Washington Irving, American historian and essayist, was born
on April 3, 1783, in New York, of a family which came
originally from Scotland. He knew Europe well, and was equally
at home in London, Paris, and Madrid; he held the offices, in
1829, of Secretary to the American Embassy in London, and, in
1842, of American Minister in Spain. He was deeply interested
in Spanish history, and besides the "Life and Voyages of
Christopher Columbus," he wrote "The Voyages of the Companions
of Columbus," "The Conquest of Granada," "The Alhambra," and
"Legends of the Conquest of Spain." He was an industrious man
of letters, having an excellent style, wide knowledge, and
pleasant humour. His chief work was the "Life of George
Washington," of which we give an epitome elsewhere. Other
writings include "A History of New York, by Diedrich
Knickerbocker," the celebrated "Sketch Book," "Bracebridge
Hall," "Tales of a Traveller," and a "Life of Goldsmith."
Irving did not marry, and died on November 28, 1859, in his
home at Sunnyside on the Hudson River, and is buried at
Tarrytown. The "Life of Columbus" was published in 1828 and is
now obtainable in a number of popular editions.
_The Years of Waiting_
Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa about 1435, of poor but reputable
parents. He soon evinced a passion for geographical knowledge, and an
irresistible inclination for the sea. We have but shadowy traces of his
life till he took up his abode in Lisbon about 1470. His contemporaries
describe him as tall and muscular; he was moderate and simple in diet
and apparel, eloquent, engaging, and affable. At Lisbon he married a
lady of rank, Doña Felipa. He supported his family by making maps and
charts.
Portugal was prosecuting modern discovery with great enthusiasm, seeking
a route to India by the coast of Africa; Columbus's genius conceived the
bold idea of seeking India across the Atlantic. He set it down that the
earth was a terraqueous globe, which might be travelled round. The
circumference he divided into twenty-four hours. Of these he imagined
that fifteen hours had been known to the ancients; the Portguese had
advanced the western frontier one hour more by the discovery of the
Azores and the Cape de Verde Islands; still, about eight hours remained
to be explored. This space he imagined to be occupied in great measure
by the eastern regions of Asia. A navigator, therefore, pursuing a
direct course from east to west, must arrive at Asia or discover
intervening land.
The work of Marco Polo is the key to many of the ideas of Columbus. The
territories of the Great Khan were the object of his search in all his
voyages. Much of the success of his enterprise rested on two happy
errors; the imaginary extent of Asia to the east, and the supposed
smallness of the earth. Without these errors he would hardly have
ventured into the immeasurable waste of waters of the Atlantic.
A deep religious sentiment mingled with his thoughts; he looked upon
himself as chosen from among men, and he read of his discovery as
foretold in Holy Writ. Navigation was still too imperfect for such an
undertaking; mariners rarely ventured far out of sight of land. But
knowledge was advancing, and the astrolabe, which has been modified into
the modern quadrant, was being applied to navigation. This was the one
thing wanting to free the mariner from his long bondage to the land.
Columbus now laid his great project before the King of Portugal, but
without success. Greatly disappointed, he sailed to Spain, hoping to
receive the patronage of Ferdinand and Isabella. It was many months
before he could even obtain a hearing; his means were exhausted, and he
had to contend against ridicule and scorn, but the royal audience was at
length obtained. Ferdinand assembled learned astronomers and
cosmographers to hold a conference with Columbus. They assailed him with
citations from the Bible. One objection advanced was, that should a ship
ever succeed in reaching India, she could never come back, for the
rotundity of the globe would present a mountain, up which it would be
impossible to sail. Finally, after five years, the junta condemned the
scheme as vain and impossible.
Columbus was on the point of leaving Spain, when the real grandeur of
the subject broke at last on Isabella's mind, and she resolved to
undertake the enterprise. Articles of agreement were drawn up and signed
by Ferdinand and Isabella. Columbus and his heirs were to have the
office of High Admiral in all the seas, lands, and continents he might
discover, and he was to be viceroy over the said lands and continents.
