THE PRIESTHOOD.
Shinto illustrates the principle enunciated by Herbert Spencer, that
"in early stages of social evolution the secular and the sacred are
but little distinguished." The Mikado was at the same time high priest
and king. There was no well-marked distinction between secular and
religious ceremonies. The functionaries who performed the latter
had no specially sacerdotal character and no distinctive costume.
The Jingikwan, or Department of Religion, was simply a Government
bureau, and the rites celebrated in its chapel were as much Government
proceedings as the issuing of decrees or the collection of taxes.
Almost any official might be called upon to discharge religious
functions. The local governors on their appointment made a round of
visits for worship to all the shrines in their jurisdiction. All the
principal shrines had State endowments. The word _matsuri-goto_,
government, is simply _matsuri_, a religious festival, with the
termination _koto_, thing, which adds nothing to its etymological
significance. Hirata says that the worship of the Gods is the source of
Government--nay, it is Government. The same word _miya_ (august-house)
was in common use both for shrines and palaces. There was, however,
a beginning of a differentiation of sacred and secular functions.
The Mikado delegated some of his religious duties to the Nakatomi
House, and, as we shall see, other religious duties were hereditary in
other families. Thus a Sun-worship Be, or hereditary corporation, was
established in 577. One version of the myth of Ohonamochi represents
him as giving up his authority with the words, "Let the august
grandchild direct the public affairs of which I have charge: I will
retire and direct secret matters." Evidently we have here an echo of
some actual separation of civil and religious authority. Far on into
historical times the guardians of the "Great Shrine" of Ohonamochi
in Idzumo retained a title (_kuni no miyakko_) which, like that of
pontifex at Rome, implied the performance of secular duties. In the
reign of Kwammu (782-806) it was found that the local nobility (_kuni
no miyakko_), many of whom still acted as governors, neglected their
civil functions, on the pretence that their time was occupied by
religious duties. A decree was therefore issued that in future no local
nobles should hold the office of civil governor.
=The Mikado=.--The chief priest of Shinto is the Mikado himself. Jimmu,
the legendary founder of the dynasty, is represented as performing
sacrifice in person. Jingō is said to have acted on one occasion as
_kannushi_. In historical times Mikados presided personally over the
ceremonies of Nihiname, Shinkonjiki, Kanname, and other festivals. Even
at the present day the Mikado's priestly functions are not entirely
obsolete.
=Nakatomi=.--For many centuries most of the Mikado's sacerdotal
functions have been delegated. In the Jimmu legend there is mention of
the appointment of a Michi no Omi (minister of the way) as ruler of a
festival in honour of Taka-musubi. At the dawn of history we find the
Nakatomi hereditary corporation the recognized vicars of the Mikado.
Tradition traces their descent from the God Koyane. The most probable
etymology of Nakatomi explains it as put for _Naka-tsu-omi_, that is
to say, the minister of the middle. Hirata understands by this that
the Nakatomi were mediators between the Gods and the Mikado, reciting
the Mikado's _norito_ to the Gods, and communicating to him their
instructions received by divination. In Shinto, however, there was no
indispensable sacerdotal mediator. There was nothing to prevent the
Mikado, or any one, from holding direct communication with the deities.
A branch of the Nakatomi House, which in the seventh century took
the name of Fujihara, was famous in later history. Up to 1868 the
nominal Prime Ministers and Regents were invariably taken from it.
The officials of the Jingikwan, or Department of Religion, were
largely Nakatomi, as were also the Chokushi, or Imperial envoys to
the local shrines. Yet the Nakatomi were hardly what we should call
a priestly caste, like the Levites or Brahmins. The local priesthood
were not ordinarily Nakatomi, and many of this House held purely civil
appointments.
The Jingikwan took precedence even of the Dajōkwan, or Grand Council
of State. It was presided over by an official called Haku. He had the
supreme control of all the Shinto State ceremonies, and authority over
the local priesthood. He was assisted by a vice-president, and had
a staff of Imbe, Urabe, and clerks. The Haku took the place of the
Mikado when the latter was prevented by illness from offering his daily
prayers. From the eleventh century up till quite recently the Haku was
one of the Shirakaha family, who trace their descent from the Mikado
Kwazan (985-6), and enjoyed the title of _Ô_, or prince. As explained
above, the Nakatomi were practically the Imperial family.
