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PREVENT LIFE-WASTE--UPBUILD NATIONAL VITALITY
[Illustration: LIVE!
THE LIFE EXTENSION INSTITUTE INC.
NEW YORK. N. Y.
25 WEST 45th STREET]
_Directors_
Hon. William H. Taft
Henry H. Bowman
Francis R. Cooley
Robert W. de Forest
Irving Fisher
Eugene Lyman Fisk
Harold A. Ley
Elmer E. Rittenhouse
Charles H. Sabin
Frank A. Vanderlip
HON. WILLIAM H. TAFT
_Chairman, Board of Directors_
ELMER E. RITTENHOUSE
_President_
GEN. W. C. GORGAS
_Consultant, Sanitation_
PROF. IRVING FISHER
_Chairman, Hygiene Reference Board_
EUGENE L. FISK, M.D.
_Director of Hygiene_
HAROLD A. LEY
_Vice-president and Treasurer_
JAMES D. LENNEHAN
_Secretary_
The Institute was established by a group of scientists, publicists, and
business men, who desired to provide a self-supporting central
institution of national scope devoted to the science of disease
prevention--a responsible and authoritative source from which the public
might draw knowledge and inspiration in the great war of civilization
against needless sickness and premature death.
LIFE EXTENSION INSTITUTE, Inc.
25 WEST 45th STREET :: NEW YORK CITY
HOW TO LIVE
[Illustration: Hon. William Howard Taft
Chairman, Board of Directors Life Extension Institute, Inc.
COPYRIGHT MOFFETT STUDIO]
HOW TO LIVE
RULES FOR HEALTHFUL LIVING
BASED ON MODERN SCIENCE
_AUTHORIZED BY AND PREPARED IN COLLABORATION_
_WITH THE HYGIENE REFERENCE BOARD OF THE_
_LIFE EXTENSION INSTITUTE, INC._
BY
IRVING FISHER, _Chairman_,
PROFESSOR OF POLITICAL ECONOMY, YALE UNIVERSITY
AND
EUGENE LYMAN FISK, M.D.,
DIRECTOR OF HYGIENE OF THE INSTITUTE
_NINTH EDITION_
FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY
NEW YORK AND LONDON
1916
COPYRIGHT, 1915, BY
FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY
(Printed in the United States of America.)
* * * * *
_Published, October, 1915_
_Second Edition, November, 1915_
_Third Edition, December, 1915_
_Fourth Edition, March, 1916_
_Fifth Edition, April, 1916_
_Sixth Edition, May, 1916_
_Seventh Edition, June, 1916_
_Eighth Revised Edition, September, 1916_
_Ninth Edition, September, 1916_
FOREWORD
To one who has been an eye-witness of the wonderful achievements of
American medical science in the conquest of acute communicable and
pestilential diseases in those regions of the earth where they were
supposed to be impregnably entrenched, there is the strongest possible
appeal in the present rapidly growing movement for the improvement of
physical efficiency and the conquest of chronic diseases of the vital
organs.
Through the patient, intelligent and often heroic work of our army
medical men, and the staff of the United States Public Health Service,
death-rates supposedly fixed have been cut in half.
While it is true that to the public mind there is a more lurid and
spectacular menace in such diseases as small-pox, yellow fever and
plague, medical men and public health workers are beginning to realize
that, with the warfare against such maladies well organized, it is now
time to give attention to the heavy loss from lowered physical
efficiency and chronic, preventable disease, a loss exceeding in
magnitude that sustained from the more widely feared communicable
diseases.
The insidious encroachment of the chronic diseases that sap the vitality
of the individual and impair the efficiency of the race is a matter of
increasing importance. The mere extension of human life is not only in
itself an end to be desired, but the well digested scientific facts
presented in this volume clearly show that the most direct and effective
means of lengthening human life are at the same time those that make it
more livable and add to its power and capacity for achievement.
Many years ago, Disraeli, keenly alive to influences affecting national
prosperity, stated: "Public Health is the foundation on which reposes
the happiness of the people and the power of a country. The care of the
public health is the first duty of a statesman." It may well be claimed
that the care of individual and family health is the first and most
patriotic duty of a citizen.
These are the considerations that have influenced me to co-operate with
the life extension movement, and to commend this volume to the earnest
consideration of all who desire authoritative guidance in improving
their own physical condition or in making effective the knowledge now
available for bringing health and happiness to our people.
WM. H. TAFT.
New Haven, June 12, 1915.
PREFACE
The purpose of this book is to spread knowledge of _Individual Hygiene_
and thus to promote the aims of the Life Extension Institute. These may
be summarized briefly as: (1) to provide the individual and the
physician with the latest and best conclusions on individual hygiene;
(2) to ascertain the exact and special needs of the individual through
periodic health examinations; (3) to induce all persons who are found to
be in need of medical attention to visit their physicians.
A sad commentary on the low health-ideals which now exist is that to
most people the expression "_to keep well_" means no more than _to keep
out of a sick-bed_. Hitherto, the subject-matter of hygiene has been
considered in its relation to disease rather than to health. In this
manual, on the other hand, it is treated in its relation to (1) the
preservation of health; (2) the improvement in the physical condition of
the individual, and (3) the increase of his vitality. In short, the
objects of the manual are positive rather than negative. It aims to
include every practical procedure that, according to the present state
of our knowledge, an athlete needs in order to make himself superbly
"fit," or that a mental worker needs in order to keep his wits sharpened
to a razor-edge. For this reason some suggestions, which might otherwise
be regarded as of minor importance, have been included and emphasized.
While it is true that a moderate infraction of some of the minor rules
of health is not inconsistent with maintaining good health in the sense
of keeping out of a sick-bed, such infraction, be it ever so moderate,
is utterly inconsistent with good health in the sense of attaining the
highest physical and mental efficiency and power.
Future advances of knowledge will doubtless occasion additions to, or
modifications of, the conclusions stated herein, and these will form the
subject of subsequent publications by the Institute.
In order that the Institute may have at its disposal the latest and most
authoritative results of scientific investigations, its Hygiene
Reference Board was created. The present book is the first general
statement of the conclusions of this Board after a year of careful
consideration. These conclusions are the joint product of the members of
the Board, with the active co-operation of the Director of Hygiene of
the Institute. They may fairly be said to constitute the most
authoritative epitome thus far available in the great, but hitherto
neglected, realm of individual hygiene.
The Chairman of the Board has exercised the function of editor, and is
responsible for the order and arrangement of the material.
Friends of the Institute may help its work by spreading the ideas given
in the following pages and by increasing the number of its readers. Such
profits as may be received by the Institute from the sale of this book
will be devoted to further philanthropic effort by the Institute.
IRVING FISHER,
EUGENE L. FISK.
New York, Sept., 1915.
CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER I
AIR
SECTION
1. HOUSING 7
2. CLOTHING 14
3. OUTDOOR LIVING 18
4. OUTDOOR SLEEPING 20
5. DEEP BREATHING 24
CHAPTER II
FOOD
1. QUANTITY OF FOOD 28
2. PROTEIN FOODS 35
3. HARD, BULKY, AND UNCOOKED FOODS 40
4. THOROUGH MASTICATION 44
CHAPTER III
POISONS
1. CONSTIPATION 51
2. POSTURE 57
3. POISONS FROM WITHOUT 64
4. TEETH AND GUMS 78
CHAPTER IV
ACTIVITY
1. WORK, PLAY, REST AND SLEEP 89
2. SERENITY AND POISE 105
CHAPTER V
HYGIENE IN GENERAL
1. THE FIFTEEN RULES OF HYGIENE 119
2. THE UNITY OF HYGIENE 121
3. THE OBSTACLES TO HYGIENE 126
4. THE POSSIBILITIES OF HYGIENE 135
5. HYGIENE AND CIVILIZATION 143
6. THE FIELDS OF HYGIENE 157
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS
1. NOTES ON FOOD 171
2. NOTES ON OVERWEIGHT AND UNDERWEIGHT 212
3. NOTES ON POSTURE 221
4. NOTES ON ALCOHOL 227
5. NOTES ON TOBACCO 250
6. AVOIDING COLDS 272
7. SIGNS OF INCREASE OF THE DEGENERATIVE DISEASES 281
8. COMPARISON OF DEGENERATIVE TENDENCIES AMONG NATIONS 286
9. EUGENICS 293
INDEX 325
HYGIENE REFERENCE BOARD
OF THE LIFE EXTENSION INSTITUTE, Inc.
