct and tangible against the accused to warrant his conviction.
The commissioners who had been appointed to manage the case divided
the charges among them. When the trial commenced, they stated and
urged these charges in succession. Strafford, who had not known
beforehand what they were to be, replied to them, one by one, with
calmness and composure, and yet with great eloquence and power. The
extraordinary abilities which he had shown through the whole course of
his life, seemed to shine out with increased splendor amid the awful
solemnities which were now darkening its close. He was firm and
undaunted, and yet respectful and submissive. The natural excitements
of the occasion; the imposing assembly; the breathless attention; the
magnificent hall; the consciousness that the opposition which he was
struggling to stem before that great tribunal was the combined
hostility of three kingdoms, and that the torrent was flowing from a
reservoir which had been accumulating for many years; and that the
whole civilized world were looking on with great interest to watch the
result; and perhaps, more than all, that he was in the unseen presence
of his sovereign, whom he was accustomed to look upon as the greatest
personage on earth; these, and the other circumstances of the scene,
filled his mind with strong emotions, and gave animation, and energy,
and a lofty eloquence to all that he said.
The trial lasted eighteen days, the excitement increasing consistently
to the end. There was nothing proved which could with any propriety
be considered as treason. He had managed the government, it is true,
with one set of views in respect to the absolute prerogatives and
powers of the king, while those who now were in possession of power
held opposite views, and they considered it a matter of necessity that
he should die. The charge of treason was a pretext to bring the case
somewhat within the reach of the formalities of law. It is one of the
necessary incidents of all governmental systems founded on force, and
not on the consent of the governed, that when great and fundamental
questions of policy arise, they often bring the country to a crisis in
which there can be no real settlement of the dispute without the
absolute destruction of one party or the other. It was so now, as the
popular leaders supposed. They had determined that stern necessity
required that Laud and Strafford must die; and the only object of
going through the formality of a trial was to soften the violence of
the proceeding a little, by doing all that could be done toward
establishing a legal justification of the deed.
The trial, as has been said, lasted eighteen days. During all this
time, the leaders were not content with simply urging the proceedings
forward energetically in Westminster Hall. They were maneuvering and
managing in every possible way to secure the final vote. But,
notwithstanding this, Strafford's defense was so able, and the failure
to make out the charge of treason against him was so clear, that it
was doubtful what the result would be. Accordingly, without waiting
for the decision of the Peers on the impeachment, a bill of attainder
against the earl was brought forward in the House of Commons. This
bill of attainder was passed by a large majority--yeas 204, nays 59.
It was then sent to the House of Lords. The Lords were very unwilling
to pass it.
While they were debating it, the king sent a message to them to say
that in his opinion the earl had not been guilty of treason, or of any
attempt to subvert the laws; and that several things which had been
alleged in the trial, and on which the bill of attainder chiefly
rested, were not true. He was willing, however, if it would satisfy
the enemies of the earl, to have him convicted of a misdemeanor, and
made incapable of holding any public office from that time; but he
protested against his being punished by a bill of attainder on a
charge of treason.
This interposition of the king in Strafford's favor awakened loud
expressions of displeasure. They called it an interference with the
action of one of the houses of Parliament. The enemies of Strafford
created a great excitement against him out of doors. They raised
clamorous calls for his execution, among the populace. The people made
black lists of the names of persons who were in the earl's favor, and
posted them up in public places, calling such persons Straffordians,
and threatening them with public vengeance. The Lords, who would have
been willing to have saved Strafford's life if they had dared, began
to find that they could not do so without endangering their own. When
at last the vote came to be taken in the House of Lords, out of eighty
members who had been present at the trial, only forty-six were present
to vote, and the bill was passed by a vote of thirty-five to eleven.
The thirty-four who were absent were probably all against the bill,
but were afraid to appear.
The responsibility now devolved upon the king. An act of Parliament
must be signed by the king. He really enacts it. The action of the two
houses is, in theory, only a recommendation of the measure to him. The
king was determined on no account to give his consent to Strafford's
condemnation. He, however, laid the subject before his Privy Council.
They, after deliberating upon it, recommended that he should sign the
bill. Nothing else, they said, could allay the terrible storm which
was raging, and the king ought to prefer the peace and safety of the
realm to the life of any one man, however innocent he might be. The
populace, in the mean time, crowded around the king's palace at
Whitehall, calling out "_Justice! justice!_" and filling the air with
threats and imprecations; and preachers in their pulpits urged the
necessity of punishing offenders, and descanted on the iniquity which
those magistrates committed who allowed great transgressors to escape
the penalty due for their crimes.
The queen, too, was alarmed. She begged the king, with tears, not any
longer to attempt to withstand the torrent which threatened to sweep
them all away in its fury. While things were in this state, Charles
received a letter from Strafford in the Tower, expressing his consent,
and even his request, that the king should yield and sign the bill.
The Tower of London is very celebrated in English history. Though
called simply by the name of the Tower, it is, in fact, as will be
seen by the engraving in the frontispiece, an extended group of
buildings, which are of all ages, sizes, and shapes, and covering an
extensive area. It is situated below the city of London, having been
originally built as a fortification for the defense of the city. Its
use for this purpose has, however, long since passed away.
