caucasica_, comes from rocks which seem to be of that age. The back part of
the skull of this animal, the only part of the skull known, has the same
squarish excavation of the maxillaries that characterises _Inia_ and
_Pontoporia_. Its lower jaw was slender and possessed numerous teeth.
The long snout and jaws of Platanistids, especially exaggerated in
_Pontoporia_ among living forms, are constantly found in these Tertiary
Platanistids.
_Eurhinodelphis_ had a beak three and a half times the length of the
cranium, whereas in _Pontoporia_ the proportions are as 2:1. The teeth too
were very numerous.
The genus _Argyrocetus_, from Patagonian Tertiary strata, was an animal
about as large as the existing Dolphin. It had the {384} slender rostrum
and numerous teeth of the Platanistids and the squared excavations of the
maxillaries. _Argyrocetus patagonicus_ possessed also archaic characters,
suggesting earlier affinities still. The two condyles of the skull instead
of being closely adpressed to the skull stood out in a way more like that
met with in terrestrial mammals. The nasal bones instead of being
abbreviated rudiments are well developed as in the archaic Zeuglodonts. The
cervical vertebrae of this Whale are all perfectly free from each other and
individually long. The skull is on the whole bilaterally symmetrical; this
again is a feature more pronounced among the Platanistidae than among other
Odontocetes. Accompanying these generalised Cetacean characters are some
which show that the animal was too specialised to be the direct ancestor of
any existing forms. The end of the mandible was upturned and without teeth,
its form being quite unique among Cetacea. Other allied forms, such as
_Zarrhachis_ and _Priscodelphinus_, showed the same length of the cervical
vertebrae.
A very distinct family of extinct Whales is that of the SQUALODONTIDAE.
They to some extent bridge over the gap between the existing Odontoceti and
the Eocene Archaeoceti (Zeuglodonts).
The skull of these Whales was on the whole Dolphin-like. But they possessed
teeth which were distinctly specialised into incisors, canines, and molars.
The molars have a coarsely-serrated cutting edge as in the Zeuglodonts, and
are also to some extent two-rooted. But they are more numerous, and so far
approximate to the conditions which characterise the more typical modern
Odontocetes. _Squalodon_ was a long-beaked form, and _Prosqualodon_ had a
skull whose proportions are nearer those of _Kogia_.
SUB-ORDER 3. ARCHAEOCETI.
This division of the Whale tribe embraces but a single family,
ZEUGLODONTIDAE, of which but a single genus, _Zeuglodon_, can with
certainty be discriminated.
_Zeuglodon_ is an Eocene form of large size, with teeth which are limited
in number and disposed in three series as incisors, canines, and molars.
The molars are double-rooted, a fact which has given to the genus its name.
The nasal bones being long {385} instead of rudimentary like those of other
Whales, the blow-hole lies more in the middle of the face. The skull, too,
is not Whale-like in a number of other points. Thus the premaxillaries take
their fair share in the outline of the upper jaw; and, furthermore, bear
the incisor teeth. The parietals meet above in a crest and are not excluded
from the roof of the skull. The vertebrae of the neck are in no way
shortened; neither are they fused together. The ribs are double-headed, and
the sternum is made up of several pieces. Some naturalists, particularly
Professor D'Arcy Thompson,[265] have assigned a relationship to the Seals
to these ancient Cetacea; but others[266] have disputed this view chiefly
on the grounds that the characters which appear to be Seal-like are simply
characters which are generalised and so far at most not Whale-like. Thus
the long neck and the serrated character of the teeth may be accepted as
Seal-like on the one hand; but on the other, a simple serrated tooth and a
long neck are not by any means features of organisation which we should
consider out of the way in an ancient form of Cetacean which probably
preyed upon fish. The humerus of _Zeuglodon_, according to Mr. Lydekker,
puts out of court any possible near relationship to the Seals. But the
matter under dispute can be further studied by reference to the three
memoirs quoted below.
* * * * *
{386}
CHAPTER XIII
CARNIVORA[267]--FISSIPEDIA
ORDER VII. CARNIVORA
This order may be thus defined:--Small to large quadrupeds, terrestrial,
arboreal, or aquatic, of usually carnivorous habits. The teeth have
generally sharp and cutting edges, and the canines are well developed; the
incisors are small, and four to six in number. The number of toes is never
less than four. There are usually strong and sharp claws. The clavicles are
incomplete or absent. In the hand the scaphoid and lunar bones are always
united. The brain is well developed, and the hemispheres are well
convoluted. The stomach is always simple, while the caecum, if present, is
always small. The members of this group have a deciduate and zonary
placenta.
The fewness of the characters used in the above definition is chiefly owing
to the fact that the Seals and Sea-lions, although they are referable
without a doubt to this order, have undergone in their metamorphosis into
aquatic animals so many changes that some of the main features in the
structure of their terrestrial relatives have been lost. This group will,
however, be again characterised. We shall deal at present with the land
division of the Carnivora, the CARNIVORA FISSIPEDIA as they are generally
termed. The name is of course given to them to distinguish them from the
corresponding division of the PINNIPEDIA. In the latter group the feet and
hands are modified into "fins"; in the other the fingers and toes are
cleft, as with terrestrial beasts generally. {387}
SUB-ORDER 1. FISSIPEDIA.
[Illustration]
FIG. 190.--Under surface of the cranium of a Dog. x 1/2. _apf_, Anterior
palatine foramen; _AS_, alisphenoid; _as_, posterior opening of alisphenoid
canal; _BO_, basioccipital; _BS_, basisphenoid; _cf_, condylar foramen;
_eam_, external auditory meatus; _ExO_, exoccipital; _flm_, _flp_, foramen
lacerum medium and posterius; _fm_, foramen magnum; _fo_, foramen ovale;
_Fr_, frontal; _fr_, foramen rotundum; _gf_, glenoid fossa; _gp_,
post-glenoid process; _Ma_, malar; _Mx_, maxilla; _oc_, occipital condyle;
_op_, optic foramen; _Per_, mastoid portion of periotic; _pgf_,
post-glenoid foramen; _Pl_, palatine; _PMx_, premaxilla; _pp_, paroccipital
process; _ppf_, posterior palatine foramen; _PS_, presphenoid; _Pt_,
pterygoid; _sf_, sphenoidal fissure or foramen lacerum anterius; _sm_,
stylomastoid foramen; _SO_, supraoccipital; _Sq_, zygomatic process of
squamosal; _Ty_, tympanic bulla; _Vo_, vomer. (From Flower's _Osteology_.)
A very marked feature of the terrestrial Carnivora is to be found in the
structure of the teeth. The incisors are nearly always six, and are
somewhat feebly developed in many cases. The canines are almost invariably
very large strong teeth, and are always present. In some of the extinct
Cats they reached enormous dimensions. The number of cheek teeth is not
always identical; but the last premolar in the upper jaw and the first true
molar in the lower jaw, known as the "carnassial" or "sectorial" teeth,
mark a difference in structure between the anterior and the posterior
crushing teeth; those in front of the carnassial tooth have cutting edges,
and are often merely small, conical teeth; those behind have broader crowns
and are tuberculate; those of simpler forms often trituberculate; those of
others {388} with numerous tubercles. The carnassial tooth is often, but by
no means always, very much larger and especially longer than the rest of
the molar and premolar series. It is less pronounced in some of the
omnivorous Arctoidea. The skull of the Carnivora is longer in the more
primitive types, such as the Canidae, and shorter in the more specialised
Felidae. The orbit is hardly ever completely shut off by bone, though the
postorbital process of the frontal sometimes approaches the corresponding
upward process of the zygomatic arch. The palate, which is completely
ossified, sometimes reaches back for some distance behind the teeth; it
always extends as far as the last molar. The tympanic bulla is often very
inflated, and if flatter, as in the Bears, is at any rate large and
conspicuous. The lower jaw has a high coronoid process, and the condyle is
transversely elongated, this part of the bone being rolled into an almost
cylindrical form; it fits very closely into the glenoid cavity, and the
articulation is thereby very strict--an obvious advantage in a creature
with so great a need for power of jaw.
[Illustration]
FIG. 191.--A, Atlas of Dog. Ventral view, x 1/2. B, Axis of Dog. Side view,
x 2/3. _o_, Odontoid process; _pz_, posterior zygapophysis; _s_, spinous
process; _sn_, foramen for first spinal nerve; _t_, transverse process;
_v_, vertebrarterial canal. (From Flower's _Osteology_.)
In the vertebral column the atlas always has large wing-like processes; the
spine of the axis vertebra has a long antero-posteriorly elongated form.
The transverse processes of the fourth to the sixth cervicals are, as a
rule, double. These features, however, though characteristic of the
Carnivora are not by any means distinctive. The true sacrum consists of but
a single vertebra to which the ilia are attached; but at most two other
vertebrae are fused with this. The clavicle is always small and sometimes
quite rudimentary, or even absent. The spine of the scapula is well
developed, and almost equally divides the {389} surface of that bone. The
digits of the Carnivora are mostly five, and are never less than four. The
mode of progression may be digitigrade or plantigrade, and the intermediate
semidigitigrade mode of walking also occurs. The brain in all Carnivora is
large and well convoluted. The arrangement of the convolutions is
characteristic. There are three or four gyri disposed round each other, of
which the lowest surrounds the Sylvian fissure. The stomach in these
creatures is always simple in form, without {390} subdivisions. The caecum
is never large, and may be, as in the Bear tribe, completely absent.
[Illustration]
FIG. 192.--Brain of Dog. A, Ventral; B, dorsal; C, lateral aspect. _B.ol_,
Olfactory lobe; _Cr.ce_, crura cerebri; _Fi.p_, great longitudinal fissure;
_HH_, _HH_^1, lateral lobes of cerebellum; _Hyp_, hypophysis; _Med_, spinal
cord; _NH_, medulla oblongata; _Po_, pons Varolii; _VH_, cerebral
hemispheres; _Wu_, middle lobe (vermis) of cerebellum; _I-XII_, cerebral
nerves. (From Wiedersheim's _Comparative Anatomy_.)
The distribution of the Carnivora is world-wide, excluding only the
Australian region, if, as seems probable, the Dingo of that region is an
introduced species. The most striking features in their distribution are
perhaps the following:--There are no Bears in the Ethiopian region or in
Madagascar, and but a single species in the Neotropical. The only Carnivora
in Madagascar are the Viverridae, and of the seven genera there found six
are peculiar. The Procyonidae are nearly entirely New World in range; out
of sixteen genera of Mustelidae only five are New World, and only two of
those are peculiar to the American continent. The Hyaenidae are limited to
the Old World.
The classification of the Carnivora is a matter which is difficult, and
which has therefore been very variously effected. It is unfortunate that
the classification of Flower (based upon the researches of H. N. Turner as
well as his own, and accepted by Mivart) should fail when applied to fossil
forms. For it separates with great clearness the existing genera into three
great divisions, the Cynoidea, Aeluroidea, and Arctoidea, definable by
visceral as well as by osteological characters. The apparent anomaly, too,
of a single supposed Viverrine genus, to wit _Bassariscus_, existing in
America, while all the rest of its kin are Old-World forms, was shown by
his characters to be neither an anomaly nor a fact. It will be better,
therefore, to divide the Carnivora into the families, Felidae,
Machaerodontidae, Viverridae, Hyaenidae, Canidae, Ursidae, Procyonidae, and
Mustelidae, indicating at the same time the reasons for and against
retaining the three divisions of Sir W. Flower.
FAM. 1. FELIDAE.[268]--This family includes only the Cats (_i.e._ Lions,
Tigers, "Cats," Hunting Leopard, etc.), and is to be distinguished by the
following characters:--In the skull the auditory bulla is much inflated,
and there is an internal septum; the paroccipital processes are flattened
against the bullae. There is no alisphenoidal canal. The dental formula is
I 3, C 1, Pm 3 to 2, M 1. The carnassial tooth of the upper jaw has three
lobes to the blade; that of the lower jaw is without an inner cusp. {391}
The digits are five on the fore-feet, four on the hind. The caecum is
present and small. This family contains but two genera, _Felis_ and
_Cynaelurus_.
[Illustration]
FIG. 193.--Section of auditory bulla of Tiger. _am_, Auditory meatus; _BO_,
basioccipital; _e_, Eustachian canal; _ic_, _oc_, two chambers of bulla
divided by _s_, septum; *, their aperture of communication; _Pt_, periotic;
_Sq_, squamosal; _t_, tympanic ring. (From Flower's _Osteology_.)
The genus _Felis_ is very wide in its distribution, being common to both
the Old and the New Worlds. Its distinctive characters, as opposed to
_Cynaelurus_, are mainly the following:--The claws are retractile, and the
retractility is more markedly developed than in the Cheetah. The molar is
not so nearly in a line with the other teeth; the upper carnassial,
moreover, has an inner tubercle. The legs are relatively shorter.
The complete retractility of the claws is a very distinctive feature of the
true Cats. It is brought about in this way: the terminal joint of the toe,
which is clad with the claw, folds back into a sheath by the outer side of
or above the middle phalanx. It is held in this position by a strong
ligament. The flexor muscles straighten the phalanx which bears the claw,
so that the natural position for the animal is to be in a state of
retracted claws, which of course preserves them from friction; when wanted
for aggressive purposes, they are pulled into sight by the action of the
muscles already mentioned.