IRVING FISHER, Chairman
Professor of Political Economy
Yale University
#Statistics#
WILLIAM J. HARRIS, Federal Trade Commission, United States Government.
CRESSY L. WILBUR, M.D., Director, Division of Vital Statistics, Dept. of
Health, State of New York.
WALTER F. WILLCOX, Professor of Economics and Statistics, Cornell
University.
#Public Health Administration#
HERMANN M. BIGGS, M.D., Commissioner of Health, State of New York.
RUPERT BLUE, M.D., Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service.
H. M. BRACKEN, M.D., Secretary Board of Health, State of Minnesota.
J. B. GREGG CUSTIS, President Board of Medical Supervisors, District of
Columbia.
SAMUEL G. DIXON, M.D., Commissioner of Health, State of Pennsylvania.
OSCAR DOWLING, M.D., President Board of Health, State of Louisiana.
JOHN S. FULTON, M.D., Secretary Dept. of Health, State of Maryland.
S. S. GOLDWATER, M.D., Supt., Mt. Sinai Hospital, New York.
WILLIAM C. GORGAS, Major General U. S. Army.
CALVIN W. HENDRICK, Chief Engineer, Sewerage Commission of Baltimore.
J. N. HURTY, M.D., Secretary Board of Health, State of Indiana.
W. S. RANKIN, M.D., Secretary and Treasurer, Board of Health, State of
North Carolina.
THEO. B. SACHS, M.D., President The Chicago Tuberculosis Institute.
JOSEPH W. SCHERESCHEWSKY, M.D., U. S. Public Health Service.
GUILFORD H. SUMNER, M.D., Secretary--Executive Officer, Dept. of Health
and Medical Examiners, State of Iowa.
GEORGE C. WHIPPLE, Professor Sanitary Engineering, Harvard University.
C. E. A. WINSLOW, Professor of Public Health, Yale Medical School.
#Medicine and Surgery#
LEWELLYS F. BARKER, M.D., Professor of Medicine, Johns Hopkins
University.
GEORGE BLUMER, M.D., Dean Tale Medical School.
GEORGE W. CRILE, M.D., Professor Clinical Surgery, Western Reserve
University.
DAVID L. EDSALL, M.D., Professor Clinical Medicine, Harvard University.
HENRY, B. FAVILL, M.D., Professor Clinical Medicine, Rush Medical
College.
J. H. KELLOGG, M.D., Superintendent Battle Creek Sanitarium.
S. ADOLPHUS KNOPF, M.D., Professor of Medicine, Department of
Phthisiotherapy, New York Post Graduate Medical School.
WILLIAM J. MAYO, M.D., Ex-President American Medical Association.
VICTOR C. VAUGHAN, M.D., Dean, Dept. of Medicine and Surgery, University
of Michigan, Ex-President American Medical Association.
HUGH HAMPTON YOUNG, M.D., Assoc. Professor of Urological Surgery, Johns
Hopkins University and Hospital.
#Chemistry, Bacteriology, Pathology, Physiology, Biology#
JOHN F. ANDERSON, M.D., Director Hygienic Laboratory, United States
Government.
HENRY G. BEYER, M.D., Medical Director, U. S. Navy.
WALTER B. CANNON, M.D., Professor of Physiology, Harvard University.
RUSSELL H. CHITTENDEN, Professor of Physiological Chemistry, Director
Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University.
OTTO FOLIN, Professor of Biological Chemistry, Harvard Medical School.
M. E. JAFFA, M.S., Professor of Nutrition, University of California.
LAFAYETTE B. MENDEL, Professor of Physiological Chemistry, Sheffield
Scientific School, Yale University.
RICHARD M. PEARCE, M.D., Professor of Research Medicine, University of
Pennsylvania.
MAZYCK P. RAVENEL, M.D., Director Laboratory of Hygiene, Professor of
Preventive Medicine and Bacteriology, University of Missouri.
LEO P. RETTGER, Professor of Bacteriology and Hygiene, Sheffield
Scientific School, Yale University.
M. J. ROSENAU, M.D., Professor of Preventive Medicine, Harvard Medical
School.
WILLIAM T. SEDGWICK, Professor of Biology and Public Health,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
HENRY C. SHERMAN, Professor of Food Chemistry, Columbia University.
THEOBALD SMITH, M.D., Director Division of Animal Pathology, Rockefeller
Institute for Medical Research.
CHARLES W. STILES, M.D., U. S. Public Health Service; Scientific
Secretary International Health Commission.
A. E. TAYLOR, M.D., Professor Physiological Chemistry, University of
Pennsylvania.
WILLIAM H. WELCH, M.D., Professor of Pathology, Johns Hopkins
University; President Board of Health, State of Maryland.
#Eugenics#
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, M.D., Board of Scientific Directors, Eugenics
Record Office.
C. B. DAVENPORT, Director Carnegie Station for Experimental Evolution;
Director Eugenics Record Office.
DAVID STARR JORDAN, Chancellor Leland Stanford Junior University; Chief
Director World Peace Foundation.
ELMER E. SOUTHARD, M.D., Professor of Neuropathology, Harvard Medical
School; Pathologist to Massachusetts State Board of Insanity.
#Organized Philanthropy#
MRS. S. S. CROCKETT, Ex-Chairman Committee on Health, General Federation
of Women's Clubs.
HENRY W. FARNAM, Professor of Economics, Yale University.
LEE K. FRANKEL, 6th Vice-President and Head of Welfare Department,
Metropolitan Life Insurance Company.
LUTHER H. GULICK, M.D., President Camp Fire Girls of America.
THOMAS N. HEPBURN, M.D., Secretary Connecticut Society for Social
Hygiene.
WICKLIFFE ROSE, Director International Health Commission.
WM. JAY SCHIEFFELIN, Chairman Executive Committee, Committee of One
Hundred on National Health.
MAJOR LOUIS LIVINGSTON SEAMAN, M.D., President The China Society.
WILLIAM F. SNOW, M.D., General Secretary, The American Social Hygiene
Association, Inc.
LAWRENCE VEILLER, Secretary and Director, National Housing Association.
#Educational#
SAMUEL HOPKINS ADAMS, Author.
W. H. BURNHAM, Professor of Pedagogy and School Hygiene, Clark
University.
CHARLES H. CASTLE, M.D., Editor Lancet Clinic.
W. A. EVANS, M.D., Professor Sanitary Science, Northwestern University
Medical School; Health Editor, Chicago Tribune.
BURNSIDE FOSTER, M.D., Editor St. Paul Medical Journal.
FREDERICK R. GREEN, M.D., Secretary Council on Health and Public
Instruction, American Medical Association.
NORMAN HAPGOOD, Editor Harper's Weekly.
ARTHUR P. KELLOGG, Managing Editor, The Survey.
J. N. McCORMACK, Chief Sanitary Inspector, Board of Health, State of
Kentucky.
M. V. O'SHEA, Professor of Education, University of Wisconsin.
HON. WALTER H. PAGE, Ambassador to England.
GEORGE H. SIMMONS, M.D., Editor Journal American Medical Association.
HARVEY W. WILEY, M.D., Director Bureau of Foods, Sanitation and Health,
Good Housekeeping Magazine.
HENRY SMITH WILLIAMS, M.D., Author.
#Industrial Hygiene#
JOHN B. ANDREWS, Secretary American Association for Labor Legislation.
THOMAS DARLINGTON, M.D., Secretary American Iron and Steel Institute.
NORMAN E. DITMAN, M.D., Trustee, American Museum of Safety.
GEORGE M. KOBER, M.D., Dean Medical School of Georgetown University.
W. GILMAN THOMPSON, M.D., Professor of Medicine, Cornell University
Medical School.
WILLIAM H. TOLMAN, Director The American Museum of Safety.
#Mouth Hygiene#
W. G. EBERSOLE, M.D., D.D.S., Secretary-Treasurer, The National Mouth
Hygiene Association.
ALFRED C. FONES, D.D.S., Chairman Dental Committee, Bridgeport Board of
Health.
#Physical Training#
WM. G. ANDERSON, M.D., Director Gymnasium, Yale University.
