THE DAILY LIFE IN A MONASTERY
1. MATINS
The night Office in most monasteries began at midnight, although in some
places the time varied according to the seasons of the year, from that
hour till half-past two or three o’clock. Midnight, however, was so
generally the time, that, in considering the daily life of a monastery, it
may be assumed that the night vigils began with the first hour of each
day. At some short time before the hour appointed for the commencement of
the night Office the signal for rising was given in the common dormitory.
Sometimes the sub-sacrist was charged with the ringing of a small bell, as
he passed rapidly down the passage between the monks’ beds or cubicles. In
other places it was the duty of the abbot himself, or his prior, to awaken
the monks from their slumbers and invite them to come and keep their night
watch in the church. In any case the sacrist and his assistant had to be
up betimes and before the others, for, as has been already said, they had
to see that the lights were lit on the stairs and in “le standards” in the
church. It was the duty of one of the novices, however, to light candles
for his fellows, and set them about the places they occupied in the choir,
since they did not as yet know the psalmody by heart.
Meanwhile the monks when roused from their sleep were taught to begin the
day by signing themselves with the cross and commending themselves to
God’s protection. As they rose from their beds they put on those parts of
their monastic habit which had been laid aside during the hours of sleep,
and shod themselves with their “night-boots.” These were probably
fur-lined, cloth protectors for the feet, which served the double purpose
of keeping them warm during the winter nights spent in the cold church,
and of rendering their footfall inaudible, during the hours of the greater
silence which lasted from Compline till Prime. Each monk as he finished
his simple preparation, seated himself in front of his bed and there
waited in silence, with his hood drawn well over his head, till the bell
began to toll. Then, preceded by a junior carrying a lighted lantern, the
religious went out of the dormitory in companies of six at a time, and
took their places in the choir. The juniors occupied as their normal
position the stalls nearest to the altar, the youngest being next to the
chancel step, the seniors being furthest away, and the superiors next to
the entrance. The abbot or prior waited outside the church in the
cloister, or at the entrance to the choir, until all had passed in before
him and had taken their places, when he gave the signal for the tolling of
the bell to cease, and then himself entered and took up his position in
the stall next to the gate of the choir.
[Illustration: FRANCISCANS IN CHOIR]
At the coming of the superior all rose from their knees, returned his
salutation, and at once bowed down for what was known as the
“Triple-prayer”--the Pater, Ave, and Creed--with which the night Office
always commenced. Then the weekly antiphoner at a sign from the superior
gave out the first of the “Fifteen,” or “Gradual” psalms. Great
importance was always attached to the recitation of these psalms, and all
the obedientiaries were bound to be present, except the guest-master when
his duty to any stranger took him away, or the cantor on a day when any
proper Lessons had to be read at Matins, and he was occupied officially in
finding the places in the great chained book at the choir lectern. At the
end of these psalms, by which, on all but the great feasts, the night
Office was commenced, those officials who had duties to perform departed
from the choir during the interval between the Psalms and the second
ringing of the bells for the beginning of Matins proper.
When the second night-tolling ceased, at a sign from the superior, the
hebdomadarian of the week, who had to sing the daily High Mass, began the
Office with the usual _Deus in adjutorium_. This weekly official was bound
always to be present at Matins during the time of his office when he sang
the Mass; and so strict indeed was the law of connection between Matins
and the Mass, that should the hebdomadarian be unable for any reason to be
present at the former, he had to obtain the services of some priest who
could assist at Matins, to sing the Mass for him.
After the Invitatory, which was said or sung by the weekly antiphoner,
either alone or with a companion, or on the great feasts by the cantor and
his assistant, the superior, or hebdomadarian priest, gave out the first
antiphon, and the rest of the antiphons were taken in turns by the seniors
on either side. At the conclusion of the psalms of each Nocturn, the
reader appointed for the first Lesson fetched the lighted candle, bowed to
either choir and to the abbot if he were present, and then ascending the
steps of the reading-place, so held the candle that its light fell as he
desired on the book which had been prepared by the cantor. Before
beginning his reading he asked the usual blessing, bowing down from the
place where he stood towards the abbot or superior, who gave it sitting in
his stall. The Lesson was followed by the _Responsorium_, during which the
reader of the Lesson made way for another, who had been appointed on the
cantor’s official list for the second Lesson, and so on, till after the
last Lesson had been read, when the reader carried back the light to the
place whence the first reader had brought it, that it might be found ready
for the Lessons of the next Nocturn. In some places the readers of the
fourth, eighth, and twelfth Lessons were told to extinguish the candle,
taking care that it did not smoke so as to annoy the brethren. It was to
be lighted again by one of the novices appointed for the purpose during
the last psalm of each Nocturn.