[Illustration]
FIG. 194.--The phalanges of the middle digit of the manus of the Lion
(_Felis leo_). x 1/2. _a_, The central portion forming the internal support
to the horny claw; _b_, the bony lamina reflected around the base of the
claw; _ph_^1, proximal phalanx; _ph_^2, middle phalanx; _ph_^3, ungual
phalanx. (From Flower's _Osteology_.)
Much has been written as to the shape of the pupil of the Cat's eye. Some
careful observations upon the matter have been {392} made by Dr. Lindsay
Johnson,[269] who found that out of 180 Domestic Cats 111 had round pupils,
and that in 19 the shape was a pointed oval, intermediate conditions being
offered by the rest. These 180 comprised males and females of many
varieties. When the pupil of the Cat's eye contracts, it forms a vertical
slit with two pin holes, one at each end, through which alone light appears
to enter. In the Genet and the Civet the contraction of the pupil is as in
the Cat. In the Lion, Tiger--in fact apparently in all the large Cats--the
pupil retains its circular shape even when contraction is fully effected.
Dr. Johnson has, furthermore,[270] made some interesting experiments upon
the Seal's eye--a creature which has, of course, to exert its powers of
vision in two media, and from one to the other. This is effected by
dilatation of the pupil when in the water, and its contraction to a
vertical slit with parallel margins and rounded ends when in the air, the
contraction being to some extent at least under the influence of the
animal's will.
The coloration of these creatures is very varied: spots of black, or
bordered with black upon a more or less tawny ground-colour, is the
prevailing pattern. Stripes are also met with, as in the Tiger, but these
are usually cross stripes,[271] while in the related Viverridae there are
many examples of longitudinal stripes. Finally, many Cats, as for instance
the Puma and the Eyra, are "self-coloured"--have, that is to say, a uniform
tint. Just as the unstriped Horse sometimes shows traces of the former
existence of stripes, so the self-coloured Cats are occasionally spotted
when young; this is markedly so in the case of the Puma; while the Lion is
spotted as a cub, and in the adult--particularly in the lioness--there are
distinct indications of these spots. It is evident, therefore, that there
are grounds for regarding a spotted condition to be antecedent, at least in
some cases, to a uniform colour. There are divers explanations of these
hues and of these changes. It is held by many that the coloration has a
relation to the habits of the creature: the spotted Cats, it is pointed
out, are largely arboreal; this is eminently so with the Jaguar at any
rate; and in an arboreal {393} creature the spots, it is said, give the
impression of flecks of sunlight broken up by foliage. On the other hand,
the self-coloured Cats of a sandy to earthen hue assimilate in tint with a
sandy or stony soil. The stripes of the Tiger, it is thought, approximate
to the tall parallel stems of grasses and other plants in the dense cover
in which it lives. In favour of these views is undoubtedly the fact that in
other mammals and other animals belonging to quite different groups the
same four plans of coloration are met with. Spots and cross stripes are
found in the Marsupials; the young Tapir is spotted while the adult is
self-coloured, and so forth. This last fact, however, serves to illustrate
another view which has been put forward in explanation of these
characteristic markings of the Felidae. Eimer has come to the conclusion
that there is and has been a regular series of steps in the evolution of
these markings. The primitive condition was, he thinks, a longitudinally
striped one; the stripes then broke up into spots, and the spots rearranged
themselves as transverse stripes; the self-coloured Puma and Lion are a
final stage in this gradual evolution. In support of this is the fact that
spots precede self-coloration in the individual growth of these animals.
The exact sequence of these markings is, however, contradicted by Dr.
Haacke's observations upon a certain Australian fish which is cross striped
when young and longitudinally striped when adult, a precise reversal of
what ought to occur on Eimer's view.
The Felidae are almost universally distributed with the exception, of
course, of Australia and a good deal of the Australian region; the
headquarters of the group are undoubtedly in the tropics of the Old World.
The characteristics of a few species of the Cat tribe will now be given. As
there are at any rate forty-five species, this survey will have to be
somewhat incomplete.
The Lion, _F. leo_, differs from all other species by the mane of the male.
It is an inhabitant of Africa, India, and certain parts of Western Asia.
Within the historic period it ranged into Europe. According to Sir Samuel
Baker those of us who have not seen the Lion in his native haunts have
never seen a really magnificent specimen of the brute; but other travellers
disagree, and state that a captive Lion is often a finer animal--by reason,
of course, of good feeding. Unlike the majority of Cats, the Lion {394}
cannot climb. His roar (which is so suggestive, towards its end, of that
animal who once dressed himself up in his skin) is literally _after_ his
prey. The Lion, it is stated, does not roar except upon a full stomach. The
Lion is mainly nocturnal in its habits, and is said to be not in the least
dangerous if unprovoked in the daytime; but here again opinions differ. The
tail of the animal is provided at the extremity with a slight claw, but it
can hardly be sufficient for the animal to lash itself into a fury with it.
A Lion will live for thirty or forty years, and will breed freely in
captivity. The Gardens of the Zoological Society of Dublin have been famed
for their success in breeding Lions; but more surprising still, this has
been successfully accomplished in travelling menageries. The "desert"
colour of the Lion is familiar to all. It is stated that the likeness to
the parched soil of certain parts of Africa is greatly heightened by black
patches in the mane, for in certain regions of that continent the arid
yellow of the general environment is diversified by pieces of black lava.
It is apparently a popular delusion to speak of the Maneless Lion of
Guzerat. No doubt maneless Lions do come from there, but so do young and
maneless Lions from other places; in short, it is simply a question of age,
and old Lions from the Asiatic continent are as fully maned as those from
Africa.
The Tiger, _F. tigris_, is an animal of about the same size as the Lion,
distinguished, of course, by the stripes. The skeletons are much like those
of other Cats; but the skull of the Tiger may be distinguished from that of
the Lion by the fact that the nasal bones reach back beyond the frontal
processes of the maxillae. The Tiger is an exclusively Asiatic beast,
ranging northward into icy Siberia. The northern individuals have a closer
fur, and have been quite unnecessarily separated as a distinct variety.
Nine feet six inches is the size of the average full-grown Tiger; but the
skins will stretch, a fact of which the sportsman will sometimes take
advantage. A "man-eater" is a Tiger which has discovered "that it is far
easier to kill a native than to hunt for the scarce jungle game." As with
the Lion, the accounts of travellers differ enormously, particularly with
regard to the strength of the creature. Some have said that a Tiger can
easily lift a full-grown bullock and leap with it in the mouth over a
considerable obstacle, a statement which is ridiculed by Sir Samuel Baker.
Unlike the Lion, the Tiger can climb trees; {395} it will also voluntarily
enter the water, and can swim considerable rivers.
Mr. H. N. Ridley[272] observes that Tigers "habitually swim over to
Singapore across the Johore Strait, usually by way of the intermediate
islands of Pulau Ubin and Pulau Tekong. They make the passage at night,
landing in the early morning. As so much of the coast is mangrove swamp,
and the animals do not risk going through the mud, they are only able to
cross where the shores are sandy, and thus they have regular starting- and
landing-places."
The Tiger is mainly nocturnal, but begins its depredations towards five
o'clock in the afternoon, before which it remains sleeping in shady
thickets. If the weather is rainy and windy it becomes restless and wanders
about earlier. Under the provocation of extreme hunger it will hunt during
the daytime. Hunger, too, naturally produces extreme boldness. Mr. Ridley
relates a story of four Tigers who walked up the steps of a house in search
of the master of the house or his dog, and broke into it, the inhabitants
retiring in their favour. The Malays have superstitions about Tigers, which
are precisely paralleled by the man-and-wolf stories of Europe. "Certain
people are supposed to have the power of turning into tigers for a short
time, and resuming their human form at pleasure. The transformation
commences tail first, and the human tiger is so completely changed that not
only has it all the actions and appearance of the tiger, but on resuming
its human form it is quite unconscious of what it has been doing in the
tiger state." Mr. Ridley disputes the common stories as to man-eaters. If a
Tiger has once tasted human flesh it does not always confine itself
afterwards to that article of diet, nor is it only aged and comparatively
toothless animals which hunt man. That they do take a large toll of coolies
is an undoubted fact, and many are the artifices to prevent the rest from
knowing the fate of one of their fellow-workmen, or of becoming acquainted
with the presence in the neighbourhood of one of the dreaded beasts.
The Leopard or Panther, _F. pardus_, is, like the Lion, African and Asiatic
in range. The animal is spotted with rosettes of black spots surrounding a
central field of the tawny colour of the body generally. Some of the spots
are solid and black. "The {396} pantere like unto the smaragdyne" seems to
be an inapt description of this Cat, unless indeed the eyes be referred to.
The ancients ascribed to it a most fragrant odour. As with the Tiger, a
northern variety of this Carnivore has a closer and longer fur. There is a
tendency towards melanism in this animal, the black Leopard being
comparatively common, particularly, it appears, in high lands. Several
other variations in colour are known. These have received different
specific names; but it seems that there is in reality but one species of
Leopard. The Leopard can climb with the agility of any Cat. Sir S. Baker
reserves the name Panther for large Leopards, which reach a length of 7
feet 6 inches. But there is no valid distinction between any two such
varieties. The Leopard is as ferocious as the Tiger; and Sir Samuel Baker
advises that the power of the human eye be not experimented with when
meeting unarmed one of these brutes.
[Illustration]
FIG. 195.--Snow Leopard. _Felis uncia._ x 1/20.
The Snow Leopard or Ounce, _F. uncia_, is a beautiful creature, confined to
the highlands of Central Asia. The ground-colour is white, and the spots
are larger than those of the ordinary Leopard. Two examples of this rather
rare Carnivore have been recently on view in the Zoological Society's
Gardens, London. The Clouded Leopard, _F. nebulosa_, is an animal of
considerable size (6 feet total length). {397}
The Fishing Cat, _F. viverrina_, of India and China, is about 3 feet 6
inches including the tail. Its black spots upon a grey-brown ground have a
tendency to form longitudinal lines. It is in fact, on Eimer's theory, a
case of longitudinal stripes breaking up into spots. It differs from the
bulk of Cats by preying upon fish, though it is not known how it catches
them. It also feeds upon the large snail _Ampullaria_. In addition to these
there are twenty-four species of Cats found in the Old World, mainly in the
Oriental region, of small to moderate size.
[Illustration]
FIG. 196.--European Lynx. _Felis lynx._ x 1/12.
The European Lynx, _F. lynx_, has rather long legs, a short tail, and
tufted, pointed ears. It has only two premolars in the upper jaw instead of
the usual three. It seems to be doubtful whether the Asiatic Lynx can be
distinguished from the European, but the Spanish form, _F. pardina_, does
appear to be distinct. The Common Lynx, sometimes called _F. canadensis_,
also ranges into America, where some other forms exist, known by the
specific names of _F. rufa_ and _F. baileyi_.
In America there are altogether sixteen species of Cats, if we allow three
species of Lynx, none of which, however, does Dr. Mivart allow to be
different from the European and Asiatic Lynx (_F. lynx_). {398}
The largest of American Cats is the Jaguar, _F. onca_. This is an arboreal
creature with a long, heavy body and short limbs. Its pelage is much like
that of the Leopard, but the spots are larger and more definitely arranged
in groups. There are a number of distinct rows of spots. The length of the
body alone is not greater than 4 feet. They prey very largely on the
Capybara, and upon turtles, which they surprise upon the sand when about to
lay their eggs; the reptiles are turned upon their backs, so as to be
incapable of escaping, and the Jaguar then easily devours them. The Jaguar
will even pursue the turtle into the water, and will devour its eggs and
the newly-hatched young.
[Illustration]
FIG. 197.--Jaguar. _Felis onca._ x 1/15.
The Ocelot is another spotted American Cat. _F. pardalis_[273] ranges from
Arkansas in North America southwards, its range corresponding with that of
the Jaguar. Although small for one of the "larger cats," the Ocelot
inspired with considerable respect Captain Dampier, who remarked of it:
"The Tigre-cat is about the bigness of a bull-dog, with short truss, body
shaped much like a mastiff, but in all things else, its head, the colour of
its hair, the manner of its preying, much resembling the {399} tigre, only
somewhat less.... But I have wisht them farther off when I have met them in
the woods; because their aspect appears so very stately and fierce."
[Illustration]
FIG. 198.--Ocelot. _Felis pardalis._ x 1/10.
The Puma, _F. concolor_, the American Lion as it is called in the north, is
a rather smaller animal than the last, and of a uniform tawny colour,
tending to white on the abdomen and to a dark stripe along the back. The
young, as already mentioned, are very distinctly spotted. Like the Tiger,
the Puma can endure extremes of heat and cold; it is equally at home in the
snow of North America and among the tropical forests and swamps of the
south. It is a ferocious creature so far as concerns Deer, Lamas, Raccoons,
even Skunks and Rheas, but, according to Mr. W. H. Hudson, will not attack
man, and will even defend him against the Jaguar.[274] In captivity the
Puma will purr like a Cat.
The Eyra, _F. eyra_, is another self-coloured American cat, which has a
curious likeness to the totally distinct _Cryptoprocta_ of Madagascar.
The Wild Cat of Europe, _F. catus_, is found over the greater part of
Europe, and also in Northern Asia. It was undoubtedly common at one time in
this country, though it appears never to have extended its range into
Ireland. But the real Wild Cat is now rare in this island, and is confined
to certain districts in {400} Scotland. Plenty of alleged wild Cats have
been seen and even shot; but these are too frequently merely feral Cats,
_i.e._ domestic tabbies which have reverted to a hunting life. The real
Wild Cat differs from the domestic races by the proportionately longer body
and limbs, the shorter and thicker tail; the pads of the toes are not quite
black. The period of the gestation of the Wild Cat, according to Mr. Cocks,
is a week or so longer than that of any domestic Cat.