=Imbe=.--The Imbe were another hereditary corporation, descended, it
was said, from the God Futodama (great-gift). Their chief business was
to prepare the offerings, and their name Imi-be (_imi_ means avoidance,
or religious abstinence) has reference to the care with which they
avoided all sources of impurity in doing so. The Imbe, after praying to
the Mountain-God, cut down with a sacred (_imi_) axe the trees required
for shrines, or at least began the work, leaving it to be completed by
ordinary workmen. They also dug the foundations with a sacred (_imi_)
mattock. Two of the _norito_, namely, the Ohotono and the Mikado,
were read by them. It was also their duty, at least at one period, to
deliver the regalia to the Mikado at his coronation.
A Chinese description of Japan, written long before the _Kojiki_ or
_Nihongi_, gives the following account of what were in all probability
the predecessors of the Imbe:--
"_They (the Japanese) appoint a man whom they call an 'abstainer.' He
is not allowed to comb his hair, to wash, to eat flesh, or to approach
women. When they are fortunate, they make him presents, but if they are
ill, or meet with disaster, they set it down to the abstainer's failure
to keep his vows, and unite to put him to death._"[174]
This is a description of a typical ascetic. In the Imbe of historical
times we have the closely allied idea of scrupulous attention to
religious purity. But they were not celibates or vegetarians except _ad
hoc_ when a festival was impending, and so far from neglecting the care
of their persons, strict cleanliness was incumbent upon them.
=Urabe=.--A third hereditary religious corporation in ancient Japan
was that of the diviners or Urabe. They are mentioned in the _Nihongi_
under the date A.D. 585. They were divided at a later period into four
branches, belonging respectively to the provinces of Iki, Tsushima,
Idzu, and Hitachi. Twenty of these diviners were attached to the
Jingikwan. It was their duty to decide by the deer's shoulder-blade
or tortoise-shell divination such matters as were referred to them
by the superior officials of the department. Urabe were despatched
to the provinces to fetch the rice which was used in the Ohonihe
ceremony. It was also their duty to take away and throw into a river
the _harahe-tsu-mono_, or offerings of purification. For many centuries
this office has been in the hands of the Yoshida family, whose
exorbitant pretensions fill Hirata with indignation.
The Nakatomi, Imbe, Urabe, and Ô (princes of the Shirakaha House),
constitute what are called the Shi-sei, or four surnames of the
Jingikwan.
=Saishu=.--The high-priest at Ise was called Saishu, or worship-master.
This office was hereditary in the Fujinami family, a branch of the
Nakatomi.
=Daigūji=.--The high-priests of Atsuta, Kashima, Usa, and Aso were
termed Daigūji, or great-shrine-functionaries. There was a Dai-gū-ji at
Ise, subordinate to the Saishu. This office was also hereditary.
=Kannushi=.--Kannushi is for _kami-nushi_, that is, deity-master. It is
the most general word for Shinto priest. Properly it is only the chief
priest of the shrine who is so designated. The Kannushi are appointed
by the State. In early times their duties were performed by officials
who already held secular posts. In 820 a decree was made prohibiting
this practice, as it was found that such Kannushi neglected the care of
the shrines of which they had charge. At the present time many Kannushi
combine other avocations with their sacerdotal functions. The title
may even be conferred on a layman by way of honour. The late famous
actor Danjuro was an example. Kannushi are not exempted from military
service. They are not celibates, and may return to the laity whenever
they please. It is only when engaged in worship that they wear the
distinctive dress of their office, which consists of a loose gown,
fastened at the waist with a girdle, and a black cap called _eboshi_,
bound round the head with a broad white fillet. Even this is not really
a sacerdotal costume, but simply one of the old official dresses of the
Mikado's Court. No special education is necessary for the discharge of
the duties of a Kannushi, which consist in the recital of the annual
prayers and in attending to the repair of the shrine.
=Hafuri or Hōri=.--The hafuri are priests of an inferior grade.