If the abbot was to sing the twelfth Lesson, or to take part in a
Responsory, or other portion of the service, as he did on the great
festivals, the cantor had to come with the abbot’s chaplain and others to
his stall, bringing the necessary books with lights carried by servers,
and the cantor in a low voice was to assist him in the singing. On feasts
with twelve Lessons, whilst the _Te Deum_ was being chanted, preparations
were made for the solemn singing of the portion of the Gospel selected for
the Office of the day. The church servants brought into the choir a
portable reading-desk, which they placed at the steps leading to the
presbytery. Others brought a cope of the colour of the day, with an amice,
stole, and maniple. Meanwhile the sacrist had fetched the book of the
Gospels with some solemnity from the altar, and had placed it on the
desk, where the cantor was waiting to find the proper place. Having done
so, at the indicated verse in the _Te Deum_, the cantor went to the stall
of the hebdomadarian of the Mass, and bowing to him conducted him to the
desk, assisted him to vest, and pointed out to him the place in the Holy
Gospels that had to be sung or read. Meanwhile the servers had come into
the choir from the sacristy with incense and lights, and when the _Te
Deum_ was concluded all turned towards the priest whilst he chanted the
appointed Gospel, and finished Matins with the prayer of the day.
Immediately the bells began to ring for Lauds, and during the brief
interval the priest unvested, and with the usual bow to each choir, which
was slightly acknowledged by the monks on either side, he returned to his
stall to wait till the cessation of the ringing gave the signal for the
beginning of the next canonical Hour. Meantime the incense and lights had
been taken back into the vestry, and the sacrist, having carried the
Gospel-book back to the altar, the servants removed the desk out of the
choir. The cantor busied himself during the interval at the great chained
Antiphonary on the lectern, in order to see that all the places of Lauds
were marked, and that the hanging lantern in front of the book was burning
brightly enough to light up the great parchment page with its large square
notes and big letters. In this interval the monks either remained sitting
in their stalls with their hoods covering their heads, or they could take
the opportunity of leaving the choir, to restore their circulation by a
brisk turn in the cloister, or for any other purpose.
2. LAUDS
In ancient days the Office of Lauds was called _Matutinæ Laudes_--“the
morning praises”--because they were supposed to be always celebrated at
dawn of day. In mediæval monasteries, however, this canonical Hour was
generally said or sung, with only a short interval between it and Matins.
It would, therefore, have been probably somewhere about one o’clock in the
morning that Lauds usually began.
If the feast was of sufficient rank for the hebdomadarian to be vested in
a cope, he then occupied the stall next to the abbot; if not, he remained
in his own place, and, when the tolling of the bell ceased and gave notice
of the conclusion of the interval, he at once intoned the _Deus in
adjutorium_ for the beginning of Lauds. It was his place to give out the
first antiphon, the second being taken by the abbot, or by the first
religious in choir. The rest of the antiphons were given out as at Matins,
by one on each side in turn. The Chapter--called the “Little Chapter”--was
supposed to be known by heart, and no book or light was allowed to be used
in saying it.
The hebdomadarian gave out the antiphon of the _Benedictus_, and if he
were vested in cope he would have to incense the altar or altars during
the singing of that canticle. For this purpose two thurifers, and acolytes
bearing candles, came from the sacristy before the antiphon was begun, and
the thurifers, after the incense had been blessed by the abbot,
accompanied the hebdomadarian to the High Altar, returning whence they had
come after the ceremony had been performed. On Sundays, at the conclusion
of Lauds, the hebdomadarian gave the blessing to the outgoing and incoming
weekly servers.
Directly the Office was over the community retired once more to the
dormitory and to bed. The juniors led the way with a lighted lantern, as
when they had come down to Matins. The prior, however, waited in his stall
until he had seen that all had passed out of the church except the
sacrist, who had to remain behind to see that the lights were safely put
out, and that the _Collectarium_, or book of Collects, and other choir
books were carefully replaced in the aumbry. Then he too retired again to
his bed in the room near the church. It would have been probably some time
about half-past one or two in the morning before the monks found
themselves once more in bed for their second period of repose.