The Domestic Cat is in fact regarded as the descendant of the Eastern _F.
caffra_, or (perhaps _and_) the closely-allied _F. maniculata_. It is
highly probable, however, that after introduction into this country as a
domestic animal it has interbred with the Wild Cat. Many allied species of
Cats will interbreed, even two so far apart as the Lion and the Tiger.
There are interesting archaeological and linguistic reasons for regarding
the Domestic Cat as an importation. The legend of Dick Whittington's Cat
points to it being a rare and valuable animal, which a tamed _F. catus_
would not at that time have been. There was an enactment in Wales of a
penalty against him who should kill the king's Cat, again suggestive of its
rarity and consequent value. The very name "Puss" is a hint of a foreign
origin. Some would derive it from Perse, and upon this is based the notion
that the Cat is from Persia. But it seems that Puss is the same as Pasht
and Bubastis, showing so far an Egyptian origin for the animal. The
ancestral Cats mentioned above are natives of Egypt.[275]
The genus _Cynaelurus_, which includes but a single species, _C. jubatus_,
the Cheetah or Hunting Leopard, is separated from _Felis_ by a number of
characters. In the first place the claws are non-retractile, or at least
less retractile than those of the true Cats. It is, moreover, longer
legged. The molar is more in a line with the other teeth of the jaw, and
the upper carnassial tooth has no inner tubercle. Messrs. Windle and
Parsons have lately pointed out many Dog-like features in the muscles. This
animal is about as large as a Leopard, but has plain black spots. As its
vernacular name implies it is used for sport, and is quite easily tameable.
It will purr like the Puma. The Cheetah occurs in India, Persia, Turkestan,
and also in Africa; the latter {401} form is sometimes, though quite
unnecessarily, separated as _C. lanigera_. The genus occurs fossil in the
Siwalik deposits of India, the species being known as _C. brachygnatha_.
FAM. 2. MACHAERODONTIDAE.--This is a family of totally-extinct Cats which
range from the Eocene down to the Pleistocene. Their general structure is
like that of the Felidae; but they differ in a number of skeletal features.
Thus there is an alisphenoid canal, and, as in Bears, there is a
postglenoid foramen. There is also a distinct carotid foramen, which does
not occur in the true Cats. The teeth are often distinguished by the huge
size of the superior canines, which are "weapons for penetrating wounds,
without rival among carnivorous animals." These must have been displayed at
the sides of the chin when the mouth was closed, and it has even been
suggested that the animal possessing these exaggerated canines could hardly
have properly closed its mouth. The lower canines were often on the
contrary much reduced, and in fact incisor-like. In tracing the series of
these Cats we find a gradual reduction of the teeth from a more nearly
complete number down to the specialised dentition of the existing Cats. The
genus _Proaelurus_, Miocene in range, had four premolars in each jaw, and
two molars in the lower and one in the upper. This is the greatest number
of teeth found in any member of the group.
The resemblance of this genus to _Cryptoprocta_ has been insisted upon.
_Archaelurus_ has suffered a reduction, since one premolar in the lower jaw
has disappeared, its formula being thus I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/3 M 1/2. The next
stage is shown by _Dinictis_ with three premolars in both jaws. There are a
good many species of this genus which are all American and Miocene. This
genus has five toes upon the hind-feet, and was probably plantigrade. It
had retractile claws.
In the genus _Nimravus_ the dental formula is still further reduced.
Another premolar of the lower jaw has gone, the formula being thus I 3/3
C 1/1 Pm 3/2 M 1/2. _Nimravus gomphodus_ was a Carnivore about the size of
a Panther. It has no third trochanter upon the femur, which process is
present in the corresponding bone of _Dinictis_. _Pogonodon_ was an equally
large animal in which the premolars were three in each jaw, but the molars
have become reduced to one in the lower, as they have in this and other
genera in the upper {402} jaw. Finally, _Hoplophoneus_ has acquired the
dentition of existing Cats.
The Machaerodons, however, show examples with a yet more reduced dentition
than that of the most reduced existing Cat, viz. the Lynx, which has only
two premolars in each jaw and one molar. In _Eusmilus_ the molar in both
jaws is single, and there is but one premolar in the lower jaw.
The genus _Machaerodus_ itself, which appears to include _Smilodon_, is
referred by Cope to the true Cats, and not to the Nimravidae, as he terms
the family which we have called here the Machaerodontidae. These creatures
are known as "Sabre-toothed Tigers," and were of very wide distribution,
occurring in South America as well as in Europe and North America. "As
nothing," remarks Professor Cope, "but the characters of the canine teeth
distinguished these from typical felines, it is to these that we must look
for the cause of their failure to continue. Professor Flower's suggestion
appears to be a good one, viz. that the length of these teeth became an
inconvenience and a hindrance to their possessors. I think there can be no
doubt that the huge canines in the Smilodons must have prevented the biting
off of flesh from large pieces, so as to greatly interfere with feeding,
and to keep the animals in poor condition. The size of the canines is such
as to prevent their use as cutting instruments excepting with the mouth
closed; for the latter could not have been opened sufficiently to allow any
object to enter it from the front. Even when it opens so far as to allow
the mandible to pass behind the apices of the canines, there would appear
to be some risk of the latter being caught on the point of one or the other
canine, and forced to remain open, causing early starvation. Such may have
been the fate of the fine individual of the _S. neogaeus_, Lund, whose
skull was found in Brazil by Lund, and which is familiar to us through the
figures of de Blainville."
_Machaerodus_ is placed among the Felidae on account of the fact that the
condyloid and carotid foramina unite with the foramen lacerum posterius.
But as in at least one species, _M. palmidens_, there is an alisphenoid
canal, which, however, has disappeared in the more recent American forms,
it seems permissible to retain the genus in the family Machaerodontidae
though its existence reduces the differential character of that family to a
minimum. The genus goes back to the Eocene. {403}
FAM. 3. VIVERRIDAE.--The Civets, Genets, and their kind differ from the
Cats in a number of points. They form, however, by no means so uniform an
assemblage as do the Cats; so that the difficulty is, as Dr. Mivart has
remarked, not to divide them into sub-families, but to avoid making too
many. But before proceeding to subdivide the family we shall describe the
characters of the family and contrast them with those of the Felidae.
All the Viverridae are comparatively small creatures. The head and body are
more elongate than in the Cats. The fingers and toes are generally five;
but there are some (e.g. _Cynictis_) where the formula of the toes is as in
the Cats, _i.e._ four on the hind-foot. In the Suricate the fingers are
also reduced to four. The claws are perhaps never completely
retractile,[276] and often are not at all so. The dental formulae of the
genera differ considerably; but in the majority there are more teeth than
in the Felidae. The well-known sharp-pointed, conical papillae of the Cat's
tongue are not present. The majority have a scent gland beneath the tail,
from which the perfume civet is derived. There are a number of osteological
characters which differentiate the two families; thus the alisphenoid canal
is sometimes present. The bulla is divided, as in the Cats, but is
externally constricted.
It seems clear from some at any rate of the characters, _i.e._ the more
complete dentition, the five-fingered hands and feet, the non-retractile
claws, etc., that the Civets are on a lower level of specialisation than
are the Cats.
SUB-FAM. 1. EUPLERINAE.--The genus _Eupleres_ is in many ways the most
aberrant type of Viverrid, and is placed in a sub-family, Euplerinae. Its
salient feature is the very peculiar dentition: peculiar in the small size
of the canines, the canine-like character of the anterior premolars, and
the resemblance of the premolars to molars. In some of the characters of
the teeth, _Eupleres_ is Insectivore-like, and was formerly grouped with
that family. There are four premolars and two molars in each jaw on each
side. It has five toes upon both fore- and hind-limbs; the skull is very
slender. It has no alisphenoid canal. The only species, _E. goudotii_, is
of an olive-grey colour, with dark bands across the shoulders in the young.
The nose and upper lip are grooved. There are no scent glands. It appears
to burrow in the ground, and possibly contents itself with a diet of worms.
_Eupleres_ is a {404} native of Madagascar, where all the most peculiar
Viverridae live.
SUB-FAM. 2. GALIDICTIINAE.--Mivart has placed in this sub-family the three
Mascarene genera, _Galidia_, _Hemigalidia_, and _Galidictis_. In them the
orbit is not enclosed by bone; there is no alisphenoid canal, and there are
five toes and fingers.
_Galidia_ consists of but one species, _G. elegans_, of a chestnut brown
colour, with a tail ringed with black. The claws are not retractile. The
scent gland is absent. There are five digits upon both hand and foot. There
are three premolars and two molars on each side of each jaw. The caecum is
(for an Aeluroid) long, and pointed at the apex; it is quite twice the
length of that of _Genetta_.
Closely allied to _Galidia_ is the genus _Hemigalidia_, of which there are
two species. It is distinguished from the last genus by the non-annulated
tail. It also differs in the dental formula, which is for the molars Pm 4/3
M 2/1. This animal is termed by Buffon the Vansire. He correctly enumerates
its grinders, and distinguishes it from the Ferret!
_Galidictis_ is a third genus from Madagascar containing two species, one
of which has been unfortunately named _G. vittata_, leading perhaps to some
confusion with the totally distinct _Galictis vittata_. As in the last two
genera the digits are five. The dental formula is that of _Galidia_. It is
distinguished from the other two genera of its sub-family by the
longitudinal brown striping of the upper part of the greyish body.
SUB-FAM. 3. CRYPTOPROCTINAE.--_Cryptoprocta_[277] represents a special
sub-family, Cryptoproctinae, and includes only a single species, the Fossa
(_C. ferox_) of Madagascar. It is the largest Carnivore of Madagascar,
being about twice the size of a Cat, but with an elongated body; the colour
is a tawny brown with no striping. The animal is active and lithe in its
motions, and is said to be of almost unexampled ferocity in disposition.
Its exact systematic position has been much discussed. By Zittel it is
placed in a sub-family (including the extinct _Proaelurus_ and
_Pseudaelurus_) of the Felidae. Mivart and Lydekker, on the other hand,
regard it as a genus of the Viverridae. The dental formula of the molars,
Pm 3/3 M 1/1, is {405} more like that of the _Felidae_ than of the
_Viverridae_, and the teeth are more Feline in structure. The claws of the
feet are retractile. As to internal structure the Fossa agrees largely with
the Viverridae, but then this family has no very marked points of
difference from the Felidae; but where the anatomy does diverge from that
of the Felidae it approaches the Viverridae, especially in the muscular
system.
[Illustration]
FIG. 199.--Fossa. _Cryptoprocta ferox._ x 1/6.
The remaining and by far the larger number of genera of Civets are grouped
by Professor Mivart in two sub-families: the VIVERRINAE, including the
genera _Viverra_, _Viverricula_, _Fossa_, _Genetta_, _Prionodon_, _Poiana_,
_Paradoxurus_, _Arctogale_, _Hemigale_, _Arctictis_, _Nandinia_, and
_Cynogale_; and the HERPESTINAE, including the genera _Herpestes_,
_Helogale_, _Cynictis_, and probably _Bdeogale_ and _Rhynchogale_. In the
Viverrinae the digits are always five, the claws are more or less
retractile, the prescrotal scent glands are usually present, and the anus
does not open into a sac. On the other hand, the Herpestinae are
characterised by the non-retractility of the claws, the absence of the
glands in question, and the fact that the anus does open into a terminal
sac.
SUB-FAM. 4. VIVERRINAE.--_Viverra_ includes the true Civets. The genus,
save for one African species, is Oriental in range. The molar formula is
the complete one for the Viverridae, viz. {406} Pm 4/4 M 2/2. The secretion
of the prescrotal gland of _V. civetta_ yields the civet of commerce.
The "Rasse," genus _Viverricula_, has been separated generically from the
true Civets. It is, remarkably enough, common to both Madagascar[278] and
many parts of the Oriental region. It is, moreover, capable of climbing
trees, which its relatives are not. It has no mane like _Viverra_ and is of
slighter build.
[Illustration]
FIG. 200.--Civet Cat. _Viverra civetta._ x 1/6.
_Prionodon_ or _Linsang_ differs from the last two genera in the loss of an
upper molar. It thus approaches the Cats, with which it also agrees in the
furry feet. It is a purely Oriental genus. It also resembles the Cats in
that the claws are apparently quite retractile, a feature not common among
the group. There are three species of the genus. _P. pardicolor_ has large
black spots and a ringed tail. Its body is some 15 inches in length. Dr.
Mivart has commented upon the particularly small caecum, which, like that
of _Arctictis_, seems to be on the verge of disappearance.
_Genetta_, including the Genets, is almost purely African. It has the full
tooth formula of _Viverra_; but is to be distinguished by the absence of a
scent pouch, and by a naked strip of skin running up the metatarsus. These
animals are all brownish yellowish to greyish with darker spots. The Common
Genet, _G. vulgaris_, is South European, and just gets into Asia; it is
also North African. The Genet, an animal "with an appetite for petty
carnage," is one of those smaller Carnivora which are possibly to be
regarded as meant by the word [Greek: gale], and appear to have
"functioned" as Cats among the Greeks. So recently as {407} the times of
Belon we are told (by him) that Genets were common and tame at
Constantinople.
_Poiana_, containing a single African species, a spotted and entirely
Genet-like animal, has been separated as a distinct genus. Dr. Mivart,
however, holds it to be a _Prionodon_ which has acquired a Genet-like
tarsus.