He was to have one-tenth of all profits, and contribute an eighth of the
expense of expeditions. Columbus proposed that the profits from his
discoveries should be consecrated to a crusade.
_The First Voyage_
(August, 1492--March, 1493)
Columbus set out joyfully for Palos, where the expedition was to be
fitted out. He had spent eighteen years in hopeless solicitation, amidst
poverty, neglect, and ridicule. When the nature of the expedition was
heard, the boldest seamen shrank from such a chimerical cruise, but at
last every difficulty was vanquished, and the vessels were ready for
sea. Two of them were light, half-decked caravels; the Santa Maria, on
which Columbus hoisted his flag, was completely decked. The whole number
of persons was one hundred and twenty.
Columbus set sail on August 3, 1492, steering for the Canary Islands.
From there they were wafted gently over a tranquil sea by the trade
wind, and for many days did not change a sail. The poor mariners
gradually became uneasy at the length of the voyage. The sight of small
birds, too feeble to fly far, cheered their hearts for a time, but again
their impatience rose to absolute mutiny. Then new hopes diverted them.
There was an appearance of land, and the ships altered their course and
stood all night to the south-west, but the morning light put an end to
their hopes; the fancied land proved to be an evening cloud.
Again the seamen broke forth into loud clamours, and insisted on
abandoning the voyage. Fortunately, the following day a branch with
berries on it floated by; they picked up also a small board and a carved
staff, and all murmuring was now at an end. Not an eye was closed that
night. Columbus took his station on the top of the cabin. Suddenly,
about ten o'clock, he beheld a light. At two in the morning the land was
clearly seen, and they took in sail, waiting for the dawn. The great
mystery of the ocean was revealed.
When the day dawned, Columbus landed, threw himself upon his knees,
kissed the earth, and returned thanks to God. Rising, he drew his sword,
displayed the royal standard, and took possession in the names of the
Castillian sovereigns, naming the island San Salvador. It is one of the
Bahama Islands, and still retains that name, though also called Cat
Island.
The natives thought that the ships had descended from above on their
ample wings, and that these marvellous beings were inhabitants of the
skies. They appeared to be simple and artless people, and of gentle and
friendly dispositions. As Columbus supposed that the island was at the
extremity of India, he called them Indians. He understood them to say
that a king of great wealth resided in the south. This, he concluded,
could be no other than Cipango, or Japan. He now beheld a number of
beautiful islands, green, level, and fertile; and supposed them to be
the archipelago described by Marco Polo. He was enchanted by the lovely
scenery, the singing of the birds, and the brilliantly colored fish,
though disappointed in his hopes of finding gold or spice; but the
natives continued to point to the south as the region of wealth, and
spoke of an Island called Cuba.
He set sail in search of it, and was struck with its magnitude, the
grandeur of its mountains, its fertile valleys, sweeping plains, stately
forests, and noble rivers. He explored the coast to the east end of
Cuba, supposing it the extreme point of Asia, and then descried the
mountains of Hayti to the south-east. In coasting along this island,
which he named Hispaniola, his ship was carried by a current on a
sandbank and lost. The admiral and crew took refuge in one of the
caravels. The natives, especially the cacique Guacanagari, offered him
every assistance. The Spanish mariners regarded with a wistful eye the
easy and idle existence of these Indians, who seemed to live in a golden
world without toil, and they entreated permission to remain.
This suggested to Columbus the idea of forming the germ of a future
colony. The cacique was overjoyed, and the natives helped to build a
fort, thus assisting to place on their necks the yoke of slavery. The
fortress and harbour were named La Navidad.
Columbus chose thirty-nine of those who volunteered to remain, charged
them to be circumspect and friendly with the natives, and set sail for
Spain. He encountered violent tempests, his small and crazy vessels were
little fitted for the wild storms of the Atlantic; the oldest mariners
had never known so tempestuous a winter, and their preservation seemed
miraculous. They were forced to run into Tagus for shelter. The King of
Portugal treated Columbus with the most honourable attentions. When the
weather had moderated he put to sea again, and arrived safely at Palos
on March 15, having taken not quite seven months and a half to
accomplish this most momentous of all maritime enterprises.