GEORGE J. FISHER, M.D., Secretary International Committee, Y. M. C. A.
R. TAIT MCKENZIE, M.D., Professor of Physical Education and Director of
the Department, University of Pennsylvania.
EDWARD A. RUMELY, M.D., President The Interlaken School.
DUDLEY A. SARGENT, M.D., Director Gymnasium, Harvard University.
PROF. ALONZO A. STAGG, Director Gymnasium, University of Chicago.
THOMAS A. STOREY, M.D., Professor of Hygiene, College of the City of New
York.
#Foreign Advisory Board#
AUSTRIA
LUDWIG TELEKY, M.D., Department of Social Medicine, Vienna University.
CANADA
JOHN GEORGE ADAMI, M.D., Professor of Pathology and Bacteriology, McGill
University, Montreal.
ENGLAND
SIR THOMAS OLIVER, Professor of Physiology, Durham University.
FRANCE
ARMAND GAUTIER, M.D., Professor of Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine,
Paris.
GERMANY
PROF. DR. KARL FLUeGGE, Director Hygienic Institute, Berlin.
ITALY
LEONARDO BIANCHI, Professor of Psychiatry, University of Naples.
JAPAN
PROF. DR. S. KITASATO, Chief of the Kitasato Institute for Infectious
Diseases, Tokyo.
RUSSIA
IVAN PETROVIC PAVLOV, Prof. of Physiology, Imperial Military Academy of
Medicine, Petrograd.
PORTRAITS OF MEMBERS
OF THE
HYGIENE REFERENCE BOARD
[Illustration: Dr. Lewellys F. Barker]
[Illustration: Dr. John F. Anderson]
[Illustration: Dr. Hermann M. Biggs]
[Illustration: Dr. Alexander Graham Bell]
[Illustration: Dr. William G. Anderson]
[Illustration: Dr. John B. Andrews]
[Illustration: Samuel Hopkins Adams]
[Illustration: Prof. W. H. Burnham]
[Illustration: Prof. Russell H. Chittenden]
[Illustration: Dr. George W. Crile]
[Illustration: Dr. Rupert Blue]
[Illustration: Dr. Chas. H. Castle]
[Illustration: Dr. George Blumer]
[Illustration: Mrs. S. S. Crockett]
[Illustration: Dr. Samuel G. Dixon]
[Illustration: Prof. Henry W. Farnam]
[Illustration: Dr. W. A. Evans]
[Illustration: Dr. C. B. Davenport]
[Illustration: Dr. W. G. Ebersole]
[Illustration: Dr. Norman E. Ditman]
[Illustration: Dr. Oscar Dowling]
[Illustration: Dr. Eugene L. Fisk]
[Illustration: Dr. Otto Folin]
[Illustration: Dr. George J. Fisher]
[Illustration: Prof. Irving Fisher]
[Illustration: Dr. Alfred C. Fones]
[Illustration: Dr. Burnside Foster]
[Illustration: Dr. Henry B. Favill]
[Illustration: Dr. Luther H. Gulick]
[Illustration: Mr. Norman Hapgood]
[Illustration: Mr. Lee K. Frankel]
[Illustration: Gen. Wm. C. Gorgas]
[Illustration: Dr. Frederick R. Green]
[Illustration: Dr. S. S. Goldwater]
[Illustration: Dr. John S. Fulton]
[Illustration: Dr. J. H. Kellogg]
[Illustration: Dr. S. Adolphus Knopf]
[Illustration: Dr. J. N. Hurty]
[Illustration: Chancellor David Starr Jordan]
[Illustration: Prof. M. E. Jaffa]
[Illustration: Mr. Calvin W. Hendrick]
[Illustration: Mr. William J. Harris]
[Illustration: Hon. Walter H. Page]
[Illustration: Dr. Geo. M. Kober]
[Illustration: Dr. J. N. McCormack]
[Illustration: Prof. Lafayette B. Mendel]
[Illustration: Dr. W. S. Rankin]
[Illustration: Mr. Edward Bunnell Phelps]
[Illustration: Prof. R. Tait McKenzie]
[Illustration: Dr. Dudley A. Sargent]
[Illustration: Dr. M. J. Rosenau]
[Illustration: Prof. Leo. F. Rettger]
[Illustration: Mr. Wickliffe Rose]
[Illustration: Dr. Theodore B. Sachs]
[Illustration: Dr. Edward A. Rumely]
[Illustration: Prof. Mazyck P. Ravenel]
[Illustration: Dr. J. W. Schereschewsky]
[Illustration: Dr. Wm. Jay Schieffelin]
[Illustration: Dr. Elmer E. Southard]
[Illustration: Prof. Alonzo A. Stagg]
[Illustration: Major Louis L. Seaman]
[Illustration: Dr. W. F. Snow]
[Illustration: Prof. A. E. Taylor]
[Illustration: Dr. Chas. W. Stiles]
[Illustration: Dr. Victor C. Vaughan]
[Illustration: Dr. Thomas A. Storey]
[Illustration: Prof. George C. Whipple]
[Illustration: Dr. William H. Tolman]
[Illustration: Prof. Walter E. Willcox]
[Illustration: Dr. Henry Smith Williams]
[Illustration: Dr. Cressy L. Wilbur]
[Illustration: Prof. C. E. A. Winslow]
[Illustration: Dr. Hugh Young]
[Illustration: Dr. Harvey W. Wiley]
HOW TO LIVE
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the Life Extension Institute embraces the extension of
human life, not only as to length, but also, if we may so express it, as
to breadth and depth. It endeavors to accomplish this purpose in many
ways, but especially through individual hygiene.
Thoroughly carried out, individual hygiene implies high ideals of
health, strength, endurance, symmetry, and beauty; it enormously
increases our capacity to work, to be happy, and to be useful; it
develops, not only the body, but the mind and the heart; it ennobles the
man as a whole.
[Sidenote: Medieval Ideals]
We in America inherit, through centuries of European tradition, the
medieval indifference to the human body, often amounting to contempt.
This attitude was a natural outgrowth of the theological doctrine that
the "flesh is in league with the devil" and so is the enemy of the
soul. In the Middle Ages saintliness was often associated with
sickliness. Artists, in portraying saints, often chose as their models
pale and emaciated consumptives.
We are beginning to cut loose from this false tradition and are working
toward the establishment of more wholesome ideals. It is probably true,
for instance, that the man or the woman who is unhealthy is now
handicapped in opportunities for marriage, which may be considered an
index to the ideals of society.
[Sidenote: The Present Health Movement]
A great health movement is sweeping over the entire world. Hygiene has
repudiated the outworn doctrine that mortality is fatality and must
exact year after year a fixed and inevitable sacrifice. It aims instead
to set free human life by applying modern science. Science, which has
revolutionized every other field of human endeavor, is at last
revolutionizing the field of health conservation.
[Sidenote: Medical Practise]
The practise of medicine, which for ages has been known as the "healing
art," is undergoing a gradual but radical revolution. This is due to the
growing realization that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of
cure. As teachers and writers on hygiene, as trainers for college
athletes, as advisers for the welfare departments of large industrial
plants, and in many other directions, physicians are finding fields for
practising preventive medicine. Even the family physician is in some
cases being asked by his patients to keep them well instead of curing
them after they have fallen sick.
Furthermore, the preventive methods of modern medicine are being applied
by the people themselves, as witness the great vogue to-day of sleeping
out of doors; the popularity, not always deserved, of health foods and
drinks; the demand for uncontaminated water supplies, certified milk,
inspected meat and pure foods generally; the world-wide movement against
alcohol, and the legislation to correct wrong conditions of labor and to
safeguard the laborer.
Labor itself to-day is being held in honor, and idleness in dishonor.
Ideals are being shifted from those of "leisure" to those of "service."
Work was once considered simply a curse of the poor. The real gentleman
was supposed to be one who was able to live without it. The king, who
set the styles, was envied because he "did not have to work," but had
innumerable people to do work for him. His ability to work, his
efficiency, his endurance, were the last things to which he gave
consideration. To-day kings, emperors, presidents are trying to find out
how they can keep in the fittest condition and accomplish the greatest
possible amount of work. Even among society women, some kind of work is
now "the thing."