_Arctictis_, containing but one species, _A. binturong_, the Binturong, is
in some ways an exceptional form. It is a black arboreal creature of not
very wide range in the Oriental region, with a fully prehensile tail. This
feature and its plantigrade foot with naked sole have led to its being
regarded as more allied to the Arctoidea. It is, however, undoubtedly an
ally of _Paradoxurus_. The caecum is small, or may be quite absent. The
dentition is I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/3 M 2/2. The structure of the animal has been
investigated by Garrod.[279]
The genus _Fossa_ is a Viverrine confined to Madagascar. There is but one
species, _F. daubentoni_, the "Fossane." It is distinguished from _Viverra_
by the presence of two bare spots on the under surface of the metatarsus in
the hind-limb, and by the absence of a scent pouch. The animal is not much
spotted and striped, but the striping in the young is much more marked.
Of the genus _Paradoxurus_ there are some ten or a dozen species, belonging
entirely to the Oriental region. The teeth are as in _Viverra_, but
occasionally the molars are reduced to one. The pupils are vertical. The
tail though long is not prehensile, "but the animal appears to have the
power of coiling it to some extent, and in caged specimens the coiled
condition not unfrequently becomes confirmed and permanent" (Blanford).
This fact accounts for the name _Paradoxurus_; for a prehensile tail is
hardly to be expected in an animal of the zoological position of the Palm
Civets, and yet its occasional twisting led originally to the view that it
was so. The genus has scent glands. The dentition is I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/4
M 2/2. _P. niger_, the Indian Palm Civet, is, like other species, not often
to be seen in a wild condition. It is arboreal, and, like other members of
the genus, feeds upon a mixed diet, consisting of all kinds of small
Vertebrata and insects, varied by fruit. Another species, _P. grayi_, is so
distinctly vegetarian in its habits that it makes considerable havoc in
pine-apple beds in the Andaman Islands.
{408}
_Arctogale_ is another Oriental genus with very small teeth, those of the
molar series being hardly in contact. The soles of the feet are more naked
than in the last genus, and the scent glands, if present, appear to be
small and ill developed. It has also a long tail, and is arboreal in way of
life. There is "nothing particular recorded" as to its habits. The species
are _A. leucotis_ and _A. stigmatica_.
[Illustration]
FIG. 201.--Hardwicke's Civet Cat. _Hemigale hardwicki._ x 1/5. (From
_Nature_.)
Closely allied to both the last genera is _Hemigale_, also an Oriental
genus. It is to be distinguished from _Paradoxurus_ by having the soles of
the feet much less naked, though they are more so than in _Viverra_ or
_Prionodon_. The coloration of the species, _H. hardwicki_ (a Malayan
animal), is very peculiar. The body is banded with five or six broad
transverse stripes, and the basal portion of the tail is also ringed, an
uncommon feature in the group. A second species of this genus is _H.
hosei_, from Borneo. It is blackish in colour, but is not a melanic variety
of the last.
_Nandinia_ appears never to possess a caecum.[280] It is also peculiar
among Carnivora in the non-ossification of the hinder {409} part of the
bulla. It is an African genus, containing two species which are spotted.
The tail is ringed.
_Cynogale_ is at any rate a partially aquatic, short-tailed, web-footed,
reddish brown-coloured Civet, which lives upon fish and Crustacea, and
inhabits the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo. It has long
"moustaches," and is said to have a head bearing a singular resemblance to
the head of the Insectivorous "Otter" _Potamogale_. The metatarsus is bald,
and the pollex and hallux are very well developed.
SUB-FAM. 5. HERPESTINAE.--There are over twenty species of _Herpestes_
(Mongooses) divided between the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, one
species, _H. ichneumon_, being also found in Europe. The fur has a "pepper
and salt" appearance; the feet are plantigrade. There are five fingers and
toes. The pollex and hallux are small; the tail is long. The tarsus and
metatarsus are usually naked. The Egyptian species "has been injudiciously
denominated the Cat of Pharaoh." It is perhaps better known as Pharaoh's
Mouse. The beast is so far Cat-like that it will destroy Rats and Mice; and
it has been exported to sugar plantations for that very purpose. More
famous are its combats with venomous serpents. According to Aristotle and
Pliny the Ichneumon first coats its body with a coating of mud, in which it
wallows, and then with this armour can defy the serpent. Topsell tells the
tale better. The Ichneumon burrows in the sand, and "when the aspe espyeth
her threatening rage, presently turning about her taile, provoketh the
ichneumon to combate, and with an open mouth and lofty head doth enter the
list, to her owne perdition. For the ichneumon being nothing afraid of this
great bravado, receiveth the encounter, and taking the head of the aspe in
his mouth biteth that off to prevent the casting out of her poison." In the
West Indies the animal has been described as fearlessly attacking the
deadly Fer de Lance and receiving its bites with impunity; it is also added
that it will eat the leaves of a particular plant as an antidote! The real
explanation of the result of these encounters is of course the agility of
the Ichneumon[281]--_fort cauteleuse beste_, as Belon says.
Another species, _H. albicauda_, is distinguished, as the name denotes, by
its white tail. A species of this genus, _H. urva_, {410} sometimes raised
to generic rank as _Urva_, is partly aquatic in habit; it feeds upon crabs
and frogs, but is quite willing to take to poultry and their eggs.
_Helogale_ is a genus whose validity appears doubtful (to Dr. Mivart). It
is African, and contains two species.
[Illustration]
FIG. 202.--White-tailed Ichneumon. _Herpestes albicauda._ x 1/5.
_Cynictis_ is an African genus, with five digits on the fore-limbs and four
on the hind. As in _Herpestes_, the orbit is completely encircled by bone.
There is but a single species, _C. penicillata_, which is of a reddish
colour and has a bushy tail.
_Bdeogale_, also African, has the toes still further reduced; there are
only four on both limbs. The tarsus is hairy and the tail bushy. They are
"very rare animals, and nothing is known of their habits." It is known,
however, that they will kill poisonous snakes, for Dr. Peters took a
Rhinoceros Viper out of the stomach of one.
_Rhynchogale_[282] differs from all other genera of Viverridae, except
_Crossarchus_ and _Suricata_, in having no groove upon the muzzle. There
are five digits. There is the full Viverrine dentition, with five premolars
in the upper jaw; but this may be an abnormality.[283]
_Crossarchus_ differs from the last in only having three premolars on each
side of each jaw. It is also African, and there are several species.
_Suricata_ is the last genus of Viverridae; it is also African, and
contains a single species, _Suricata tetradactyla_, the "Meerkat" of the
Cape. The Suricate has but four toes on each foot; the tarsus and the
metatarsus are naked below. The body is banded posteriorly. There are
fifteen dorsal vertebrae, and the orbit is {411} closed by bone. The
Suricate lives in caves and rock crevices, and will dig burrows. It is
distinctly a diurnal animal, and sits upon its hind-legs after the fashion
of a Marmot. As Buffon noticed in a tame specimen (thought by him to be a
native of Surinam), the animal barks like a dog. The Suricate is largely
vegetarian, living upon roots.
[Illustration]
FIG. 203.--Suricate. _Suricata tetradactyla._ x 1/4.
FAM. 4. HYAENIDAE.--Unlike though the Hyaenas appear to be to the last
family--mainly perhaps on account of size--they are, nevertheless, very
nearly akin to them, more so than to the Cat tribe. It will be remembered
that the striping and spotting of the Hyaenas is very Genet- and
Suricate-like.
There are admittedly two genera among the Hyaenidae, _Hyaena_ itself with
three species,[284] and the Aard Wolf, _Proteles_, with but one. But Dr.
Mivart considers that the Spotted Hyaena should form a genus apart,
_Crocuta_--a proceeding which was initiated by the late Dr. Gray of the
British Museum. The Hyaenidae are to be distinguished by the following
characters:--There are generally four toes, always so in the hind-foot. The
claws are non-retractile. The nose and upper lip are grooved. The molar
formula is Pm 4/3 M 1/1. The soles of the feet are covered with hairs upon
the tarsus and metatarsus. No scent glands. Tail short. Dorsal vertebrae
more numerous than in other Aeluroids, _i.e._ fifteen. The bulla is divided
by a rudimentary septum only.
{412}
[Illustration]
FIG. 204.--Spotted Hyaena. _Crocuta maculata._ x 1/12.
The genera _Hyaena_ and _Crocuta_, the Striped and Spotted Hyaena
respectively, are African and Asiatic in range, _Crocuta_ being limited to
South Africa. There is neither hallux nor pollex.
[Illustration]
FIG. 205.--Striped Hyaena. _Hyaena striata._ x 1/12.
The Hyaenas, stigmatised by Sir Samuel Baker as "low-caste creatures," are
mainly carrion feeders. Much Arab superstition is associated with them.
Certain peculiarities in the structure {413} of the organs of reproduction
have led to the belief that a Hyaena changes its sex every year. Its almost
human-sounding howls are supposed to be a deliberate trap for the unwary
traveller. There is also a legend that in the eye of the Hyaena is a stone
which if placed under the tongue of a man endows him with the gift of
prophecy.
_Proteles_ presents many resemblances to the Hyaenas, but also certain
differences; by many it is placed in a separate family. There is but one
species, _P. cristata_, the Aard Wolf of South Africa. In outward aspect it
is very Hyaena-like, the coat being striped, and the ears, though longer,
resembling those of a Hyaena. There is also a mane. There are, however,
five toes on the fore-feet. The teeth are feebler, particularly the molars,
which are also reduced in number. The skull, as in _Hyaena_, has no
alisphenoid canal, but the bulla tympani is divided by a septum. The animal
seems to feed largely upon insects, particularly Termites, and also upon
carrion.[285]
Of extinct Hyaenoids _Ictitherium_ seems to be transitional between them
and the Viverridae. Its dentition, 3/3, 1/1, 4/3, 2/1, is that of a
Viverrid, and the feet are five-toed. The upper carnassial tooth, however,
is like that of _Hyaena_ in having a strong inner cusp. Other extinct
genera of Hyaenas are _Lycyaena_ and _Hyaenictis_. The genus _Hyaena_
itself goes back as far as to the Miocene, and occurred in Europe until the
Pleistocene. The Cave Hyaena of this country seems to be indistinguishable
from _Crocuta maculata_, though it has received the name of _H. spelaea_.
FAM. 5. CANIDAE.[286]--This family cannot be divided into more than five
genera, and is universally distributed with the exception of New Zealand.
The auditory bulla is smooth and rounded, and has internally a very
incomplete septum, extending through about one-fourth or one-third of the
cavity. The meatus has a fairly prominent under lip. The paroccipital
process is long and prominent. The mastoid is distinct, though but slightly
developed. The glenoid foramen is large; the condyloid foramen is
conspicuous, and the carotid canal is deep within the foramen lacerum
posterius. The last three characters are Bear-like; the {414} form of the
bulla is Aeluroid. The teeth vary somewhat in number, and the following
table will serve to indicate the gradual reduction observable in the number
of molars:--
_Otocyon_ I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/4 M (3 or 4)/4
_Canis_ generally I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/4 M (3 or 2)/(4 or 3)
_Cyon_ I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/4 M 2/2
_Icticyon_ I 3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/4 M (2 or 1)/2
All the Dogs have a caecum[287] of simple cylindrical form. In _C.
cancrivorus_, _C. jubatus_, and _Nyctereutes procyonides_ this organ is
straight or only very faintly curved; in other Dogs it is coiled into an
[288]-like form, sometimes with an additional twist. The Dogs have, as a
rule, five toes, one being dropped in _Lycaon_. The tail is fairly long and
distinctly bushy. There is in a number of species a gland at the root of
the tail, the presence of which can frequently be detected by the wet
appearance due to the oozing secretion. The great majority of existing
Canidae belong to the genus _Canis_. But certainly three, and more
doubtfully four, other genera can be distinguished.
The genus _Icticyon_ contains but one recent species, the Bush Dog (_I.
venaticus_, Lund) of British Guiana. The animal has a somewhat
Paradoxure-like, at any rate a distinctly un-dog-like, aspect, being
longish in the body (some 2 feet long), shortish in the legs, and
big-headed. It is blackish in colour, verging towards golden brown on the
head and back. Sir W. Flower, to whom we owe our chief knowledge of its
structure, characterises it as like a young Fox, and with the playful
manners of a puppy. The animal appears to hunt in packs and by scent, and
has a reputation for ferocity. _Icticyon_ differs from _Canis_ and agrees
with the Indian _Cuon_ in having but forty teeth, the last molar having
disappeared from the upper and lower jaws. The caecum, unlike that of the
majority of Canidae, is only slightly curved. The brain, oddly enough,
shows a Cat-like peculiarity. It has been pointed out that in their long
bodies and short legs the genera _Cuon_ and _Icticyon_ resemble the
primitive dogs.[289]
A genus _Nyctereutes_ is usually separated from _Canis_ for the inclusion
of _N. procyonides_ only. The separation is based upon {415} the strikingly
unusual coloration of this Dog. It is a small animal, with numerous long
white hairs dorsally. The face, chest, and much of the belly are black. Its
aspect distinctly recalls that of a Raccoon,[290] especially in the black
patches below the eyes, whence of course the scientific name and the
pseudo-vernacular "Raccoon-like Dog." It inhabits China and Japan. As to
structure, there is hardly anything that justifies its exclusion from the
genus _Canis_. Garrod, however, mentions the unusually large size of the
Spigelian lobe of the liver.