3. PRIME AND THE EARLY MASS
It is somewhat difficult to say exactly at what time the Hour of Prime was
generally said in a mediæval monastery. It is possible, however, to assume
that it was not earlier than six or later than seven o’clock in the
morning. One Consuetudinary, that of St. Mary’s, York, says that the bell
was to ring for that Hour at seven, “unless for some reason the time was
changed; but that Prime must never be said before daybreak.”
At seven o’clock, then, or thereabouts, after the monks had been allowed
five hours for the term of their second repose--making with the rest they
had had previous to the midnight Office, about eight hours in all--the
prior, or whoever was appointed for the duty, roused the brethren. This
was done by sounding a bell for the space of a _Miserere_ psalm, and
before the ringing was finished the religious were expected to be already
out of bed. They were now, at their second rising, to dress themselves in
their day clothes and shoes, and to betake themselves to the church, where
they were to be in their places before the bell had ceased to toll. Prime
with its hymn, three psalms, and the beautiful morning prayer: “O Lord God
Almighty, Who hast brought us to the beginning of this day, so assist us
by Thy grace, that we may not fall this day into sin, but that our words
may be spoken and our thoughts and deeds directed according to Thy just
commands,” did not take very long, and concluded with the usual
_Benedicamus Domino_. Immediately after this the great bell was rung for
the _Missa familiaris_, or early Mass, chiefly intended for the servants
and workpeople of the establishment. At this the community were not bound
to be present; and so, whilst the bell was tolling, they passed into the
cloister to begin their washing and complete their dressing, etc. The
seniors and priests first occupied the lavatories, since they had now to
say their own private Masses as soon as they were ready. Whilst the
seniors were dressing, the juniors waited in their places reading or
praying till their turn came. When the sign was made that the lavatories
were free, the novice-master ceased his instructions, and the novices put
down their psalters in their places in the cloister; the juniors returned
their books to the shelves of the aumbry in the cloister, and then they
went in turns to wash, going afterwards to the corner near the door of the
refectory to smooth their hair.
It was during this hour after Prime that those who desired to approach the
Sacrament of Penance could always be sure of finding a confessor in the
chapter-room, where alone, be it remarked, the confessions of the
brethren were heard. On all Sundays and feast days the early Mass was
delayed until the washing was finished, when the religious who were not
priests went in procession to the church to hear this Mass and to receive
the Holy Eucharist. On these occasions they were sprinkled with holy water
at the door of the church, and a crucifix was offered to them to kiss.
On other days during this time, except the priests who, as has already
been pointed out, now said their private Masses, the monks either took
their books and studied in the cloister; or, if they were obedientiaries,
busied themselves in the necessary duties of their various offices.
The early Mass had to be taken in turn by all the priests, except by the
infirmarian, who always celebrated for the sick in the infirmary, and by
some of the other officials whose duties prevented their celebrating at
this time. The priest, whose name was on the _tabula_ to take this Mass,
had to see that the altar had been prepared, and that the places were
marked in the missal beforehand, so as not to cause unnecessary delays. At
the same time those about to celebrate their private Masses prepared their
chalices and cruets in the sacristy; and, assisted by the junior monks not
in priest’s orders, went to the altars assigned to them. When two priests
had their names entered on the _tabula_ for the same altar, the senior
took the first turn and the junior followed. If the former did not come,
the latter was to wait till the priest saying the early Mass had got to
the Epistle, and then he could himself take the altar, presuming that his
senior had for some reason been unable to come.
4. THE MIXTUM
Before the next public duty, which was the _morning Mass_--celebrated it
would seem about half-past eight, or thereabouts--on all days but fasting
days, the community were called to the refectory for what was variously
called the _mixtum_, or breakfast. Three strokes of the bell at the church
door was the signal for this slight refection which the young members, who
were not priests, could take at an earlier hour, if the superior so wished
or thought good. This meal--if meal it could be called--was very slight,
and consisted, according to one set of directions, of a quarter of a pound
of bread, and a third of a pint of wine or beer. There was, however, even
in this slight refection a religious decorum and a certain amount of
ceremony. The weekly reader asked a blessing, and the first religious
present in the refectory gave it, saying: “May the Giver of all good gifts
bless the food and drink of his servants.” Then the small portion was
served out and consumed by each in silence, and standing. At the end, each
monk said to himself when he had finished: “Grant, we beseech Thee, O
Lord, for Thy name’s sake eternal life to all our benefactors. Amen.”