[Sidenote: High Ideals]
One of the most satisfying tasks for any man or woman to-day is to take
part in this movement toward truer ideals of perfect manhood and
womanhood. Our American ideals, though improving, are far inferior to
those, for instance, of Sweden; and these, in turn, are not yet worthy
to be compared with those of ancient Greece, still preserved for our
admiration in imperishable marble. With our superior scientific
knowledge, our health ideals ought, as a matter of fact, to excel those
of any other age. They should not stop with the mere negation of
disease, degeneracy, delinquency, and dependency. They should be
positive and progressive. They should include the love of a perfect
muscular development, of integrity of mental and moral fiber.
There should be a keen sense of enjoyment of all life's activities. As
William James once said, simply to live, breathe and move should be a
delight. The thoroughly healthy person is full of optimism; "he
rejoiceth like a strong man to run a race." We seldom see such
overflowing vitality except among children. When middle life is reached,
or before, our vital surplus has usually been squandered. Yet it is in
this vital surplus that the secret of personal magnetism lies. Vital
surplus should not only be safeguarded, but accumulated. It is the
balance in the savings bank of life. Our health ideals must not stop at
the avoidance of invalidism, but should aim at exuberant and exultant
health. They should savor not of valetudinarianism, but of athletic
development. Our aim should be not to see how much strain our strength
can stand, but how great we can make that strength. With such an aim we
shall, incidentally and naturally, find ourselves accomplishing more
work than if we aimed directly at the work itself. Moreover, when such
ideals are attained, work instead of turning into drudgery tends to
turn into play, and the hue of life seems to turn from dull gray to the
bright tints of well-remembered childhood. In short, our health ideals
should rise from the mere wish to keep out of a sick bed to an eagerness
to become a well-spring of energy. Only then can we realize the
intrinsic wholesomeness and beauty of human life.
CHAPTER I
AIR
Section I--Housing
Air is the first necessity of life. We may live without food for days
and without water for hours; but we cannot live without air more than a
few minutes. Our air supply is therefore of more importance than our
water or food supply, and good ventilation becomes the first rule of
hygiene.
Living and working rooms should be ventilated both before occupancy and
while occupied.
It must be remembered that the mere construction of the proper kind of
buildings does not insure ventilation. We may have model dwellings, with
ideal window-space and ventilating apparatus, but unless these are
actually used, we do not benefit thereby.
[Sidenote: Features of Ventilation]
The most important features of ventilation are motion, coolness, and the
proper degree of humidity and freshness.
[Sidenote: Drafts]
There is an unreasonable prejudice against air in motion. A gentle draft
is, as a matter of fact, one of the best friends which the seeker after
health can have. Of course, a strong draft directed against some exposed
part of the body, causing a local chill for a prolonged time, is not
desirable; but a gentle draft, such as ordinarily occurs in good
ventilation, is extremely wholesome.
[Sidenote: Air and Catching Colds]
It goes without saying that persons unaccustomed to ventilation, and
consequently over-sensitive to drafts, should avoid over-exposure while
they are in process of changing their habits. But after even a few days
of enjoyment of air in motion, with cautious exposure to it, the
likelihood of cold is greatly diminished; and persons who continue to
make friends with moving air soon become almost immune to colds.
The popular idea that colds are derived from drafts is greatly
exaggerated. A cold of any kind is usually a catarrhal disease of germ
origin, to which a lowered vital resistance is a predisposing cause.
The germs are almost always present in the nose and throat. It is
exposure to a draft plus the presence of germs and a lowered resistance
of the body which produces the usual cold. Army men have often noted
that as long as they are on the march and sleep outdoors, they seldom or
never have colds, but they develop them as soon as they get indoors
again. See SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES, "Avoiding Colds."
Of course, one must always use common sense and never grow foolhardy. It
is never advisable that a person in a perspiration should sit in a
strong draft.
[Sidenote: Windows]
The best ventilation is usually to be had through the windows. We advise
keeping windows open almost always in summer; and often open in winter.
One should have a cross-current of air whenever practicable; that is, an
entrance for fresh air and an exit for used air at opposite sides of the
room. Where there can not be such a cross-current, some circulation can
be secured by having a window open both top and bottom.
[Sidenote: Window-boards]
In winter, ventilation is best secured by means of a window-board. This
is a board the edge of which rests on the edge of the window-sill, the
ends being attached firmly to the window-frame. It affords a vertical
surface three or four inches high and situated three or four inches in
front of the window, so as to deflect the cold air upward when the
window is slightly opened. The air will then reach the breathing-zone,
instead of flowing on to the floor and chilling the feet, which is the
usual consequence of opening a window in winter. It seems tragic to
think that for lack of some such simple device, which anyone can make or
buy, there is now an almost complete absence of winter ventilation in
most houses.
[Sidenote: Air-fans]
Air should never be allowed to become stagnant. When there is no natural
movement in the air, it should be put in motion by artificial means.
This important method of practising air-hygiene is becoming quite
generally available through the introduction of electric currents into
dwellings and other buildings and the use of electric fans. Even a hand
fan is of distinct hygienic value.
[Sidenote: Heating Systems]
A wood or grate fire is an excellent ventilator. A heating-system which
introduces warmed new air is better than one acting by direct radiation,
provided the furnace is well constructed and gas-proof.
[Sidenote: Cool Air]
The importance of coolness is almost as little appreciated as the
importance of motion. Most people enervate themselves by heat,
especially in winter. The temperature of living-rooms and work-rooms
should not be above 70 degrees, and, for people who have not already
lost largely in vigor, a temperature of 5 to 10 degrees lower is
preferable. Heat is depressing. It lessens both mental and muscular
efficiency. Among the employes of a large commercial organization in New
York who were examined by the Life Extension Institute, some of the men
in one particular room were suffering from an increase of body
temperature and a skin rash. On investigation it was found that the room
in which they worked was overheated. There was no special provision for
ventilation. A window-board was installed, with the result that the men
recovered and no other cases of skin rash occurred in that room.
[Sidenote: Dry air]
As to dryness of air, there is little which the individual can do except
to choose a dry climate in which to live or spend his vacations.
Unfortunately, there is not as yet any simple and cheap way of drying
house air which is too moist, as is often the case in warm weather.
[Sidenote: Humidity]
In the cold season, indoor air is often too dry and may be moistened
with advantage. This may be done, to some extent, by heating water in
large pans or open vessels. But for efficient moistening of the air,
either a very large evaporating-surface or steam jets are required. The
small open vessels or saucers on which some people rely, even when
located in the air-passages of a hot-air furnace, have only an
infinitesimal influence. Vertical wicks of felt with their lower ends in
water kept hot by the heating apparatus yield a rapid supply of
moisture. Evaporation is greatly facilitated if the water or wicks are
placed in the current of heated air entering the room. By a suitable
construction, the water may be replenished automatically. In very cold
dry weather, the air-supply of an ordinary medium-sized house requires
the addition of not less than 10 gallons of moisture every 24 hours, and
sometimes much more.
Some authorities doubt any ill effects from extreme dryness. This is a
subject yet to be cleared by experimental research.
[Sidenote: Freshness]
It is obvious that fresh pure air is preferable to impure air. Air may
be vitiated by poisonous gases, by dust and smoke, or by germs. Dust and
smoke often go together.
Lighting by electricity is preferable to lighting by gas, as some of the
gas is liable to escape and vitiate the air.
[Sidenote: Tobacco Smoke]
A very common and at the same time injurious form of air-vitiation is
that from tobacco smoke. Smoking, especially in a closed space such as a
smoking-room or smoking-car, vitiates the air very seriously, for smoker
and non-smoker alike.
[Sidenote: Dust]
As to dust, the morbidity and mortality rates in certain occupations,
particularly those known as the dusty trades, are appreciably and even
materially greater than in dustless trades.
An accumulation of house-dust should be avoided. The dust should be
removed--not by the old-fashioned feather duster which scatters the dust
into the air--but by a damp or oiled cloth. Dust-catching furniture and
hangings of plush, lace, etc., are not hygienic. A carpet-sweeper is
more hygienic than a broom, and a vacuum cleaner is better than a
carpet-sweeper. The removable rug is an improvement hygienically over
the fixed carpet.
[Sidenote: Bacteria]
The bacteria in air ride on the dust-particles. In a clean hospital
ward, when air was agitated by dry sweeping, the number of colonies of
bacteria collected on a given exposure rose twenty-fold, showing the
effect of ordinary broom-sweeping.