[Illustration]
FIG. 206.--Raccoon-like Dog. _Nyctereutes procyonides._ x 1/6.
Wortman and Malkens[291] have instituted a genus _Nothocyon_ for Dr.
Mivart's species _C. urostictus_[292] and _C. parvidens_, which are both
South American forms.
The genus _Otocyon_ contains but one species, _O. megalotis_, an African
species, ranging pretty widely in that continent (from the Cape to
Somaliland, in sandy districts), and sometimes confused with the Fennec on
account of its long ears. Its principal structural difference from other
Dogs is that there is an additional molar in each jaw, the molar formula
being thus M 3/4 or even 4/4. Moreover the carnassial teeth are not so
pronounced, and Professor Huxley laid especial stress upon the {416}
likeness of some of the cheek teeth to those of the more primitive
Arctoids. The angle of the lower jaw is inflected, a character, however,
which seems to be more general than is usually allowed among animals not
referable to the Marsupials. It is possible that _Otocyon_ is a persistent
Creodont-like form which has developed in a direction curiously, and in a
most detailed fashion, parallel to the Dogs. If, however, we may assume the
addition of the molar, then this anomalous but not necessarily untenable
conclusion is obviated.
The genus _Cuon_, or _Cyon_, has been instituted for the two or three
species of Eastern Dogs (_C. primaevus_, _C. dukkunensis_, etc.) which
agree with each other in the constant loss of a molar in the lower jaw, or,
it should be said, almost constant loss, for the missing tooth is
occasionally represented. The latter of the two species mentioned, the
Dhole, is, like its congeners, an animal which hunts in packs; it is said
to hunt even the ferocious Tiger, and to be thus one of the few animals
which can face the largest and fiercest of the Carnivora.
The genus _Lycaon_ is a very distinct type, being differentiated from other
Dogs by the possession of only four toes on both fore- and hind-limbs, and
by the dental formula, which is Pm 4/4 M 2/3. The one species is _L.
pictus_, the Cape Hunting Dog. It is singularly like a Hyaena[293] in
general appearance; the ochraceous grey ground-colour with black markings
and the long ears produce this likeness. The animal has got its vernacular
name from the habit of hunting in packs. Its range is over a good part of
Africa. The occurrence of this species (or at least genus, for the name _L.
anglicus_ has been used) in caves in Glamorganshire seems to show that it
is a comparatively recent immigrant into Africa. As to its visceral
structures, _Lycaon_[294] does not differ widely from other Dogs. It has,
however, no lytta beneath the tongue. The intestines are thus divided:
large, 9 feet 1 inch; small, 1 foot 3 inches. This contrasts with the
proportions observable in some other Dogs. While other Dogs have but a
cartilaginous rudiment of the clavicle, _Lycaon_ has a considerably larger
representative of this bone.
[Illustration]
FIG. 207.--Fennec Fox. _Canis zerda._ x 1/5.
[Illustration]
FIG. 208.--Prairie Wolf or Coyote. _Canis latrans._ x 1/8.
The bulk of the Dogs, Wolves, Foxes, and Jackals are thus left over for
inclusion in the genus _Canis_. But the numerous {417} members of this
genus can, according to Professor Huxley, be sorted into two series by
certain cranial characters. The two series he termed the "Alopecoid" or
Fox-like, and the "Thooid" or Wolf-like. It was suggested that the generic
name _Vulpes_ be used for the former, and _Canis_ for the second. The
characters which will be dealt with immediately are also to be noted among
{418} the Dogs belonging to genera that have already been separated off.
Thus _Lycaon_ is distinctly Thooid. The characters in question are
these:--In the Fox series, the frontal air-sinus of the Thooids is absent;
the cranial cavity is pear-shaped, without an abrupt angle coinciding with
the supra-orbital sulcus, such as exists in the other group; the coronoid
process of the mandible is rather higher and more turned back in the Foxes,
while the depth of the mandible at the level of the first molar is greater.
[Illustration]
FIG. 209.--Japanese Wolf. _Canis hodophylax._ x 1/8 (From _Nature_.)
To the Fox series belong among others the species _C. lagopus_ (Arctic
Fox), _C. zerda_ (the Fennec), _C. chama_ (the Silver-backed Fox of
Africa), _C. virginianus_ (the Virginian Fox), _C. velox_ (the Kit Fox),
and of course the Common Fox of this country. On the other hand, the Dogs
proper (such as _C. dingo_), the Wolves (_C. lupus_, _C. pallipes_, _C.
niger_), the Japanese Wolf (_C. hodophylax_), the Red Wolf of America (_C.
jubatus_), the Jackals (_C. aureus_, _C. anthus_, etc.), the Prairie Wolf
(_C. latrans_), and a number of American forms, such as _C. azarae_, its
close ally _C. cancrivorus_ ( = _C. rudis_), _C. antarcticus_, _C.
magellanicus_, etc., are decidedly Wolves rather than Foxes. {419}
The Arctic Fox, _Canis lagopus_, is known by its bluish summer and pure
white winter dress as "Blue Fox" and "White Fox" respectively. It is an
inhabitant of the Arctic north; but in former days, as its remains show, it
descended to such southern latitudes as Germany and this country. The most
southern point which it now inhabits is Iceland. This small Fox is well
known as being one of the few animals which change their dress to a
complete white in winter. This change is, however, not absolutely
universal; and M. Trouessart has even stated that the supposed change does
not exist, but that the colours are a question of age and sex. This Fox
feeds on birds and cast-up carcases of Whales and Seals; it is also said to
devour shell-fish, and actually to store up food when abundant for seasons
of scarcity. A Fox has been observed to "carry off eggs in his mouth from
an eider duck's nest, one at a time, until the whole were removed"; and in
winter to "scratch a hole down through very deep snow to a _cache_ of eggs
beneath." These anecdotes are told by Sir Leopold McClintock; but others
have also asserted the storing habits of this Fox, which really has only a
short time of the year in which it can catch suitable living food.
_Canis vulpes_, the Fox, is not only a native of England, but extends as
far to the east as Egypt, the so-called _C. aegyptiacus_ being at most a
mere variety. Varieties indeed occur in these islands; the English Fox
being redder, the Scotch greyer. Not only is the Fox a truly indigenous
English beast, but its remains go back a very long way into past time. Its
bones occur in the Red Crag, a deposit of Pliocene times. Its prevalence
now is no doubt due to its preservation as a beast of chase. It lives in
burrows, either excavating them itself or taking possession of those of
some other animal; the Badger suffers in this way, and is said to be
vanquished not by the teeth of the burglarious Fox, but by its far fouler
habits! It is curious that the expression "foxing" is not so suitable to
this animal as to many others. The habit of "shamming death" is a
widely-spread one in the animal world, but at least not common with our
Fox. The sagacity of the Fox appears to be a little more proverbial than
actual; literature teems with its accomplishments. The worthy Archbishop of
Upsala, Olaus Magnus, figured Foxes dipping their tails in the streams, and
then pulling out inquisitive crayfishes {420} which had seized upon them.
"It is a crafty, lively, and libidinous creature," observed a writer of the
last century.
Of Jackals there are many species, both African and Oriental. Mr. de Winton
allows the following list of African species[295]:--_C. anthus_, _C.
variegatus_, _C. mesomelas_, _C. lateralis_. _C. mesomelas_ is
distinguished by the broad black patch in the middle of the back. These
animals do not appear to go in packs as so many Canidae do; they live upon
carrion, but also rob hen-roosts, and commit other depredations upon the
live stock of farmers. The "Quaha," _C. lateralis_, is distinguished from
the last by its sharp bark, and by the obvious side stripe which has given
to it its name. It is curious that it should live in apparent amity with
_C. mesomelas_, since the habits of the two are identical and would lead,
one might suppose, to a severe struggle for existence, in which one of the
two would disappear. Of Indian Jackals _C. aureus_ is the most familiar
type.
[Illustration]
FIG. 210.--Wolf. _Canis lupus._ x 1/8.
The European Wolf, _Canis lupus_, was once, but is no longer, an inhabitant
of the British Islands. Their former prevalence is indicated by many names
of towns and villages, such as Ulceby and Usselby in Lincolnshire, the town
of Wolverton, and Woolmer Forest. In Saxon times Wolves were very abundant;
and even so recently as the reign of Elizabeth they were to be seen on
{421} Dartmoor and in the Forest of Dean. In the New Forest they were
hunted in the twelfth century. It would seem that the last English Wolf was
slain some time during the reign of Henry VII. In Scotland, however, they
persisted very much longer. So recently as 1743 was the last killed. But
before this period they had begun to get exceedingly scarce, for the price
of a skin in 1620 is quoted at L6:13:4. In Ireland Wolves lingered yet
longer; about 1770 is believed to be the date of their final extinction in
that island. The Wolf nowadays is distributed over the greater part of
Europe, Northern Asia, and North America, the American form not being
considered to be distinct from its European ally. Much legend has collected
round this fierce Carnivore. Aristotle, usually accurate in the main, still
"states more of wolves than experience warranted." Pliny, unable to sift
truth from falsehood, was in this matter "an eager listener to all old
women's tales." Aelian added to his marvels and asserted that the Wolf
cannot bend its head back; if it should happen to tread on the flower of
the squill it at once becomes torpid. So the wily fox, fearing his more
powerful enemy, takes care to strew his path with squills! The conversion
of men into Wolves was a well-known superstition, dating from Grecian and
Roman times; it formed the basis of much of the witchcraft persecutions of
the Middle Ages and onwards, and has left its mark in folklore, _e.g._ the
Wolf in "Red Riding Hood."
The Indian Wolves, _C. pallipes_, _C. chanco_, and _C. laniger_, are
hardly, if at all, different from _C. lupus_. Professor Huxley has remarked
upon the likeness of _C. pallipes_ to a Jackal, thus bridging over the very
inconsiderable gap that may be held to divide Jackals and Wolves.
The Dingo, _Canis dingo_, is an interesting and somewhat mysterious species
of Dog or Wolf. As is well known, it is an Australian species; but it does
not seem to be certain whether it was tamed and brought over to Australia
by the native races, or is a true and indigenous Australian species.
The colour of this species varies, but is usually of a reddish brown; it
is, however, often grey and indeed almost black. Whether indigenous or
introduced, the Dingo is a plague to Australian settlers, devouring Sheep,
which it generally destroys by tearing out the paunch. It does not as a
rule hunt in packs. The Dingo is stated to feign death with so much
persistence that {422} an individual has been known to be partly flayed
before moving. Dingo remains have been found in river-gravels in Australia
where no human remains have been detected. This argues for its indigeneity;
but, on the other hand, it has been pointed out that man himself in the
Australian continent goes back a very long way into time, and may thus
still have imported this companion with him. Anyhow it is quite a wild
creature now. Dr. Nehring, an expert investigator into the subject of
domestic animals, has stated that the skeleton of the Dingo does not
suggest a feral animal at all but a purely wild race.
[Illustration]
FIG. 211.--Dingo. _Canis dingo._ x 1/8.
The Domestic Dog is usually spoken of as _Canis familiaris_; but to remains
in bone caverns the name of _C. ferus_ or _C. mikii_ has been given. There
seems to be no doubt that the Dog was the "friend of man" in very early
times. Its remains have been met with in Danish kitchen-middens, in the
lake-dwellings of the Swiss lakes, and during the Bronze Age in Europe
generally. But "there are few more vexed questions in the archaeology of
natural history than the origin of the dog." Its remains already referred
to may in many cases have argued its use as food. But in a Neolithic barrow
a Dog was found buried with a woman, the {423} skeletons of both being _in
situ_; this animal was about the size of a Shepherd Dog. The actual Dog of
to-day is divisible into more than 180 different breeds; but in a work upon
"Natural History" it would seem out of place to enumerate and characterise
these artificial products. Authors vary in their opinion as to what stock
gave rise to the domestic races of the past and of to-day. The Jackal, the
Bunasu (_C. primaevus_), the Indian Wolf (_C. pallipes_), have been
proposed as likely ancestors. It is more probable that there is much
admixture, and that various wild types have been selected by man in various
countries.
EXTINCT CANIDAE.--Many of the existing species of Canidae are also to be
found in Pleistocene deposits of the countries which they now inhabit. A
few show a wider range in the immediate past than in the present. Thus
_Lycaon_ (_L. anglicus_) has been met with in caves in Glamorganshire,
while _Icticyon_ of South America appears to be congeneric with _Speothos_
of the Brazilian caves. The African _Otocyon_ seems to occur in deposits in
India. There are also numerous extinct species belonging to the genus
_Canis_, which extend as far back as the Pliocene.
The earlier types of Dogs have been placed in different genera.
_Cynodictis_ is an Eocene form from European strata. The skull is decidedly
Civet-like, with a short snout. The fore- and hind-feet were five-toed,
with well-developed pollex and hallux. The dentition was that of modern
Dogs, the molars being two in the upper and three in the lower jaw. The
general aspect of the creature and the form of the skeleton was much like
that of the Viverrine genus _Paradoxurus_, of which, as well as of the
Dogs, _Cynodictis_ might have been an ancestor.
_Simocyon_ of the Upper Miocene serves as the type of a separate sub-family
of Dogs, Simocyoninae. The skull is short, broad, and high; the shortening
of the skull affecting the jaws has reduced the teeth greatly; the first
three premolars are very small, fall out soon, and are thus often
deficient. There are only two molars in each jaw. This type is of course
nowhere near the ancestral Dog. It is a much-specialised branch of an early
type. _Cephalogale_ is less specialised; there are the usual four
premolars. _Enhydrocyon_ is an intermediate form; it has lost one premolar
in each jaw.