In Lent the _mixtum_ was not taken except on Sundays. It was also omitted
on the three Rogation days, on the Ember days, and on certain vigils of
feasts, which by ecclesiastical law were days of fasting.
5. THE MORNING OR CHAPTER MASS
Whilst the monks were at their morning refection the first bell was kept
ringing for the morning Mass. This Mass was frequently called the “Ladye
Mass,” because it was usually celebrated at the altar of our Blessed
Lady, and as a votive Mass in her honour, when the feast permitted it. In
other places it was called the “Chapter Mass,” because it was followed
immediately by the daily Chapter. When the first bell had ceased to ring,
the monks took up their position in that part of the cloister known as the
_Statio_, that is, the place where all assembled when they had to go into
the church in procession. This place naturally varied in different
monasteries according to circumstances. In St. Mary’s, York, it is
described as being in the western walk of the cloister, before the common
parlour.
On the second tolling of the bell the community proceeded in procession to
the church. At the door they were presented with a crucifix to kiss, took
holy water, and bowed to the representation of the Holy Trinity, or the
crucifix, at the entrance. They then stood in their ranks in choir facing
the altar, till, on the entrance of the superior, the bell ceased.
Sometimes the Hour of Tierce was said before the morning Mass, but in any
event the seniors were now in the stalls nearest to the altar.
At a sign from the cantor the novices took the graduals from the choir
cupboard, or the psalters if the Mass was _de Requiem_, and distributed
them. The priest came in at once and the Mass was said in a low but
audible voice, with more or less solemnity according to the ecclesiastical
rank of the day.
6. THE CHAPTER
Immediately after the conclusion of the morning Mass the great bell was
set ringing for the daily Chapter. It would now have been somewhere about
nine o’clock in the day. As long as the tolling continued the religious
as a body remained sitting in their stalls in the church, “thinking,” as
one Custumal says, “over any transgressions against the Rule or good
discipline of which they may have been guilty.” Meanwhile the chief
officials responsible for the order of the house, called generally the
_custodes ordinis_, repaired for a few minutes to the private parlour to
consult as to any matter which might need correction, or to which public
attention should be called; at the same time, on the sound of the bell,
all those who for any reason had not been present at the Mass, hastened to
the chapter-room. During this interval one of the custodians of the
cloister went round to see that all the doors were so closed and fastened,
that no one could enter the monastery precincts during the time of the
Chapter.
When the brief talk of the custodians was over, the junior among them went
back to the door of the church to stop the bell ringing, and its cessation
was the signal for the community to leave the choir and proceed to the
chapter-room, the juniors walking first. Here all stood in their places
till the entrance of the superior. If the abbot were present all bowed as
he passed through their ranks, and as he reached his seat at the upper end
of the room, the prior and one of the seniors from the abbot’s side of the
choir came forward to kiss his hand, bowing to him both before and after
this act of homage. By this ceremony they publicly renewed their monastic
obedience on behalf of the community.
[Illustration: COMMUNITY IN CHAPTER HOUSE, WESTMINSTER]
Whilst the community and superior were coming into the Chapter, the junior
appointed for the office of weekly reader in the refectory, stood holding
before his breast the _Martyrology_, or book of the names of the saints
daily commemorated by the Church. When all had entered and taken their
seats, the reader came forward, and placing the volume upon the lectern in
the middle of the room, asked the blessing of the president in the usual
form. This having been given, he read the portion of the Martyrology which
gave the brief notices of the lives of the martyrs and other saints
commemorated on the following day. When mention was made of any saint
whose relics were possessed by the house, or who was specially connected
with it as patron or otherwise, the community removed their hoods and
bowed down as a mark of special reverence.
After the Martyrology all stood up and turned to the crucifix, or
_Majestas_, during the usual morning prayers, which were said to call down
God’s blessing upon the work of the day, and to ask His protection over
all the words and deeds to be uttered and done in His service. With the
blessing: “May the Lord Almighty regulate our days and acts according to
His peace” and the short reading called the _Capitulum_, this portion of
the daily Chapter was concluded. Then, all again sitting, the abbot or
presiding superior said, _Loquamur de Ordine nostro_: “Let us speak about
the affairs of our house.” At this point the novices retired from the
chapter-room, and also any stranger religious, who was not professed for
the monastery, who happened to be present. About all that was transacted
in this part of the daily Chapter, the strictest silence was enjoined.