[Sidenote: Sunlight]
The air we breathe should be sunlit when possible. Many of our germ
enemies do not long survive in sunlight.
Section II--Clothing
Air may be shut out not only by tight houses but also by tight clothes.
It follows that the question of clothing is closely related to the
question of ventilation. In fact it is a reasonable inference from
modern investigations that air-hygiene concerns the skin quite as much
as the lungs. Therefore the hygiene of clothing assumes a new and
hitherto unsuspected importance. A truly healthy skin is not the waxy
white which is so common, but one which glows with color, just as do
healthy cheeks exposed to the open air.
[Sidenote: Porous Clothes]
The hygiene of clothing includes ventilation and freedom from pressure,
moderate warmth, and cleanliness. Loose, porous underclothes are already
coming into vogue. But effective ventilation, namely such as will allow
free access of air to the skin, requires that our outer
clothes--including women's gowns and men's shirts, vests, vest-linings,
and coat-linings--should also be loose and porous. Here is one of the
most important but almost wholly neglected clothing reforms. Most
linings and many fabrics used in outer clothes are so tightly woven as
to be impervious to air. Yet porous fabrics are always available,
including porous alpacas for lining. To test a fabric it is only
necessary to place it over the mouth and observe whether it is possible
or easy to blow the breath through it.
[Sidenote: Air-baths]
At times we can enjoy relief from clothing altogether. An air-bath
promotes a healthy skin and aids it in the performance of its normal
functions. Not every one can visit air-bath establishments or outdoor
gymnasia or take the modern nude cure by which juvenile consumptives are
sometimes treated (even in winter, after becoming gradually accustomed
to the cold); but any one can spend at least a little time in a state of
nature. Both at the time of rising in the morning and upon retiring at
night, there are many things which are usually done while one's clothes
are on which could be done just as well while they are off. Brushing the
teeth, washing the hands, shaving, etc., necessarily consume some time
during which the luxury of an air-bath can be enjoyed. Exercises should
also be taken at these times. Exercising in cold air, _if not too cold_,
with clothing removed, is an excellent means of hardening the skin and
promoting good digestion.
[Sidenote: Tight Clothing]
[Sidenote: Shoes]
The constriction from rigid or tight corsets, belts (the latter in men
as well as in women), tight neckwear, garters, etc., interferes with the
normal functions of the organs which they cover. All such constriction
should be carefully avoided. The tight hats generally worn by men check
the circulation in the scalp. Tight shoes with extremely high heels
deform the feet and interfere with their health. The barefoot cure is
not always practicable, but any one can wear broad-toed shoes with a
straight inner edge and do his part to help drive pointed toes out of
fashion. Such a reform should not be so difficult as to rid the women of
China of their particular form of foot-binding. Several anatomical types
of shoes, that is, shoes made to fit the normal foot instead of to force
the foot to fit them, are now available. In all except cold weather, low
shoes are preferable to high shoes. When possible, sandals, now
fortunately coming into fashion, are preferable to shoes, especially in
early childhood (but the adult, whose calf-muscles and foot-structure
are not often adapted to such foot-gear, must be cautious in their use
lest flat-foot result).
[Sidenote: Cottons, Linens, Woolens]
Only the minimum amount of clothing that will secure warmth should be
worn. Woolens protect most, but they require the least exercise of the
temperature-regulating apparatus of the body. While wool is also highly
absorbent of moisture, it does not give off that moisture quickly
enough. Hence, if worn next to the skin, it becomes saturated with
perspiration, which it long retains to the disadvantage of the skin.
Consequently woolen clothing is best confined to overcoats and outer
garments, designed especially for cold weather. The underclothes should
be made of some better conducting and more quickly drying material, such
as cotton or linen. In winter light linen-mesh and medium wool over
that, or "double-deck" linen and wool underclothes, can be worn by those
who object to either linen or wool alone.
[Sidenote: Color]
As to color, the more nearly white the clothes the better. This is
especially true in summer, but there is believed to be some advantage in
white at all seasons.
Those who have learned to clothe themselves properly find that they have
grown far more independent of changing weather conditions. They do not
suffer greatly from extreme summer heat nor extreme winter cold.
Especially do they note that "raw" or damp cold days no longer tax their
strength.
Section III--Outdoor Living
[Sidenote: Out-of-door Air]
But we must not depend altogether on ventilating our houses and our
clothes. We must turn our thoughts toward an outdoor life. The air of
the best ventilated house is not as good as outdoor air. Those who spend
much of their lives in the open enjoy the best health and the greatest
longevity. It is a great advantage to go into camp in summer and to live
in the country as much as possible.
Climate, of itself, is a secondary consideration. Not every one can
choose the best climate in the world, and, after all, the main
advantages of fresh air can be enjoyed in almost any locality. Even in a
city, outdoor air is, under ordinary circumstances, wonderfully
invigorating.
[Sidenote: Dampness]
The common prejudice against damp air greatly exaggerates its evils.
While moderate dryness of air is advantageous, it seems nevertheless
true that to live in damp, even foggy, air out-of-doors is, in general,
more healthful than to live shut up indoors.
[Sidenote: Outdoor Schools]
Observations have shown that the pupils in outdoor and open-window
schools are not only kept more healthy but learn more quickly than those
in the ordinary schools. It is even claimed that tuberculous children in
an outdoor school may make more rapid progress in their studies than the
more normal children in a badly ventilated school. Parents should insist
on fresh air for their children when at school. They should also insist
on outdoor playgrounds.
[Sidenote: Outdoor Recreations]
For themselves, also, they should not neglect outings, picnics, and
visits to parks. Whenever practicable, outdoor recreation should be
chosen in preference to indoor recreation.
[Sidenote: Occupations]
Above all, outdoor occupations should, when possible, be chosen in
preference to indoor occupations, such as working on a farm rather than
in a factory. It would help solve some of the greatest problems of
civilization, if, in consequence of an increased liking for outdoor life,
larger numbers of our population should join the "back-to-the-farm"
movement. Leaving the country for the city is often disastrous even for
the purpose in view, namely to gain wealth. For wealth gained at the
expense of health always proves in the end a bitter joke. The victim
proceeds through the rest of his life to spend wealth in pursuit of
health.
Section IV--Outdoor Sleeping
Unfortunately most people can not live out of doors all of the time, and
many are so situated that they can not even secure ventilation, granted
that they want it. But there is one important part of the twenty-four
hours when most people can completely control their own air supply. This
is at night. We spend a third of our time in bed. Most of us live such
confined lives during the day that we should all the more avail
ourselves of our opportunities to practise air hygiene at night.
[Sidenote: Tuberculosis]
[Sidenote: Well Persons]
It is the universal testimony of those who have slept out-of-doors that
the best ventilated sleeping-room is far inferior in healthfulness to an
outdoor sleeping-porch, open tent, or window tent (large enough to
include the whole bed). For generations, outdoor sleeping has
occasionally been used as a health measure in certain favorable climates
and seasons. But only in the last two decades has it been used in
ordinary climates and all the year round. Dr. Millet, a Brockton
physician, began some years ago to prescribe outdoor sleeping for some
shoe-factory workmen who were suffering from tuberculosis. As a
consequence, in spite of their insanitary working-places (where they
still continued to work while being treated for tuberculosis), they
often conquered the disease in a few months. It was largely this
experience which led to the general adoption, irrespective of climate,
of outdoor sleeping for the treatment of tuberculosis. The practise has
since been introduced for nervous troubles and for other diseases,
including pneumonia. Latterly the value of outdoor sleeping for _well_
persons of all classes, infants and children as well as adults, has come
to be widely recognized.
[Sidenote: Vital Resistance]
Outdoor sleeping increases the power to resist disease, and greatly
promotes physical vigor, endurance, and working power.
[Sidenote: Night Air]
Many people are still deterred from sleeping out by a mistaken fear of
night air and of the malaria which they imagine this dreaded night air
may bring. To-day we know that malaria is communicated by the bite of
the anopheles mosquito and never by the air. The moral of this is not to
shut out the night air, but, when necessary, to shut out the mosquito by
screens. The experiment has been made of sleeping out-of-doors _in
screened cages_ in the most malarial of places and no malarial infection
resulted, though those who were unprotected and were consequently bitten
by mosquitoes contracted malaria as usual. The truth is that night air,
especially in cities, is distinctly purer than day air, on account of
the fact that there is much less traffic at night to stir up dust.