_Amphicyon_, forming the type of another sub-family, Amphicyoninae, though
usually placed among the Dogs, presents us with {424} many Bear-like
features in its organisation. The feet, for instance, were plantigrade and
five-toed. The ulna and the radius are specially compared with the same
bones in the Bear tribe. The skull on the other hand is as distinctly
Dog-like in form. The molars are large, broad, and crushing, and Bear-like.
The largest known species, _A. giganteus_, is of about the size of the
Brown Bear. _Amphicyon_ is a Miocene genus. Eocene and allied to it is
_Pseudamphicyon_. This genus has, like _Amphicyon_, the complete dentition
of forty-four teeth. In the Amphicyoninae generally the feet are five-toed,
the humerus has an entepicondylar foramen and the femur a third trochanter.
The upper molars are large.
The closely allied and American genus _Daphaenus_ has also plantigrade
feet, and has in its structure many reminiscences of the Creodonts. So,
too, has the Eocene _Uintacyon_.
_Cynodesmus_ is closely allied to _Cynodictis_. It has ancient features
combined with quite modern ones. The skull is described as being
Creodont-like, but the dentition is that of the microdont modern Dogs. In
accordance with its age the cerebral convolutions of this Dog are much
simpler than in existing Dogs, and the hemispheres do not cover the
cerebellum so much.
THE BEAR-LIKE CARNIVORA OR ARCTOIDEA.--That division of the Carnivora which
is typically represented by the Bears embraces three recent families, which
are united by a number of characters. These Carnivora are always
plantigrade or nearly so. They have nearly always five toes. The claws are
not retractile, or at most semi-retractile as in the Panda. In the skull
the tympanic bulla is often depressed, and is not so globular and obvious
as in the Cats. Its cavity is not divided by a septum. The paroccipital
processes are not applied to it. The carnassial tooth is less emphasised in
this group than in the Cats.
These characters, however, have to be used with caution, as they are hardly
universally applicable. A fairly typical Arctoid bulla is seen in such a
form as _Cercoleptes_. The bulla itself is a little more swollen than in
_Ursus_, but it is flattened off in the same way towards the bony meatus.
The paroccipital processes, slightly developed, are at a distance of
1/4-inch from the posterior margin of the bulla. In the Raccoon the bullae
are much more swollen, and the paroccipital processes are closer to them.
In the Marbled Polecat, _Putorius sarmaticus_, the bullae are fairly {425}
swollen, and there is but little flattening towards the meatus: the
paroccipital processes, though slight, are in contact with the bullae
basally, though their free tips are turned away from them. Finally, in
_Ictonyx_ the bullae are much swollen; there is but little flattening
towards the meatus, and the paroccipital processes, themselves much
swollen, are pressed closely against the bullae. The Mustelidae, therefore,
in this as in other characters, approach the Aeluroids.
[Illustration]
FIG. 212.--Section of the left auditory bulla and surrounding bones of a
Bear (_Ursus ferox_). _am_, External auditory meatus; _BO_, basioccipital;
_Car_, carotid canal; _e_, Eustachian canal; _g_, glenoid canal; _Sq_,
squamosal; _T_, tympanic; _t_, tympanic ring. (From Flower, _Proc. Zool.
Soc._ 1869.)
There is no caecum, a feature which marks off the Arctoidea from all
Carnivora except the Viverrids _Nandinia_ and _Arctictis_ (occasionally).
The brain is characterised by the possession of what Dr. Mivart has
described as the "ursine lozenge," a tract about the middle of the
hemispheres, defined posteriorly by the crucial sulcus, and formed by the
emergence on to the surface of the brain of the hippocampal gyrus.
The Arctoidea are very widely distributed. But there are some curious
exceptions. Thus there are no representatives of the group (as might be
expected) in the Australian region; they are completely absent from
Madagascar; while the true Bears (family Ursidae) are totally absent from
Ethiopian Africa, and are only represented by a single species, _Ursus
ornatus_, in the Neotropical region.
It is noteworthy that the Arctoidea never show spots or {426} cross stripes
(save rings on the tail), which are so common a feature of the coloration
of the Cat-like forms.
In bracketing together the three families which are described in the
following pages, emphasis is laid upon a number of undoubtedly common
features. Palaeontology seems, however, to suggest that the Mustelidae come
nearer to the Viverridae. That the Bears and Dogs are connected by extinct
annectent genera does not interfere with their present distinctness.
The systematic arrangement of these Carnivora is not easy. It may be
useful, however, to give a method of arrangement for the convenient placing
of the genera.
The most primitive group is perhaps that of the true Bears, family Ursidae;
for in them the molars are two above and three below, and have thus not
become diminished in number as in some of the other members of the order.
Moreover, the Bears have lobate kidneys, which character, often occurring
in the young of animals which when adult have smooth kidneys, may be looked
upon as a primitive character. The feet furthermore are completely
plantigrade. This family will contain only three genera, _Ursus_,
_Melursus_, and _Aeluropus_.
Next comes the family Procyonidae, in several members of which one molar is
lost below, though in others the more archaic formula is retained. The
kidneys are simple. This family contains the American genera _Procyon_,
_Nasua_, _Bassariscus_, _Bassaricyon_, _Cercoleptes_, and the Old-World
form _Aelurus_.
The third family, Mustelidae, has the molar formula reduced to 1/2 or 1/1.
The kidneys are simple except in the Otters. To this family are assigned
the following genera:--_Arctonyx_, _Conepatus_, _Meles_, _Mephitis_,
_Taxidea_, _Mydaus_, _Mellivora_, _Helictis_, _Ictonyx_, _Mustela_,
_Galictis_, _Grisonia_, _Putorius_, _Gulo_, and the aquatic _Lutra_,
_Enhydris_, and _Aonyx_.
FAM. 6. PROCYONIDAE.--This family is mainly American in range, the genus
_Aelurus_ alone being a native of the Old World. But Zittel would include
with the genera of this family the Viverrine and Oriental genus
_Arctictis_, a proceeding which is perhaps hardly admissible, though the
occasional absence of a caecum in that animal is so far in favour of such
an alliance. The largely vegetable nature of its food and its arboreal
habits cause a certain amount of likeness to some of the members of the
present group of Carnivores. The Procyonidae have two {427} molars in
either half of each jaw. The carnassial teeth are not typically developed,
and the molars are broad and tuberculate. The tail is long, often
prehensile, and often ringed in the disposition of its colour pattern. The
alisphenoid canal is absent save in the aberrant _Aelurus_. Both condyloid
and postglenoid foramina are present. The members of this family are
plantigrade.
[Illustration]
FIG. 213.--Raccoon. _Procyon lotor._ x 1/5.
The genus _Procyon_ includes at least two species of Raccoon, the northern
form, _P. lotor_, and the South American, _P. cancrivorus_. To these may
possibly be added a third, _P. nigripes_. This genus is characterised by
the length and the mobility of the fingers, and indeed it uses its hands
greatly. It has no median groove upon the muzzle, which is found in many
other Arctoids; the ears are moderately large; the tail is not long, being
about one-third of the entire length of the animal, including the tail. The
soles of the feet are naked. Its limbs are very long (for an Arctoid), and
this gives to the animal a bunched-up appearance when walking. There are
four premolars and two molars on each side of each jaw. There are fourteen
pairs of ribs, of which ten pairs reach the sternum. The latter is composed
of nine pieces.
The first-named species has received its name from the fact--of which there
is abundant proof--that it dips its food into water. As a matter of fact,
the animal frequents the margins of streams, and hunts in the shallow water
beneath stones for {428} crayfish, and it also captures fish. Not only is
this animal partially aquatic, but it can climb well--"they make their
homes in trees, but carry on their business elsewhere." The animal can be
readily tamed, but is a tiresome pet on account of its insatiable curiosity
and its skill in the use of its hands, which enables it to unlatch doors
and generally to pry about everywhere. The Raccoons are mostly nocturnal
creatures.
The genus _Bassaricyon_[296] includes two species, both American, _B.
alleni_ being from Ecuador, and _B. gabbii_ from Costa Rica. They have so
much the aspect of a Kinkajou that a specimen, which arrived at the
Zoological Gardens, was presented and entered as one of those animals.
Nevertheless there are many differences between the two genera. The tail of
_Bassaricyon_ is not prehensile, and the animal, as will be seen from Fig.
214, has a sharper snout; the brain is more like that of _Bassariscus_. The
likeness to _Cercoleptes_ can hardly perhaps be regarded as an example of
"mimicry" since the forms are so nearly related, and the advantage of such
an imitation remains to be proved. The muzzle of _Bassaricyon_ is grooved;
the ears are fairly large; the soles of the feet are naked; there is but a
single pair of teats. There are two molars and four premolars to each half
jaw.
[Illustration]
FIG. 214.--Bassaricyon. _Bassaricyon alleni._ x 1/5.
The dorsal vertebrae are thirteen in number; nine of the ribs reach the
sternum. The slenderness and convexity of the lower margin of the lower
jaw, as well as the feeble angular process, distinguish this genus from its
undoubtedly near ally _Cercoleptes_. The dental formula also is different.
_Bassariscus_ has a ringed tail like a Raccoon, and is also American in
range; it furthermore agrees with the Raccoon in {429} being nocturnal and
mainly arboreal in habit. There are apparently three species, of which _B.
astutus_ is the best known, having been on several occasions exhibited at
the Zoological Society's Gardens, the last examples so lately as 1900. The
animal was for a long time believed to be allied to the Oriental
Paradoxures, and its occurrence in America was therefore puzzling. The real
affinities of the creature were, however, definitely set at rest by Sir W.
Flower, and later accounts of its anatomy have confirmed this opinion.[297]
The vertebrae are more numerous than in _Procyon_, and the teeth are
slightly different; otherwise it presents many likenesses to its nearest
ally. The ears are long; the nose is grooved; and the palms and soles are
naked.
[Illustration]
FIG. 215.--Cunning Bassarisc. _Bassariscus astutus._ x 1/5. (From
_Nature_.)
The Kinkajou, _Cercoleptes_, is likewise an American Arctoid. It ranges
from Central Mexico down to the Rio Negro in Brazil. It was at one time
confounded, and, considering its external appearance, not unnaturally, with
the Lemurs. Sir R. Owen dispelled this view by a careful dissection of the
creature. Nevertheless, there are certain anatomical features in which it
differs {430} from Carnivora and resembles Lemuroids.[298] It has been
pointed out that the form of the lower jaw "much resembles that of the
Lemuroid _Microrhynchus_." There is, however, no doubt that it is rightly
placed in the present group. The tail is very prehensile, and the animal is
therefore, as might be supposed from this circumstance, purely arboreal. It
has some twenty-eight vertebrae. This genus has a median groove upon the
nose. The claws are long and sharply pointed, and the palms and soles of
the feet are naked. The premolars are three, the molars two. There are
fourteen dorsal vertebrae, of which nine are united to the nine-jointed
sternum by ribs. There is but one species, _C. caudivolvulus_, of a uniform
yellowish-brown colour.
[Illustration]
FIG. 216.--Kinkajou. _Cercoleptes caudivolvulus._ x 1/6.
[Illustration]
FIG. 217.--Coati. _Nasua rufa._ x 1/6.
_Nasua_, the Coati, ranges from Texas to Paraguay, and has two species. In
Guatemala it reaches a height of 9000 feet on the mountains. The nose is
produced into a short and very {431} mobile proboscis, hence its name. The
native Mexican name for the creature is "Quanhpecotl."
The Coati is largely arboreal, and hunts iguanas in large bands, some of
them being on the trees and some on the ground beneath. It also grubs up
worms and larvae, for which purpose its long snout is suited. The molars of
the genus resemble those of _Procyon_.
There is not a median groove upon the nose. The palms and soles are naked.
Six teats occur. There are thirteen dorsal vertebrae. _Nasua nasica_[299]
and _N. rufa_ are the best known and perhaps the only species. The colour
of the fur varies a good deal, and has led to the use of other names for
supposed species.
_Aelurus_, the Panda, is a largish animal found in the south-eastern
Himalayas up to a height of 12,000 feet. It has a glossy fur of a reddish
colour, and a "white somewhat cat-like face." The molar formula which
distinguishes it from the New-World Arctoids belonging to the Procyonidae,
as well as from its possible ally _Aeluropus_, is Pm 3/4 M 2/2. The anatomy
of the animal has been described by Sir W. Flower.[300] Dr. Mivart has
pointed out that the muzzle though short is upturned in a way distinctly
recalling that of _Nasua_. The animal inhabits forests, and feeds almost
entirely upon vegetable food. It eats eggs, however, and insects. Though
living to a great extent upon the ground, it is also arboreal, and has
sharp semi-retractile claws. It is said to be dull of sight, hearing, and
smell, and yet with these disadvantages is also unprovided with cunning or
ferocity. Its habits have been compared with those of a Kinkajou.
FOSSIL PROCYONIDAE.--In addition to several of the existing genera, the
remains are known of various extinct forms of Procyonidae. _Leptarctus_,
with one species, _L. primaevus_, is of Pliocene age, but is known only by
one ramus of the lower jaw. It appears to "offer a number of transitional
characters between the more typical Procyonidae and the aberrant
_Cercoleptes_."[301]
FAM. 7. MUSTELIDAE.--Contrary to what has been stated with regard to the
habits of the Procyonidae, the Mustelidae are for the most part
"bloodthirsty robbers," and are spread over the {432} whole surface of the
world, with the exception of Australia and Madagascar. The molar teeth are
generally reduced to one in the upper jaw, and sometimes to one in the
lower jaw, which thus gives "a sort of _prima facie_ resemblance to the
feline dentition." There is no alisphenoid canal; postglenoid and condyloid
foramina are found.