This word, though now written with Chinese characters which mean
"prayer-official," is connected with the verb _hoburu_ or _hafuru_,
to slaughter, to throw away. _Hōmuru_, to bury, is another form of
the same word. The _Nihongi_ says that in 642, at the bidding of the
village hafuri, horses and cattle were killed as a sacrifice in order
to procure rain. The high-priest of the God Minagata at Suha is styled
Oho-hafuri (great hafuri). At the festival of this God the heads of
seventy-five deer are presented as offerings, while the flesh is eaten
by the priests. If others than the priests wish to partake of it
without pollution, they get chopsticks from the priests which answer
this purpose. These facts point to the conclusion that the hafuri were
originally sacrificers. Offerings of animal food were common in ancient
times.
The term _hafuri-tsu-mono_ (flung-away-things) is used as equivalent to
_harahi-tsu-mono_ (expiatory offerings), and is also applied to funeral
offerings.
=Negi=.--This was another name for priests of lower rank. The word is
probably connected with _negafu_, to pray. The negi of Miha and Mikami
are called imi-bi (fire-avoid) because they are specially careful to
avoid impurity in respect to fire. They will not use the same fire for
cooking as other people.
=Miyakko=.--The hereditary chief priests of Kitsuki in Idzumo and the
affiliated shrine of Hinokuma in Kir were called _miyakko_, a term
which originally meant "local governor."
=Priestesses.=--There are several categories of priestesses attached
to Shinto shrines. Their mythical prototype is Uzume, the Goddess who
danced before the cave into which the Sun-Goddess retired when insulted
by her brother Susa no wo.
=Saiwö=.--At the beginning of every reign, an unmarried princess
of the Imperial blood was chosen by divination and consecrated to
the service of the Sun-Goddess at Ise. For three years previous to
taking up her duties she went every first day of the month to an
_imi-dono_ (sacred-hall) and worshipped towards the Great Shrine
of Ise. This was called the _mi-tose no mono-imi_, or "three years'
purity." The Saiwö is also called Itsuki no miya or Saigū, sacred or
worship-palace--properly the name of her residence. There was a similar
appointment to the shrine of Kamo, where the Ujigami of the Mikados
was worshipped. She was also called Saiwö, and both herself and her
residence were termed Sai-in, that is, "sacred hall." These offices
were discontinued early in the thirteenth century.
=Kamu no ko= (God-child).--The Kamu no ko were also called _miko_,
august child, or sometimes _mono-imi_, that is, avoiders of (impure)
things. They were young girls attached to all the principal shrines
for the performance of the kagura dances, and cooking the food for
offerings. They also occasionally became the medium of divinely
inspired utterances. From the _Yengishiki_ we learn that at that time
there were a number of kamuko in the palace for the service of the
numerous shrines there. They were appointed at the age of seven or
upwards from the families of the local nobles (miyakko). Their places
were supplied by others when they got married.
At Kumano in Tango there are certain families whose female children
are devoted to the service of the Shrine of Susa no wo. When a girl
is born, a divine arrow flies down and sticks in the roof-tree of the
house. At the age of four or five, the child thus designated is sent to
wait on the God. Though the place is among the mountains, such children
are never harmed by wild beasts. When they begin to show signs of
puberty, a great dragon comes and glares fiercely at them. Thereupon
they return home.[175]
=Ichi-ko=.--The ichi-ko or agata-miko are parish mediums who are called
in when communication is desired with the spirits of the dead. They are
sometimes called adzusa miko, from their use of a bow of adzusa wood
in their conjurations. There are also strolling ichiko of indifferent
character, who for a trifling consideration will throw open the gates
of the spirit world. These are modern institutions.
=Kamube=.--The peasants who tilled the glebe lands of the shrine and
their place of residence were alike termed kamu-be (God-corporation).
The present city of Kōbe takes its name from one of these. In the times
when slavery was a Japanese institution there were slaves attached to
some of the shrines.
Recent statistics give the number of Shinto priests as 14,766. Their
maximum salary is about £20 per month.
FOOTNOTES:
[174] For an account of similar priests or medicine men in many other
countries, see 'The Golden Bough.' The Nazirite (Numbers vi.) is their
Jewish counterpart.
[175] See Hirata's _Koshiden_, xviii. 23.