[Sidenote: Protection From Cold]
It is very important, in any sleeping balcony, to be protected from the
wind by a sash on one or two or--in very windy places--three sides. But
of course sleeping out-of-doors does not reach its maximum efficiency if
there is too much protection, that is, if the sleeping-out place is so
shut in that very free currents of air are not secured. An outdoor
porch really ceases to be an outdoor porch, when enclosed on four sides.
A roll curtain (preferably rolling from the bottom) can be arranged on
the open side or sides, to be used in case of storms only. In cold
weather a thick mattress, or two mattresses, should be used. It is not
only what is over the sleeper, but also what is under him, that keeps
him warm. The body should be warmly clad, and the head and neck
protected by a warm cap or helmet or hood. To prevent the entrance of
cold air under the bedclothes, one or more blankets should be extended
at least two feet beyond the head, with a central slit for the head.
Early awakening by the light may, if necessary, be prevented by touching
the eyelids with burnt cork, or by bandaging the eyes with a black cloth
or stocking. Sheets should be well warmed in the winter-time before
being used. They can easily be warmed with a hot-water bag, flat-iron,
or soapstone. Blankets next to the skin are not hygienic.
[Sidenote: Sleeping-tents]
Sleeping out is really much easier than most people imagine. In fact,
few, if any, of the other cardinal rules of hygiene are so easy to
obey. Where a sleeping-porch is not available, an inward window tent can
always be had which puts the sleeper practically out-of-doors and at the
same time cuts off his tent from the rest of the room.
[Sidenote: Outdoor Tents]
An outdoor tent must be kept well opened. Otherwise it fails of its
purpose. The common opinion that a tent is ventilated through the
"meshes" of the canvas is erroneous. Canvas is a tightly woven fabric
and impervious to air. That is why it makes good sails. One of the most
modern boys' camps has given up the use of tents altogether, employing
instead open wooden "shacks," because of the difficulty of keeping the
tents sufficiently open, especially in rainy weather.
Complete directions for convenient out-of-door sleeping will be
furnished, upon application, by the Life Extension Institute.
Section V--Deep Breathing
Ordinarily breathing should be unconscious, but every day deep breathing
exercises should be employed. "A hundred deep breaths a day" is one
physician's recipe for avoiding tuberculosis. A Russian author, who
suffered a nervous breakdown, found--after trying many other aids to
health without success--that a retired life for several months in the
mountains in which simple deep-breathing exercises practised
systematically every day formed the central theme, effected a permanent
cure. Deep breathing is a great resource for people who are shut in most
of the day. If they will seize the chance, whenever it offers, to step
out-of-doors and take a dozen deep breaths, they can partly compensate
for the evils of indoor living.
In ordinary breathing only about 10 per cent. of the lung contents is
changed at each breath. In deep breathing a much larger percentage is
changed, the whole lung is forced into action, and the circulation of
the blood in the abdomen is more efficiently maintained, thus equalizing
the circulation throughout the body. The blood-pressure is also
favorably influenced, especially where increased pressure is due to
nervous or emotional causes.
[Sidenote: Breathing Exercises]
Breathing exercises should be deep, slow, rhythmic, and through the
nose, not through the mouth. A certain Oriental deep-breathing exercise
is particularly valuable to insure slowness and evenness of the breath.
It consists of pressing a finger on the side of the nose, so as to
close one nostril, breathing in through the other nostril, breathing out
of the first nostril in the same manner and then reversing the process.
Attention to the slight sound of the air, as it passes through the nose,
enables one to know whether the breathing is regular or is slightly
irregular. Such breathing exercises can be taken at the rate of three
breaths per minute, and the rate gradually reduced until it is only two
or even less per minute.
[Sidenote: Muscular Exercise]
Muscular exercises stimulate deep breathing, and, in general, the two
should go together. But deep breathing by itself is also beneficial, if
very slow. Forced _rapid_ breathing is comparatively valueless, and
indeed may be positively harmful. Oxygen is absorbed only according to
the demand for it in the body and not according to the supply.
[Sidenote: Singing]
Singing requires deep breathing, and is for that and other reasons an
excellent hygienic practise.
[Sidenote: Mental State]
The mode of our breathing is closely related to our mental condition;
either influences the other. Agitation makes us catch our breath, and
sadness makes us sigh. Conversely, slow, even breathing calms mental
agitation. It is not without reason that, in the East, breathing
exercises are used as a means of cultivating mental poise and as an aid
to religious life.
CHAPTER II
FOOD
Section I--Quantity of Food
The body has often been compared to a blacksmith's forge, the lungs
being the bellows and food the coal. The comparison is a good one, for
food is actually burned in the body by the aid of the air we breathe.
[Sidenote: Calories]
All food is capable of being used as body-fuel and by far the greater
part of it is so used. Consequently, food is measured in fuel-units,
called calories. Many people eat too much, that is, too many calories;
some eat too little, that is, too few calories. In both cases the person
is usually unaware of the fact, because he makes the mistake of
measuring his food by its weight or bulk. Some foods are concentrated,
that is, contain many calories of food value in a given bulk; others are
bulky, that is, contain few calories in a given bulk. For instance,
olive oil is concentrated, and most vegetables are bulky. A third of an
ounce of olive oil contains 100 calories, which is as much as is
contained in a pound or more of tomatoes, lettuce, celery, cucumbers,
string beans, asparagus, or watermelon.
It will help to give a picture of food values if, before going further,
we note how much it takes of some of the common foods to make a given
amount of food value, say 100 calories. It is surprising in how many
cases the ordinary amount of food served at table happens to contain
about 100 calories. We find 100 calories in a small lamb chop (weighing
about an ounce); in a large egg (about 2 ounces); in a small side-dish
of baked beans (about 3 ounces); in 11/2 cubic inches of cheese (about an
ounce); in an ordinary side-dish of sweet corn (about 31/2 ounces); in one
large-sized potato (if baked, about 3 ounces; if boiled, about
4 ounces); in an ordinary thick slice of bread (about 11/2 ounces); in one
shredded wheat biscuit (about an ounce); in a very large dish of oatmeal
(about 6 ounces); in a small piece of sponge-cake (about an ounce); in a
third of an ordinary piece of pie (about 11/2 ounces); in three
teaspoonfuls or 11/2 lumps of sugar (about 1 ounce); in a dozen peanuts
(about 1/3 of an ounce); in eight pecans (about 1/2 an ounce); in four
prunes (about 1 ounce); in two apples (about 7 ounces); in a large
banana (about 4 ounces) in half a cantaloup (about 9 ounces); in seven
olives (about 11/2 ounces); in a very large orange (about 10 ounces); in
an ordinary pat of butter (about 1/2 an ounce); in a quarter of a glass of
cream (about 2 ounces); in a small glass of milk (about 5 ounces). (See
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES for "Table of Food Values.")
The ordinary sedentary man needs about 2,500 calories per day. But the
larger the person (provided the bulk is due to muscle and active tissue
and not to fat) or the more muscular the work he does, the more food he
needs. It has been found that the number and activity of cells forming
the organs and muscles and blood affect the food requirement.
[Sidenote: Favorable Weight]
Life insurance experience has clearly shown that weight, especially in
relation to age, is an important factor in influencing longevity.
Except in the earlier ages of life, overweight (reckoned relatively to
the average for that age) is a more unfavorable condition, in its
influence on longevity, than underweight.
The question of whether an individual is really underweight or
overweight can not be determined solely by the life insurance tables.
(See SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES, "Influence of Build on Longevity.") Some types
who are of average weight according to the table, may be either
underweight or overweight when considered with regard to their framework
and general physical structure. Nevertheless, it should be remembered
that notwithstanding the effort of life insurance companies to carefully
select the favorable types of overweight and underweight, the mortality
experience on youthful underweights has been unfavorable, and the
mortality experience on middle aged and elderly overweights has been
decidedly unfavorable. The lowest mortality is found among those who
average, as a group, a few pounds over the average weight before age 35,
and a few pounds under the average weight after age 35. That is, after
the age of 35, overweight is associated with an increasingly high death
rate, and at middle life it becomes a real menace to health, either by
reason of its mere presence as a physical handicap or because of the
faulty living habits that are often responsible for its development.