SUB-FAM. 1. MELINAE.--Of this sub-family there are representatives both in
the Old and New Worlds.
[Illustration]
FIG. 218.--Badger. _Meles taxus._ x 1/6.
_Meles_, the Badger, is exclusively Palaearctic in range.[302] Dr. Mivart
says that _Meles_ has a relatively longer dorsal region than any other
Carnivore, and that it is most nearly approached by its allies _Ictonyx_
and _Conepatus_. The molar formula is, as in _Arctonyx_, _Mydaus_, and
_Helictis_, Pm 4/4 M 1/2. The molars differ from those of any other
Carnivore in the much greater size of the first molars than of the last
premolars. The nose is not grooved; the soles of the feet are naked. The
claws of the fore-feet are much longer than those of the hind-feet.
The genus _Arctonyx_ is a "pig-like badger" from Hindostan, Assam, and
North China. The epithet "pig-like" is derived from the long and mobile
snout, which is truncated and has terminal nostrils. It is remarkable for
having a part of the palate formed by the pterygoids, as in Whales and
certain Edentata (e.g. _Myrmecophaga_). There are sixteen dorsal vertebrae.
_A. collaris_ lives in {433} fissures of rocks, or in holes dug by itself.
It is a purely nocturnal beast.
The singular genus _Mydaus_, containing the species _M. meliceps_, the
Teledu or Javanese Skunk, is an inhabitant of Java and Sumatra. It
frequents the mountains of these islands, into the soil of which it burrows
in search of worms and larvae. There is but one species, which is "like a
miniature badger, of rather eccentric colours." It is blackish brown, with
a yellowish-white top to its head, and a stripe of the same colour down the
back. It may be distinguished by its elongated snout, obliquely truncated,
and with inferiorly-placed nostrils. As to osteological characters, it has
a more oblique symphysis of the mandible than in any other Carnivore. The
secretion of the anal glands is said to rival that of the Skunk in
offensiveness and in the distance to which it can be propelled.
SUB-FAM. 2. MUSTELINAE.--Representatives occur in both the Old and New
Worlds; but the genera and even the species are in one or two cases common
to both.
[Illustration]
FIG. 219.--Tayra. _Galictis barbara._ x 1/7.
_Galictis barbara_,[303] the Tayra, is a brown, elongated, and Weasel-like
animal from Mexico and South America. As is the case with the Weasel, it is
sometimes gregarious, a herd of twenty having been observed. The soles of
the feet are naked, and the molar formula is Pm 3/3 M 1/2. In these
characters the Grison (_G. vittata_) agrees with _G. barbara_; but it has
been referred to a different genus, _Grisonia_.
The Grison, "this savage and diabolical-looking weasel," as {434} Mr. Aplin
terms it,[304] is known also as the "Huron." It almost rivals the Skunk in
the power of the odour which it can emit when enraged. A trapped specimen
was placed in a cage 50 yards or so from the house, and even at this
distance it was disagreeably easy to tell when any one visited the
animal--at least when the wind set in the right direction. It is greyish
yellow above and blackish beneath, presenting, as has been remarked, a
curious similarity to the Ratel. The nose of this animal is destitute of a
median groove, which is present in the Tayra; the soles of the feet,
however, are naked as in that animal, and it is nearly plantigrade in walk.
It differs also from _Galictis_ in having sixteen[305] instead of fourteen
dorsal vertebrae. Eleven of the ribs reach the sternum. Considering the
differences that exist between some other genera of Arctoids, it may be
fairly allowed that a genus _Grisonia_ is tenable.
[Illustration]
FIG. 220.--Grison. _Grisonia vittata._ x 1/7.
_G. allamandi_ is darker coloured than the Grison, with a white band from
the forehead to the neck. Mr. T. Bell described a tame individual as eating
eggs, frogs, and even a young alligator.
A third genus of this group has recently been founded by Mr. Oldfield
Thomas[306] for a small African animal, which is Grison-like in its
coloration. The name given to the genus, _Galeriscus_, is intended to
suggest its likeness to the Grison (_Galera_ or _Grisonia_). The chief
distinctive feature of this genus, whose skeleton is not yet known, is the
presence of only four digits on each limb; the pollex and the hallux being
entirely absent. The ears of this Grison are short. {435}
The genus _Mustela_ includes the Martens and Sables, which are
distinguished from the following genus by the molar formula, which is
Pm 4/4 M 1/2. The same character separates them from _Galictis_, and also
the generally hairy under surface of the feet. In more southern latitudes,
however, the palms are sometimes naked. The nose is grooved, and the ears
are short and broad. The genus is widely distributed, being common to the
Old and New Worlds. In the Old World it extends from Europe to Java,
Sumatra, and Borneo. The largest species of the genus is the American
Pekan, an animal which may be 46 inches in length, including the tail.
There are two species of Sable, one European (_M. zibellina_), the other
American.
The only British species of the genus is the Pine Marten, _M. martes_. It
is dark brown, with a brownish-yellow throat, and reaches a length of some
17 inches, with an eight-inch tail. It is getting rare, but is still fairly
common in the Lake country. The animal is largely arboreal in habit, whence
the vernacular name. It is also called Marten Cat. The allied _M. foina_,
the Beech Marten, has been stated to be, but apparently is not, an
inhabitant of these islands. The colour of the animal is a rich brown. It
has small eyes and ears and a short tail. The palms of the hands and the
soles of the feet are hairy; the muzzle is naked, and has a groove as in
_Cercoleptes_, etc.
The Glutton, _Gulo_, is a well-marked genus, containing but one species,
which is circumpolar in range. The dentition is Pm 4/4 M 1/2. The ferocity
but not the voracity of this animal appears to have been exaggerated. It
mainly feeds on carcases, and is not really a successful hunter. As to the
carcases, Olaus Magnus tells in straightforward language the way in which
the animal dilates in size during a meal, and presently, after following
the practice of the ancient Romans, returns to the banquet: "Creditur a
natura creatum ad ruborem hominum qui vorando bibendoque vomunt redeuntque
ad mensam"!
This is one of the few land animals which ranges completely round the pole.
There is no difference to be noted between the Old-World and the New-World
specimens. It is now an entirely northern form, but in Pleistocene times it
reached as far south as this country. The fossil species seems to be _Gulo
luscus_, and to be quite indistinguishable from the living forms.
_Putorius_, the genus which embraces the Weasel tribe, contains {436} many
species known popularly as Weasels, Ermines, Stoats, Ferrets, Polecats,
Minks, and Vison. Not only is the genus common to both Old and New Worlds,
but in a few cases the species (e.g. _P. erminea_) range from Asia to
America. The molar formula is Pm 3/3 M 1/2. The form of the body is an
exaggerated one, the length of the trunk to the limbs being very great. The
feet are more or less hairy beneath, and the animals are digitigrade. The
nose is grooved. The dorsal vertebrae vary from thirteen to sixteen.
[Illustration]
FIG. 221.--Polecat. _Mustela putorius._ x 1/6.
There are four British representatives of this genus:--
The Polecat, _P. foetidus_, is a dark brown-coloured animal. Its total
length is about 2 feet, of which the tail occupies some 7 inches. It is a
species banned by the gamekeeper, and hence is approaching extinction in
this country. It is excessively bloodthirsty, as are apparently all the
members of this genus, and kills out of mere wantonness. The Ferret is
simply a domesticated variety of the Polecat.
The Stoat or Ermine, _P. erminea_, is reddish brown above, white beneath.
In winter, in certain localities, it becomes white with the exception of
the black tip of the tail. This colour-change bears some relation to the
degree of latitude. It is universal in the north of Scotland, rare in the
south of England. As is the case with some other animals that generally
change {437} their colour in the winter, there are individuals which seem
to have lost the power of change, and others which change in an apparently
capricious manner, not influenced by season or cold. Like so many other
animals, the Stoat appears at times to migrate, which it does in large
parties. Such parties are said to be dangerous, and will attack a man who
crosses their path.
The Weasel, _P. vulgaris_, has much the same colour as the Stoat, but is a
smaller animal; it differs also by undergoing no seasonal change. It is
equally agile and ferocious, and ought to be encouraged, as it vents its
ferocity largely upon Voles and Moles, which it can pursue underground.
Like other species of _Putorius_, it seems to kill its prey by biting
through the brain-case.
The fourth British species is the recently-described Irish Stoat, _P.
hibernicus_. It is somewhat intermediate between the last two.
_Poecilogale_ is a genus recently instituted by Mr. Thomas for a small
South African Weasel, _P. albinucha_, coloured like the Zorilla, _i.e._
with whitish stripes upon black, but differing in its reduced molar
formula, which is Pm 2/2 M 1/1 or 1/2.
_Lyncodon_[307] is thought to be more doubtful; it is South American
(Patagonian), with the same molar formula as the most reduced forms of the
last genus, _i.e._ Pm 2/2 M 1/1. The ears are short and almost invisible;
the claws of the anterior limbs are long, those of the hind limbs short. It
is not quite certain that it is not "an aberrant southern form of _Putorius
brasiliensis_." That its distinction is justifiable appears to be shown by
the discovery in the same region of a fossil species, _L. luganensis_.
Matschie places it near _Galictis_.
The Ratel, _Mellivora_, is common to India and West and South Africa. It is
a black animal with a grey back and grey on the top of the head, the
contrast of colour suggesting a dorsal carapace. It runs with a swift trot.
The animal lives much on the ground, but can climb trees. It is exclusively
nocturnal in its habits. It has the reputation in India of feeding upon
dead bodies, a view which has probably no foundation in fact save that it
can burrow. The molar formula is Pm 3/3 M 1/1. There are fourteen dorsal
vertebrae. The African and Indian species are {438} hardly to be
distinguished from each other. The ears are very minute. The tail is short.
The muzzle is rather pointed, and the soles and palms are naked.
[Illustration]
FIG. 222.--Ratel. _Mellivora capensis._ x 1/8.
The structure of _Helictis_ has been described by the late Professor
Garrod,[308] as well as by Sir W. Flower in his general account of the
Carnivorous skeleton. The animal, which is a native of East Asia, is
sometimes gaily coloured. _H. subaurantiaca_, the species dissected and
figured by Garrod, is a varied black and orange. The genus is arboreal, and
the tail may be moderately long and bushy. The ears are small; the nose is
grooved; the palms are naked, but the soles of the feet are hairy. There
are fourteen dorsal vertebrae. The molar formula is Pm 4/4 M 1/2.
The Zorilla, _Ictonyx_, is the last of the Old-World genera of Melinae. It
is African, ranging from the tropical parts of the continent to the Cape.
"In colour and markings," remarks Dr. Mivart, "as well as in the odour of
the secretion of its anal glands, the one or two species which form this
genus resemble the skunks; so much so that did they inhabit the same
region, and were they devoid of an offensive secretion, they would
certainly be said to mimic the skunks." The molar formula of the genus is
Pm 3/3 M 1/2. There are fifteen dorsal vertebrae. The nose is grooved and
the soles partly hairy.
The American Badger, _Taxidea_, is a burrower of omnivorous tastes, and
correlated with the former habit are the immense {439} claws of the
fore-paws. It is North American, but gets into Mexico. The molar formula is
as in the American genera _Mephitis_ and _Conepatus_, and as in the
Old-World _Ictonyx_, and it thus differs from that of _Meles_. Besides the
great size of the claws upon the hand, which are larger relatively than
those of any other Carnivore, the genus _Taxidea_ is to be distinguished
from all Arctoids (indeed, from all Carnivora) except _Mydaus_, by the fact
that the pelvic limb is of the same length as the pectoral. The muzzle is
furry except at the very extremity; this is grooved. The animal is
carnivorous, subsisting upon the following very varied kinds of
food--"Spermophiles, Arvicolas, birds' eggs, and snails, also honey-comb,
wax, and bees."
The Skunk, _Mephitis_, is an American animal with several species, which
range from North to Central America. The black-and-white colour
distinguishes the genus, which is furthermore marked by the fact that the
third digit of the hand is relatively longer than in any other Carnivore
except _Taxidea_. The soles are partly hairy. It is a terrestrial fossorial
animal with well-known powers of protecting itself from aggression. But
nevertheless the Skunk has its enemies, and is not quite so unmolested as
is sometimes popularly supposed. The Puma, Harpy Eagle, and the Great
Horned Owl will at least occasionally attack and devour it. The molar
formula is Pm 3/3 M 1/2. There are sixteen dorsal vertebrae.
_Conepatus_ is a more southern form of Skunk, extending down into South
America. Its dentition is like that of _Mephitis_ save for the loss of an
upper premolar. This genus, which has been further subdivided, differs from
_Mephitis_ in the fact that the soles of the feet are wholly naked, whereas
in Mephitis those of the hind-limbs are partially hairy. It has no groove
on the nose. Its tail is shorter than that of _Mephitis_. This Skunk has
the same habits as the last. In certain parts of South America the animals
are so abundant and their odour so powerful that in the evening there is
generally a recognisable smell about. This is said to be good for the
headache!
SUB-FAM. 3. LUTRINAE.--Of this sub-family there are at least two genera.
_Enhydris_ (_Latax_),[309] the Sea-Otter, is confined to the shores of the
North Pacific. It is more purely aquatic than are {440} other Otters.