Strafford said, in his letter to the king,
"To set your Majesty's conscience at Liberty, I do most humbly
beseech your Majesty for Prevention of Evils, which may happen by
your Refusal, to pass this Bill. Sir, My Consent shall more
acquit you herein to God, than all the World can do besides; To a
willing Man there is no Injury done; and as by God's Grace, I
forgive all the World, with a calmness and Meekness of infinite
Contentment to my dislodging Soul, so, Sir, to you I can give the
Life of this World with all the cheerfulness imaginable, in the
just Acknowledgment of your exceeding Favors; and only beg that
in your Goodness you would vouchsafe to cast your gracious Regard
upon my poor Son and his three sisters, less or more, and no
otherwise than as their unfortunate Father may hereafter appear
more or less guilty of this Death. God long preserve your
Majesty."
On receiving this letter the king caused the bill to be signed. He
would not do it with his own hands, but commissioned two of his
council to do it in his name. He then sent a messenger to Strafford to
announce the decision, and to inform him that he must prepare to die.
The messenger observed that the earl seemed surprised; and after
hearing that the king had signed the bill, he quoted, in a tone of
despair, the words of Scripture, "Put not your trust in princes, nor
in the sons of men, for in them is no salvation." Historians have
thought it strange that Strafford should have expressed this
disappointment when he had himself requested the king to resist the
popular will no longer; and they infer from it that he was not sincere
in the request, but supposed that the king would regard it as an act
of nobleness and generosity on his part, that would render him more
unwilling than ever to consent to his destruction, and that he was
accordingly surprised and disappointed when he found that the king had
taken him at his word. It is said, however, by some historians, that
this letter was a forgery, and that it was written by some of
Strafford's enemies to lead the king to resist no longer. The reader,
by perusing the letter again, can perhaps form some judgment whether
such a document was more likely to have been fabricated by enemies, or
really written by the unhappy prisoner himself.
The king did not entirely give up the hope of saving his friend, even
after the bill of attainder was signed. He addressed the following
message to the House of Lords.
My Lords,--I did yesterday satisfy the Justice of this Kingdom by
passing the Bill of Attainder against the Earl of Strafford: but
Mercy being as inherent and inseparable to a King as Justice, I
desire at this time in some measure to show that likewise, by
suffering that unfortunate Man to fulfill the natural course of
his Life in a close Imprisonment: yet so, if ever he make the
least Offer to escape, or offer directly or indirectly to meddle
in any sort of public Business, especially with Me either by
Message or Letter, it shall cost him his Life without farther
Process. This, if it may be done without the Discontentment of my
People, will be an unspeakable Contentment to me.
"I will not say that your complying with me in this my intended
Mercy, shall make me more willing, but certainly 'twill make me
more cheerful in granting your just Grievances: But if no less
than his Life can satisfie my People, I must say Let justice be
done. Thus again recommending the consideration of my Intention
to you, I rest,
"Your Unalterable and Affectionate Friend,
"CHARLES R."
[Illustration: STRAFFORD AND LAUD]
The Lords were inexorable. Three days from the time of signing the
bill, arrangements were made for conducting the prisoner to the
scaffold. Laud, who had been his friend and fellow-laborer in the
king's service, was confined also in the Tower, awaiting his turn to
come to trial. They were not allowed to visit each other, but
Strafford sent word to Laud requesting him to be at his window at the
time when he was to pass, to bid him farewell, and to give him his
blessing. Laud accordingly appeared at the window, and Strafford, as
he passed, asked for the prelate's prayers and for his blessing. The
old man, for Laud was now nearly seventy years of age, attempted to
speak, but he could not command himself sufficiently to express what
he wished to say, and he fell back into the arms of his attendants.
"God protect you," said Strafford, and walked calmly on.
He went to the place of execution with the composure and courage of a
hero. He spoke freely to those around him, asserted his innocence,
sent messages to his absent friends, and said he was ready and willing
to die. The scaffold, in such executions as this, is a platform
slightly raised, with a block and chairs upon it, all covered with
black cloth. A part of the dress has to be removed just before the
execution, in order that the neck of the sufferer may be fully exposed
to the impending blow. Strafford made these preparations himself, and
said, as he did so, that he was in no wise afraid of death, but that
he should lay his head upon that block as cheerfully as he ever did
upon his pillow.
* * * * *
Charles found his position in no respect improved by the execution of
Strafford. The Commons, finding their influence and power increasing,
grew more and more bold, and were from this time so absorbed in the
events connected with the progress of their quarrel with the king,
that they left Laud to pine in his prison for about four years. They
then found time to act over again the solemn and awful scene of a
trial for treason before the House of Peers, the passing of a bill of
attainder, and an execution on Tower Hill. Laud was over seventy years
of age when the ax fell upon him. He submitted to his fate with a
calmness and heroism in keeping with his age and his character. He
said, in fact, that none of his enemies could be more desirous to send
him out of life than he was to go.