[Sidenote: Overweight]
If there is a family tendency to overweight, one should begin early to
form habits that will check this tendency. If considerable overweight is
already present, caution is necessary in bringing about a reduction.
Barring actual disease, this can usually be done without drugs if the
person will be persevering and faithful to a certain regime.
Constant vigilance is necessary, yet it is worth while when one
considers the inconvenience as well as the menace of obesity.
After the age of 35, 15 to 20 pounds over the average weight should
prompt one to take careful measures for reducing weight. Habits should
be formed that will keep the weight down automatically, instead of
relying upon intermittent attempts that are more than likely to fail. No
matter how well one feels, one should take steps to keep out of the
class that life insurance companies have found to be undesirable as
risks.
[Sidenote: Accessories]
One reason why many people eat great quantities of food without
realizing it, is the common delusion that many articles such as candy,
fruits, nuts, peanuts, popcorn, often eaten between meals, "do not
count." Another common oversight is to overlook accessories, such as
butter and cream, which may contain more actual food value than all the
rest of a meal put together. Ice-cream and other desserts also have more
food value than is usually realized. Nature counts every calory very
carefully. If the number of calories taken in exceeds the number used by
the body (or excreted unused), the excess accumulates in fat or tissue.
Thus, if some 3,000 calories are taken in each day and the calories used
up or excreted are only 2,800, then 200 must be retained and accumulated
in the body.
[Sidenote: Underweight]
A person who is not heavy enough can usually gain weight by following
the general rules of hygiene, especially in the matter of increasing the
fuel or energy foods. But he should not force himself to eat beyond his
natural capacity to digest and assimilate the food, while overfatigue
and exhausting physical exertion should be carefully avoided.
[Sidenote: Diet in Middle Life]
As age advances, the consumption of meat and all flesh foods should be
decreased and that of fruit and vegetables, especially those of bulky
character and low food value, such as lettuce, tomatoes, carrots,
turnips, salsify, oyster-plant, watercress, celery, parsnips, should be
increased.
[Sidenote: Diet in Hot Weather]
Generally the quantity of food should be slightly decreased in hot
weather, when fewer calories are needed to sustain the heat of the body.
In particular, less meat should be eaten in the summer, on account of
what is called the "specific dynamic action of protein," that is, the
special tendency of meats and like foods to produce immediate heat.
Each individual must decide for himself what is the right amount of food
to eat. In general, that amount is right which will maintain the most
favorable condition of weight. If the weight, endurance, and general
feeling of well-being are maintained, one may assume that sufficient
food is taken.
[Sidenote: Brainwork and Eating]
It is physical, not mental work, which uses up the greater part of our
food. The common impression that brain-work or expenditure of mental
energy creates a special need for food is erroneous. The sedentary
brain-worker often gains weight without eating very much. What he really
needs is exercise, to use up the food, but if he will not take
exercise, then he should reduce his food even below the small amount on
which he gains weight.
[Sidenote: Eating When Fatigued]
Which meal in the day should be heavy and which light depends largely on
one's daily program of work, the aim being to avoid heavy meals just
before heavy work. When very tired it is sometimes advisable to skip a
meal or to eat only lightly, as of fruits and salads. A man who eats
heartily when he is very tired is likely to be troubled afterward with
indigestion.
(See SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES for specific directions regarding diet for
underweight and overweight.)
Section II--Protein Foods
[Sidenote: Protein, Fat, and Carbohydrate]
In the last section it was stated that food is fuel. But there is one
constituent of food which, while it _can_ be used as fuel, is especially
fitted for an entirely different purpose, namely, to build tissue, that
is, to serve for the growth and repair of the body. This tissue-building
constituent in food is called protein. The two other chief constituents
in food are fat and carbohydrate, the last term embracing what are
familiarly known as starch and sugar. Fats and carbohydrates are only
for fuel and contain carbon as the essential element. Protein contains
nitrogen as the essential element in tissue-building. The white of egg
and the lean of meat afford the most familiar examples of protein. They
consist entirely of protein and water. But meat and eggs are not the
only foods high in protein. In fact, most ordinary foods contain more or
less protein. The chief exceptions are butter, oleomargarine, oil, lard,
and cream--which consist of fat (and water)--and sugar, sirups, and
starch, which consist of carbohydrate (and water).
[Sidenote: Proportion of Protein]
Foods should be so selected as to give to the ration the right amount of
protein, or repair-foods, on the one hand, and of fats and
carbohydrates, or fuel-foods, on the other. A certain amount of protein
is absolutely essential. While, for a few days, protein may be reduced
to little or nothing without harm, if the body be long deprived of the
needed protein it will waste away and ultimately death will result.
Therefore, too little protein would be a worse mistake than too much.
The right proportion of protein has been the subject of much
controversy. According to what are regarded as the best investigations,
it is generally about 10 per cent. of the total number of heat-units
consumed. This does not, of course, mean 10 per cent. of the total
weight nor 10 per cent. of the total bulk, but 10 per cent. of the total
nutriment, that is, 10 calories of protein out of every 100 calories of
food.
[Sidenote: Human Milk]
Most persons in America eat much more protein than this. But that
10 calories out of 100 is not too small an allowance is evidenced by the
analysis of human milk. The growing infant needs the maximum proportion
of protein. In the dietary of the domestic animals, the infant's food,
the mother's milk, is richer in protein than the food of the grown
animal. Consequently an analysis of human mother's milk affords a clue
to the maximum protein suitable for human beings. Of this milk
7 calories out of every 100 calories are protein. If all protein were as
thoroughly utilized as milk-protein or meat-protein, 7 calories out of
100 would be ample, but all vegetable proteins are not so completely
available. Making proper allowance for this fact, we reach the
conclusion that 10 calories out of every 100 are sufficient.
[Sidenote: Excessive Use of High-Protein Foods]
A chief and common error of diet consists, then, in using too much
protein. Instead of 10 calories out of every 100, many people in America
use something like 20 to 30. That is, they use more than double what is
known to be ample. This excessive proportion of protein is usually due
to the extensive use of meat and eggs, although precisely the same
dietetic error is sometimes committed by the excessive use of other
high-protein foods such as fish, shell-fish, fowl, cheese, peas and
beans, or even, in exceptional cases, by the use of foods less high in
protein when combined with the absence of any foods very low in protein.
The idea of reducing the protein in our diet is still new to most
people.
[Sidenote: Injuries From Over-abundance of Protein]
Prof. Rubner of Berlin, one of the world's foremost students of hygiene,
said, in a paper on "The Nutrition of the People," read before the
recent International Congress on Hygiene and Demography:
"It is a fact that the diet of the well-to-do is not in itself
physiologically justified; it is not even healthful. For, on account
of false notions of the strengthening effect of meat, too much meat
is used by young and old, and by children, and this is harmful. But
this meat is publicly sanctioned; it is found in all hotels; it has
become international and has supplanted, almost everywhere, the
characteristic local culinary art. It has also been adopted in
countries where the European culinary art was unknown. Long ago the
medical profession started an opposition to the exaggerated meat
diet, long before the vegetarian propaganda was started. It was
maintained that flour foods, vegetables, and fruits should be eaten
in place of the overlarge quantities of meat."
When protein is taken in great excess of the body's needs, as is usually
the case in the diet of Americans, added work is given the liver and
kidneys, and their "factor of safety" may be exceeded.
[Sidenote: Animal Proteins]
Flesh food--fish, shell-fish, meat, fowl--when used in great abundance,
are subject to additional objections. They tend to produce an excess of
acids, are very prone to putrefaction, and contain "purins" which lead
to the production of uric acid. This is especially true of sweetbreads,
liver and kidney. The well-known deficiency in flesh foods of lime often
needs to be taken into consideration in the dietary. Some of the
vegetable foods, such as peas and beans, rich in protein, are likewise
not free from objection. Their protein is not always easily digested and
is, therefore, likewise liable to putrefaction. Unlike most vegetable
foods, they contain some purins. These foods are, however, rich in iron,
which renders them a more valuable source of protein for children and
anemic people than meat. Also, an excess of protein is not so likely to
be derived from such bulky foods as from meat, which is a concentrated
form of protein.