Specimens have been seen swimming fifteen miles from land. The gait of the
creature when on land is suggestive of a marine animal; the webbed
hind-feet are doubled back upon the knuckles during progression upon land,
and locomotion is effected by a series of short springs from these feet;
the Otter does not walk "in ordinary acceptance of the term." The tail is
flattened, being twice as broad as it is thick, and ends in a bluntish
point. _Enhydris_ feeds mainly upon crabs and sea-urchins, but also upon
fish. Its dental formula is peculiar by reason chiefly of the reduction of
the lower incisors. The formula runs as follows: I 3/2 C 1/1 Pm 3/3 M 1/2.
The molar teeth of this creature, in accordance with its diet, have lost
the sharp points of the Mustelidae in general; the crowns are flattened,
and the tubercles very blunt. In this it contrasts with _Lutra_, and
presents some resemblance to the Crab-eating Raccoon, _Procyon
cancrivorus_; but the teeth are still further blunted. _Enhydris_ feeds
largely upon sea-urchins and shell-fish, and needs blunt teeth for the
crushing of the hard shells of its prey. It is interesting to notice that
the habits of this animal have been altered by the interference of man. The
creature has been hotly pursued for a long time on account of its valuable
fur. Instead of feeding and breeding upon the shore in places readily
accessible to its pursuers, the Sea-Otter has now taken to the open sea in
a greater degree. It utilises masses of floating seaweed for those
purposes, and hunts for its food in the deeper water at a greater distance
from the shore. In conjunction with the increasing rarity of the Sea-Otter
the price of its skin has enormously increased: whereas in 1888 the average
price per skin was L21:10s., the value of a fine skin now is at least L100,
and as much as L200 and even L250 has been given. The animal is captured by
netting and by clubbing and spearing.[310] From the Miocene Siwalik beds
remains of an allied form, _Enhydridon_, have been obtained, whose teeth
are somewhat intermediate in their crowns between _Lutra_ and _Enhydris_.
_Lutra_, including the Otters, is widely distributed. Both manus and pes
are webbed. The ears are small and hairy. The nose is not grooved, and the
naked part is very circumscribed; {441} the claws upon the hind-feet are
flattened and somewhat nail-like. There are about ten species, but of
course, as is so universally the case, a great many more names have been
given. The molar formula is like that of _Enhydris_ save that there is an
extra premolar in the upper jaw. There are fourteen pairs of ribs, of which
eleven pairs reach the ten-jointed sternum. The caudals are twenty-three.
The Cape Otter, the "clawless" Otter, has been separated as a genus
_Aonyx_. So too has the South American _Pteronura brasiliensis_. But in
neither case is the separation allowed by Mr. Thomas in a recent revision
of the genus.[311] The latter species has the reputation of being very
fierce, and is known in Uruguay by the name of "Lobo de pecho blanco." The
British species, _L. vulgaris_, reaches a length of 2 feet or so, with a
tail of 16 inches; it ranges over the whole of Europe and a large portion
of Asia. This Otter often burrows in the banks of the streams which it
frequents; and in the burrow in March or April the female brings forth her
young, three to five in number. It will also frequent the sea-coast.
[Illustration]
FIG. 223.--Otter. _Lutra vulgaris._ x 1/6.
FOSSIL MUSTELIDAE.--Besides a number of the existing genera there are
fossil members of this family which cannot be referred to existing genera.
These latter extend back into time as far as the Eocene. _Stenoplesictis_,
one of these Eocene forms referable to the sub-family Mustelinae, is to be
distinguished {442} from living Mustelines by its comparatively long legs.
In this genus as in several others there are two upper molars.
FAM. 8. URSIDAE.--This family is nearly universal in distribution, and
consists of but three genera, _Ursus_, _Melursus_, and _Aeluropus_.
_Ursus_ has the palms and soles naked except in the Polar Bear, which needs
a furry sole to walk with ease upon ice surfaces. The ears are fairly
large, and the nose may or may not be traversed by a median groove.[312]
The molar formula[313] is Pm 4/4 M 2/3. The brain is naturally (because of
the size of the animals of this genus) richly convoluted. The lobate
kidneys have already been mentioned in defining this family (see p. 426).
[Illustration]
FIG. 224.--Himalayan Bear. _Ursus tibetanus._ x 1/15.
A very large number of species of Bears have been described. But it is the
opinion of Mr. Lydekker[314] and of others that many of these are really to
be referred to the European Brown Bear; in this event the Grizzly of North
America, the Isabelline Bear, the Syrian Bear, a Bear from Algeria, the
Kamschatkan and Japanese Bears, besides the extinct _Ursus fossilis_ of
Pleistocene caves, are to be regarded as slight modifications of _Ursus
arctos_. On the other hand, the great Cave Bear, _U. spelaeus_, {443} and
the Thibetan Blue Bear (_U. pruinosus_) are distinct species, not to be
confounded with _U. arctos_. Neither, of course, are the Peruvian _U.
ornatus_ and the Sun Bear, _U. malayanus_.
[Illustration]
FIG. 225.--Malayan Bear. _Ursus malayanus._ x 1/12.
The Polar Bear has even been placed in a separate genus, _Thalassarctos_, a
proceeding which is quite unnecessary. The white colour of this Bear tends
to become browner with age. It is one of the few mammals which extend right
round the pole; the Polar Bear is of course a purely Arctic animal. The
chief food of the Polar Bear is Seal. Out of thirty Bears examined, Mr.
Koettlitz found that only fifteen had animal remains in their stomachs, and
these remains were invariably Seal. The animal apparently hunts by scent
rather than by sight or hearing, both of which senses seem to be somewhat
dull. The males and females wander separately, except of course during the
breeding season. The Bears dig holes in which they may remain for some
time, but there is no hibernation. In Pleistocene times, the Polar Bear
extended as far south as Hamburg. The female has four mammae, pectoral in
position.
_Melursus_ includes only _M. labiatus_, the Sloth Bear of India. This
animal has an upturned snout, which is described as closely resembling that
of _Mydaus_, the Teledu. The snout has no groove. {444} All Bears are
largely vegetarian and insect feeders; but this Bear is especially so. It
delights in the nests of Termites, and its energy in destroying these hills
for the sake of their inhabitants is so great that the name of "sloth"
appeared to Sir Samuel Baker to be an entire misnomer.
_Aeluropus_, a rare Carnivore with but one species, _A. melanoleucus_, is
not inferior in size to the Brown Bear, and is distinguished by its largely
white coloration. It was discovered in the mountains of East Thibet by Pere
David, and described by Milne-Edwards[315] as a distinct and new genus, the
discoverer himself having named it as a species of _Ursus_. It is a
vegetable-feeding creature and bulky in form, with a rudimentary tail and a
short broad head; in fact, more like a Bear than a Procyonid (with which
group it is placed by some). The width of the head, however, is greater
than in any other Carnivore; it is most closely approached in this by
_Aelurus_ and by _Hyaena_. The molar formula is Pm 4/3 M 2/3. The soles are
hairy. There is no alisphenoid canal. The molars are especially large and
multicuspid.
[Illustration]
FIG. 226.--_Aeluropus melanoleucus._ x 1/12.
FOSSIL URSIDAE.--The genus _Ursus_ itself goes back to Pliocene times. The
well-known Cave Bear, _Ursus spelaeus_ of {445} Pleistocene times, was one
of the commonest of Carnivorous creatures during the very early times of
the present era. It was as huge as a Polar Bear or a Grizzly. The skull is
remarkable for the fact that the first three premolars, which are small in
all Bears, dropped out early in life. An immense number of names have been
given to what are in all probability the same species as this Cave Bear of
remote antiquity.
_Hyaenarctos_ is the oldest genus of true Ursidae. It goes back into Middle
Miocene times, and ranged over Europe and North Africa.
_Arctotherium_ is an American genus of Pleistocene times. The likeness of
some of the extinct Canidae to Bears has been already commented upon.
* * * * *
{446}
CHAPTER XIV
CARNIVORA (_CONTINUED_)--PINNIPEDIA (SEALS AND WALRUSES)--CREODONTA
SUB-ORDER 2. PINNIPEDIA
This group includes the Seals, Sea-Lions, and Walruses,[316] all aquatic
and, for the larger part, marine creatures. Being aquatic they have to some
extent acquired a fish-like form, though not so completely as have the
Whales and even the Sirenia. This is most complete so far as the group is
concerned in the Seals, where the hind-limbs have become soldered to the
tail and are inefficient as walking legs, where the external ears have
vanished, and where the general shape of the body is tapering and thus
fish-like. The Walruses and Sea-Lions are less modified in this direction;
in the latter (not in the former) the external ear, though small, is
persistent, and the hind-limbs are capable of being used as organs of
progression upon dry land. The general characters applicable to the
Carnivora, given upon a previous page, apply to the Pinnipedia.
[Illustration]
FIG. 227.--Skeleton of Seal. _Phoca vitulina._ (After de Blainville.)
The characters confined to the Pinnipedia as a whole are mainly these:--The
greater part of the limbs are enclosed within the skin, the hands and feet
are fully webbed, and there is a tendency for the nails to disappear, and
for the phalanges to increase in number--characters which are clearly not
diagnostic of the order but correlated with an aquatic life, since they
reappear, and are indeed exaggerated, in the Cetacea. The teeth are
peculiar in that the milk dentition is feeble and is early shed. This, as
it were, undue emphasis upon one of the two sets of teeth is another
likeness to the Whales, {447} where, however, it is the milk dentition that
is most pronounced, the "permanent" being feeble and very early shed. But
the dentition of the Pinnipedes presents other likenesses to the Cetacea,
which are, it must be remembered, regarded by some as a modification of the
Carnivorous stock, in which case, of course, the likenesses may be genetic
rather than due to adaptation in the two cases. There is a distinct
tendency towards a homodont series, the grinding teeth being often very
simple, and the very distinct carnassial tooth of many terrestrial
Carnivores being absent. Finally, the number of the back teeth shows some
signs of being on the increase; and Professor Kuekenthal has found that
this increase is due to the division of existing teeth. Here is a point of
likeness to the many teeth of the typical Toothed Whales. Dr. Nehring found
in several examples of _Halichoerus grypus_ the normal five back teeth
increased to {448} six, and the additional molar was at the end of the
series, thus suggesting a lengthening of jaw coupled with an increase in
number of teeth.
The incisor teeth of the Pinnipedia differ from those of the land Carnivora
in that there are nearly always fewer than 3/3, at least in the adult
animal. In possessing lobulated kidneys the Pinnipedia differ from all
terrestrial Carnivores except the Otters and Bears--a significant fact.
In the characters of the skeleton the Pinnipedia show many peculiarities.
The cranial part of the skull is proportionately to the facial part greater
than in terrestrial Carnivora; there is no lachrymal bone, and the orbit is
to some extent defective in ossification. The alisphenoid canal, so
important a feature in the Carnivora, may be present or absent. It is
present, for example, in _Otaria jubata_.[317] This genus also has the more
primitive small and rugged tympanic bullae, which are inflated and more
Cat-like in others. The vertebrae show an interesting Creodont peculiarity
in the complex interlocking arrangements of the zygapophyses of the dorsal
vertebrae. The ossicula auditus differ from those of their terrestrial
allies in their large size and massive growth. In this they have come to be
like those of the Whales and Sirenians.
[Illustration]
FIG. 228.--Patagonian Sea-Lion. _Otaria jubata._ x 1/20.
There is no doubt about their close resemblance to the {449} terrestrial
Carnivora, but the question is, to which group of Carnivora have they the
most likeness. The semiaquatic Otter, and the still more thoroughly aquatic
(marine) _Enhydris_, suggest an affinity in that direction. The long body
and short legs of the Otter, which is more thoroughly at home pursuing fish
in the streams than in waddling clumsily upon the banks of the streams,
seem to require but little external change to convert it into a small Seal,
while the long and completely webbed hind digits of _Enhydris_ are even
more like those of a Pinniped. The Sea-Lions, in which the external ear has
been preserved, and in which the limbs have not become so entirely useless
for progression on the land as they have in the Seals, seem to be the
intermediate step in the evolution of the latter. This, however, is not the
opinion of Dr. Mivart, who, without definitely committing himself on the
point, presents some evidence for the assumption that the marine Carnivora
are diphyletic. This double origin, however, is not from two groups of the
terrestrial Carnivora. Dr. Mivart, in common with many others, holds that
the Pinnipedia as a whole are undoubtedly nearer to the Arctoidea than to
either of the two remaining sections of the sub-order. One of the most
striking structural characters in which they show this resemblance is the
brain; the peculiar Ursine lozenge, already treated of as so distinctive a
character of the Arctoidea, is repeated in the Pinnipedia.
There are, however, other points of likeness which seem rather to point to
a Creodont origin. _Patriofelis_ is a genus that from more than one side
may be looked upon as a possible ancestor of these animals. The Creodont
peculiarity of the vertebrae has already been referred to. It may be added
that the facial part of the skull is small in _Patriofelis_, which appears,
moreover, to have had an alisphenoid canal. A very remarkable resemblance
lies in the structure of the astragalus. This is not deeply grooved on the
tibial facet as it is in Fissiped Carnivora. This might be held to be an
instance of degeneration in the aquatic Seals, which do not use their limbs
as walking organs. But Professor Wortman[318] has pointed out that in the
Sea-Otter, which is entirely aquatic, the groove exists and is plain. The
likeness offered to the Seals by the spreading feet of _Patriofelis_ is
noticed under the description of that genus.[319]
{450}