Some of the Custumals even declare that they do not set forth the manner
of holding the Chapter, as the secrets of the religious family are its own
and all loyal sons would desire to keep them inviolate. Other
regulations, whilst permitting the infirmarian to convey to the sick monks
who were not present any order given, charged him on no account to relate
anything else that happened in the Chapter, since no one was ever allowed
to speak about such matters, not even to mention and discuss them with
those who had been present.
When the room had been cleared of all but the professed monks of the
monastery, the Chapter devoted itself to the correction of faults against
good discipline. It was lawful for any religious, except a novice, to
speak in the secrecy of Chapter about any matters that in his judgment
required to be corrected. These generally resolved themselves into one of
three classes relating to regular life: (1) negligences of all kinds,
changes of customs, and mistakes in the divine service; (2) want of due
care in the keeping of silence; and (3) neglect of the proper almsgiving
on behalf of the house. As to all things in the first class it was the
duty of the cantor and succentor to speak first, and to call attention to
anything they had noticed amiss; concerning shortcomings in the second
class, the superior and the guardians of the cloister, whose special duty
it was to watch over the monastic silence, were to have the first say; and
as regards the third, naturally the almoner and his assistant would have
most information to give on all that regarded the monastic charities.
After the “proclamations” or “accusations,” the superior pronounced the
punishment. No one was allowed to offer any defence or make any excuse,
and the whole process was summary and without noise or wrangling. The
penance was generally some corporal chastisement, with rod or other
discipline; and this, which to our modern ideas seems so curious, and
indeed somewhat repellent a feature of mediæval monasticism, was evidently
at the time regarded as quite a natural, and indeed a useful and healthy
form of religious exercise; for, besides being looked on as a punishment,
this form of corporal chastisement was resorted to with permission of the
superior as a common means of self-mortification. Such voluntary penances
were chiefly sought for on days like the Fridays of Lent, and especially
on Good Friday, and when some brother specially desired to offer up
penitential works for the soul of some departed brother.
When the questions of discipline had been disposed of, which ordinarily
would have taken only a very brief time, the superior, if he desired to
say anything, made his short address or exhortation. He then, if there was
any need, consulted his community about any temporal or other matter, or
asked their consent, where such consent was required. In all such temporal
matters many of the Custumals advise the junior members to defer to the
age and experience of their elders, although they were of course free to
give their own opinions, even if contrary to that of their elders.
It was at this time in the daily Chapter that any deed or charter to which
the convent seal had to be affixed, and to which the convent had already
assented, was sealed in presence of all by the precentor, whose duty it
was to bring the common seal to the meeting when it was needed. When this
part of the Chapter was finished, all matters such as the issuing of
public letters of thanks or congratulation, etc., in the name of the
community, were sanctioned, and the granting of the privilege of the
fraternity of the house to benefactors or people of distinction. When the
actual ceremony of conferring this favour, which was both lengthy and
solemn, was to be performed, it was at this point that the “confratres”
and “consorores” were introduced into the Chapter. After the ceremony the
“confratres” received the kiss of peace from all the religious; the
“consorores” kissed the hand of each of the monks.
In the same way, on the day before a Clothing or Profession, the candidate
presented himself before the abbot, at this point in the Chapter, and
urged his petition. Also, before a monk was ordained priest he had to come
before the Chapter; and kneeling, to beg the prayers of his brethren. The
superior was charged to explain to him again carefully at this time the
responsibilities of so high a calling, and to warn him of the dangers and
difficulties which he would have to encounter in his sacred office. Then
the superior pronounced over him a special blessing and offered up a
special prayer for God’s assistance. When there were many candidates for
ordination who had to go elsewhere to receive their Orders, it was at this
time in the Chapter that the schedule of their names was drawn up and
handed to the senior, who was to accompany them to the bishop at whose
hands they were to receive ordination.