Columbus landed and walked in procession to the church to return thanks
to God. Bells were rung, the shops shut, and all business suspended. The
sovereigns were dazzled by this easy acquisition of a new empire. They
addressed Columbus as admiral and viceroy, and urged him to repair
immediately to court to concert plans for a second expedition. His
journey to Barcelona was like the progress of a sovereign, and his
entrance into that city has been compared to a Roman triumph. On his
approach the sovereigns rose and ordered him to seat himself in their
presence. When Columbus had given an account of his voyage, the king and
queen sank on their knees, and a _Te Deum_ was chanted by the choir of
the royal chapel. Such was the manner in which the brilliant court of
Spain celebrated this sublime event.
The whole civilised world was filled with wonder and delight, but no one
had an idea of the real importance of the discovery. The opinion of
Columbus was universally adopted that Cuba was the end of Asia; the
islands were named the West Indies, and the vast region was called the
New World.
_The Second Voyage_
(September, 1493--June, 1496)
Extraordinary excitement prevailed about the second expedition, and many
hidalgos of high rank pressed into it. They sailed from Cadiz in
September 1493; all were full of animation, anticipating a triumphant
return. When they reached La Navidad they found the fortress burnt. At
length, from some natives they heard the story of the brawls of the
colonists between themselves, and their surprise and destruction by
unfriendly Indians. Columbus fixed upon a new site for his colony, which
he named Isabella. Two small expeditions were sent inland to explore,
and returned with enthusiastic accounts of the promise of the mountains,
and Columbus sent to Spain a glowing report of the prospects of the
colony.
Soon, however, maladies made their appearance, provisions began to fail,
and murmuring prevailed among the colonists. In truth, the fate of many
of the young cavaliers, who had come out deluded by romantic dreams, was
lamentable in the extreme. Columbus arranged for the government of the
island, and set sail to explore the southern coast of Cuba, supposing it
to be the extreme end of Asia. He had to contend with almost incredible
perils, and was obliged to return. Had he continued for two or three
days longer he would have passed round the extremity of Cuba; his
illusion would have been dispelled, and a different course given to his
subsequent discoveries.
During his absence from Isabella the whole island had become a scene of
violence and discord. Margarite, the general left in charge of the
soldiers, and Friar Boyle, the apostolical vicar, formed a cabal of the
discontented, took possession of certain ships, and set sail for Spain,
to represent the disastrous state of the country, and to complain of the
tyranny of Columbus. The soldiers indulged in all kinds of excesses, and
the Indians were converted from gentle hosts into vindictive enemies.
Meanwhile, a commissioner was sent out to inquire into the distress of
the colony and the conduct of Columbus. He collected all complaints, and
returned to Spain, Columbus sailing at the same time. Never did a more
miserable crew return from a land of promise.
The vessels anchored at Cadiz, and a feeble train of wretched men
crawled forth, emaciated by diseases. Contrary to his anticipation,
Columbus was received with distinguished favour. Thus encouraged, he
proposed a further enterprise, and asked for eight ships, which were
readily promised; but it was not until May 1498, that he again set sail.
_The Third Voyage_
(May, 1498--October, 1500)
From the Cape de Verde Islands, Columbus steered to the south-west,
until he arrived at the fifth degree of north latitude. The air was like
a furnace, the mariners lost all strength and spirit, and Columbus was
induced to alter his course to the northwest. After sailing some
distance they reached a genial region with a cooling breeze and serene
and clear sky. They descried three mountains above the horizon; as they
drew nearer, they proved to be united at the base, and Columbus,
therefore, named this island La Trinidad. He coasted round Trinidad, and
landed on the mainland, but mistook it for an island. He was astonished
at the body of fresh water flowing into the Gulf of Paria, and came to
the conclusion that it must be the outpouring of a great unknown
continent stretching to the south, far beyond the equator. His supplies
were now almost exhausted, and he determined to return to Hispaniola.