[Illustration: HENRY VI BEING RECEIVED AS A CONFRATER AT EDMUNDSBURY]
Only on rare occasions, however, would there have been any such matters of
public business. Ordinarily speaking, from the superior’s address, if he
made any, followed by his blessing, the Chapter passed to the
commemoration of the departed. If the day was the anniversary of a
benefactor whose soul ought to be remembered in the prayers of the
community, the precentor, or the succentor in his absence, came forward
immediately after the superior had given his blessing, and standing in
front of the reading-place, said: “To-day, sir, we should have the great
bell rung”--or some other bell, according to the solemnity of the
anniversary. “For whom?” asked the superior. “For so-and-so,” replied the
precentor, naming the special claim the person whose anniversary it was,
had upon the community. Then the superior, bowing, said: “May his soul and
the souls of all the faithful, by the mercy of God, rest in peace.”
Whereupon the precentor wrote the name of the benefactor upon the “tabula”
for the day, that no one might have the excuse of absence for not knowing
for whom the whole convent had to offer up their prayers that day. Then
from the lectern the reader announced the usual list of the anniversaries
of brethren entered in the necrology for the day; and this again was
followed by the precentor reading any mortuary roll, or notice of death of
some religious of another house, or of some personage of distinction, if
any such had been received. After reading such a roll, it was his duty to
explain to the community what were their obligations in regard to the
deceased. The Chapter was then concluded with the _De profundis_ and a
prayer for the souls of all departed brethren and benefactors.
On ordinary occasions, of course, the daily Chapter would not occupy a
very long time, possibly a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes. At any
rate, a full half-hour of the morning would be left before the High Mass,
which began at ten o’clock. This time was generally spent by the monks in
conversation in the cloister. On days when there was talking, the prior,
or abbot if he had been present, on coming into the cloister when the
Chapter was over, would sound three times the _tabula sonatila_, which was
apparently a piece of hard wood, to which two other smaller pieces were
loosely fastened, so that when shaken it gave forth a musical sound and
served the purpose of our modern gong. This triple sounding of the
_tabula_ was always the signal for talking; the superior, or whoever acted
for him, pronouncing the word _Benedicite_, without which no conversation
was to be permitted in the monastery. “By the three strokes,” says one
author who sees deep meanings in ordinary things, “is to be understood the
signs of our mortality, representing our coming into the world, our
passage through life, and our transit through the portals of death.” The
special significance of this thought in regard to conversation was
apparently that in view of it, a bridle should be set upon the tongue and
a guard upon the heart, which was so frequently disturbed by trifling
images.
7. THE PARLIAMENT
After the Chapter the common business of the house was transacted. The
discussion about all the many details of a great administration like that
of a mediæval monastery necessitated regular consultations between the
officials and the superior, and frequent debates upon matters of policy,
or matters of business, or on points of the Rule or observance. These
meetings were known as “the Parliament,” or Discussions, and from them the
word to signify our house of national representatives was taken.
One particular part of the cloister was selected where these monastic
Parliaments were held, and thither all came who had any matter to suggest
or business to transact with the officials. Here the abbot, or he who
took his place, was ordered to be ever ready to hear what those had to say
who sought him for guidance or direction. In another part of the cloister,
during this time after Chapter, the senior monks met together to listen to
devotional reading, and to discuss points that might strike them in their
reading, or which had been suggested by the Divine Office. In the same way
the juniors were to be in their places in the western walk of the cloister
with their master, or one or more of the seniors, similarly engaged in
asking questions as to observance, or seeking to know the meaning of any
difficult passages in Holy Scripture. The novices, and the juniors who had
been only recently professed, were together in the northern walk of the
cloister, being taught the principles and practices of the monastic life.
It was a precious time for the beginner, when the disciple was exhorted to
question his instructor on all matters connected with the regular
observance, but especially about the Rule and the Divine Office.
During this period of the Parliament the guardians of the cloister were
directed to go about from group to group, to see that the laws of the
regular life were observed as they should be. During this half-hour,
except in the case of the officials who had to transact necessary business
of the house, no conversations about worldly matters or vain tales were to
be permitted. The Parliament time--between Chapter and High Mass--was
devoted exclusively to spiritual matters or to the discussion of necessary
business.
During this and all similar times of conversation the monks were warned to
keep watch over their tongues. When asked their opinion or advice, they
were to give it with modesty and moderation. No signals were to be
permitted between various parts of the cloister; the conversation was to
be conducted in a low tone, and it was to be considered a matter of first
importance that at these meetings all should be present.