He found the island in a lamentable situation. A conspiracy had been
formed against his viceroy, and the Indians, perceiving the dissensions
among the Spaniards, threw off their allegiance. After long negotiations
Columbus was forced to sign a humiliating capitulation with the rebels.
Meanwhile, every vessel that returned from the New World came freighted
with complaints against Columbus. The support of the colony was an
incessant drain upon the mother country. Was this compatible, it was
asked, with the pictures he had drawn of the wealth of the island?
Isabella herself at last began to entertain doubts about Columbus, and
the sovereigns decided to send out Don Francisco del Bobadilla to
investigate his conduct. This officer appears to have been needy,
passionate, and ambitious. He acted as if he had been sent out to
degrade the admiral, not to inquire into his conduct. He threw Columbus
into irons, and seized his arms, gold, jewels, books, and most secret
manuscripts. Columbus conducted himself with characteristic magnanimity,
and bore all indignities in silence. Bobadilla collected testimony
sufficient, as he thought, to ensure the condemnation of Columbus, and
sent him a prisoner to Spain.
The arrival of Columbus at Cadiz, in chains, produced almost as great a
sensation as his first triumphant return. A general burst of indignation
arose. The sovereigns sent orders that he should be instantly set at
liberty, and promised that Columbus should be reinstated in all his
dignities. But Ferdinand repented having invested such great powers in
any subject, and especially in a foreigner. Plausible reasons were given
for delaying his reappointment, and meanwhile Don Nicholas de Ovando was
sent out to supersede Bobadilla.
_The Fourth Voyage_
(May, 1502--November, 1504)
Columbus's thoughts were suddenly turned to a new enterprise. Vasco da
Gama had recently reached India round the Cape of Good Hope, and immense
wealth was poured by this route into Portugal. Columbus was persuaded
that the currents of the Caribbean Sea must pass between Cuba and the
land which he had discovered to the south, and that this route to India
would be more easy and direct than that of Vasco da Gama. His plan was
promptly adopted by the sovereigns, and he sailed in May 1502, on his
last and most disastrous voyage. He steered to Hispaniola, but was not
permitted to land, and then coasted along Honduras and down the Mosquito
Coast to Costa Rica. Here he found gold among the natives, and heard
rumours of Mexico. He continued beyond Cape Nombre de Dios in search for
the imaginary strait, and then gave up all attempt to find it.
Possibly he knew that another voyager, coasting from the eastward, had
reached this point. He turned westward to search for the gold-mines of
Veragua, and attempted unsuccessfully to found a settlement there. As
his vessels were no longer capable of standing the sea, he ran them
aground on Jamaica, fastened them together, and put the wreck in a state
of defence. He dispatched canoes to Hispaniola, asking Ovando to send a
ship to relieve him, but many months of suffering and difficulty elapsed
before it came.
Columbus returned to Spain in November 1504. Care and sorrow were
destined to follow him; his finances were exhausted, and he was unable,
from his infirmities, to go to court. The death of Isabella was a fatal
blow to his fortunes. Many months were passed by him in painful and
humiliating solicitation for the restitution of his high offices. At
length he saw that further hope of redress from Ferdinand was vain. His
illness increased, and he expired, with great resignation, on May 20,
1506.
Columbus was a man of great and inventive genius, and his ambition was
noble and lofty. Instead of ravaging the newly-found countries, he
sought to found regular and prosperous enterprises. He was naturally
irritable and impetuous, but, though continually outraged in his
dignity, and foiled in his plans by turbulent and worthless men, he
restrained his valiant and indignant spirit, and brought himself to
forbear and reason, and even to supplicate. His piety was genuine and
fervent, and diffused a sober dignity over his whole deportment.
He died in ignorance of the real grandeur of his discovery. What visions
of glory would have broken upon his mind could he have known that he had
indeed discovered a new continent! And how would his spirit have been
consoled, amidst the afflictions of age and the injustice of an
ungrateful king, could he have anticipated the empires which would arise
in the world he had discovered; and the nations, towns, and languages,
which were to revere and bless his name to the latest posterity!
* * * * *