We have spoken thus far only of the needed proportion of protein. The
remainder of the diet, say 90 per cent. of the calories, may be divided
according to personal preference between fats and carbohydrates in
almost any proportion, provided some amount of each is used. A good
proportion is 30 per cent. fat and 60 per cent. carbohydrate.
Section III--Hard, Bulky, and Uncooked Foods
The wise choice of foods does not consist entirely in balancing the
ration as to protein, fat, and carbohydrate.
[Sidenote: Hard Foods]
Hard foods, that is, foods that resist the pressure of the teeth, like
crusts, toast, hard biscuits or crackers, hard fruits, fibrous
vegetables and nuts, are an extremely important feature of a hygienic
diet. Hard foods require chewing. This exercises and so preserves the
teeth, and insures the flow of saliva and gastric juice. If the food is
not only hard, but also dry, it still further invites the flow of
saliva. Stale and crusty bread is preferable to soft fresh bread and
rolls on which so many people insist. The Igorots of the Philippines
have perfect teeth so long as they live on hard, coarse foods. But
civilization ruins their teeth when they change to our soft foods.
[Sidenote: Bulk Versus Concentrated Foods]
Most of the ordinary foods lack bulk; they are too concentrated. For
this purpose it is found that we need daily, at the very least, an ounce
of cellulose, or "woody fiber." This is contained in largest measure in
fibrous fruits and vegetables--lettuce, celery, spinach, asparagus,
cabbage, cauliflower, corn, beets, onions, parsnips, squash, pumpkins,
tomatoes, cucumbers, berries, etc.
Until recently would-be food reformers have made the mistake of seeking
to secure concentrated dietaries, especially for army rations. It was
this tendency that caused Kipling to say, "compressed vegetables and
meat biscuits may be nourishing, but what Tommy Atkins needs is bulk in
his inside."
[Sidenote: Raw Foods]
[Sidenote: Vitamins]
Cooking is an important art; but some foods when cooked lose certain
small components called vitamins, which are also found in the skin or
coating of grains, especially rice, also in yolk of egg, raw milk, fresh
fruit, and fresh vegetables, especially peas and beans. These vitamins
are very important to the well-being of the body. Their absence is
probably responsible for certain diseases, such as beriberi, scurvy, and
possibly pellagra, as well as much ill health of a less definite sort.
Some raw or uncooked foods, therefore, such as lettuce or tomatoes,
celery, fruits, nuts, and milk, should be used in order to supply these
minute and as yet not well-understood substances which are destroyed by
the prolonged cooking at the temperature which is employed in order to
sterilize canned foods. They are also diminished and often destroyed by
ordinary cooking, except in acid fruits and acid vegetables.
[Sidenote: Raw Milk]
It is true that only very clean milk is entirely safe in an absolutely
raw state, and that heat is usually needed to kill the germs. But this
heat, even at the comparatively low temperature of pasteurization, has
been found to destroy the vitamins that prevent scurvy. Orange juice
should always be given to infants over one month old who are fed
pasteurized milk.
Not all foods can be taken raw with advantage. Most starchy foods, such
as cereals and potatoes and unripe fruit must, of course, be cooked in
order to be made fit to eat.
[Sidenote: Disinfection]
Raw foods have dangers of their own in carrying germs and parasites, and
it is extremely advisable that all raw foods should be very thoroughly
washed before eating.
[Sidenote: Acids and Inorganic Salts]
In addition to protein, fat, carbohydrate, and vitamins, there are other
elements which the body requires to maintain chemical equilibrium, and
for the proper maintenance of organic functions. These are the fruit and
vegetable acids and inorganic salts, especially lime, phosphorus, and
iron. These substances are usually supplied, in ample amounts, in a
mixed diet, containing a variety of fruits and vegetables and an
adequate amount of milk and cream. Potatoes, feared by some in acid
condition (such as gout), are actually valuable because of their
alkalinity.
Section IV--Thorough Mastication
Whether it be from lack of hard foods, requiring prolonged chewing, or
from the nervous hurry of modern life, or from other causes, it is
undoubtedly a fact that most people in America eat too rapidly. The
correction of this habit will go far toward reforming an individual's
diet in every way.
Thorough mastication means masticating up to the point of involuntary
swallowing. It does not mean forcibly holding the food in the mouth,
counting the chews, or otherwise making a bore of eating. It merely
means giving up the habit of forcing food down, and applies to all
foods, even to liquid foods, which should be sipped.
[Sidenote: Evils of Insufficient Mastication]
The consequences and evils of insufficient mastication are many, and may
be enumerated as follows: Insufficient use of the teeth and jaws (and
hence dental decay as well as other and worse dental evils);
insufficient saliva mixed with the food (and hence imperfect digestion
of the starchy substances); insufficient subdivision of food by
mastication (and hence slow digestion); the failure of the taste nerves
to telegraph ahead, as it were, to the stomach and other digestive
organs an intimation of the kind and amount of digestive juices required
(and hence indigestion); the overseasoning of food to make it relishable
even when bolted (and hence overeating and irritation of the mucous
lining); the excessive use of meat and eggs and like foods, which can be
eaten rapidly with relative impunity, and the corresponding neglect of
other foods, like bread, grains, vegetables, and salads, which require
more mastication (and hence intestinal poisoning).
[Sidenote: Prolonged Relish of Food]
The habit of insufficient mastication is subtle, because it has become
"second nature" with most of us. To free ourselves of it we must first
of all allow plenty of time for our meals and rid our minds of the
thought of hurry. A boy's school in which the principal is endeavoring
to fight the habit of food-bolting has wisely ordained that no boy may
leave the dining-room until a certain hour, even if he has finished
eating long before. In this way the boy soon learns that there is
nothing to be gained by fast eating, and, in fact, that the pleasantest
way of spending the meal-time is to prolong the relish of the food. It
would be well if all of us would adopt a similar rule for ourselves.
Mr. Gladstone did something of the sort and was noted for the slow
mastication of his food. Latterly Mr. Horace Fletcher set such a rule
for himself, and revived the interest of the public in the subject.
[Sidenote: The First Three Mouthfuls]
At first one must give some conscious attention to his efforts to
reform; but if one will merely attend carefully to the first three
mouthfuls of a meal, the slow pace can often be established for the rest
of the meal without further thought.
[Sidenote: Careful Tasting]
Slow eating is important not merely as a matter of mastication, but also
as a matter of taste and enjoyment. Food must have a pleasing taste and
flavor and then must be enjoyed in order to be most readily assimilated.
[Sidenote: Increased Enjoyment]
There is a mistaken notion that the hygiene of food means "giving up all
the things that taste good." While it is true that, in many cases,
sacrifices have to be made, the net result of reforming one's diet is
not to diminish but to increase the enjoyment of food. In general, it is
extremely unhygienic to eat foods which are not relished. Experiments by
Pavlov and others have shown that the taste and enjoyment of food
stimulate the flow of digestive juices.
[Sidenote: Choosing Foods]
Finally, slow eating is a great aid in the proper choice of foods. Some
suggestions have already been given as to the wise choice of foods, but
no rules can be formulated which will completely insure such a choice.
Even the wisest physiologist can not depend altogether on his knowledge
of food values, while, to the layman, the problem is so complicated that
his main reliance must be on his own instincts. Animals depend
exclusively on instinct except when under domestication. Civilized man
should not and can not altogether depend upon instinct, but his food
instincts are far more keen and correct if he obeys the rule of eating
slowly than if he bolts his food.
[Sidenote: "Good" and "Bad" Foods]
In the choice of foods it is as difficult to distinguish absolutely
between what are "good" and "bad" foods as it is to classify human
beings into "good" and "bad." All we can say is that some foods are
better than others, remembering that it is usually more important to be
_satisfied_, even if the foods are not "ideal," than to be unsatisfied
with what in the abstract seem "ideal" foods.
Among the best foods for most people are fruits, potatoes, nuts (if well
masticated), milk, sour milk, and vegetables. Among the worst foods are
putrefactive cheeses, sweetbreads, liver, kidneys, "high" game or
poultry.
But a fastidious study of foods will find some faults as well as some
virtues in almost any food. The best way to help the ordinary man choose
his foods is to advise him to use as much as possible of the "better"
and as little as possible of the "worse" without attempting to draw a
hard and fast line between the "good" and "bad."
[Sidenote: Salt, Pepper, Spices]
Salt, pepper, and hot condiments should be used very sparingly, if at
all.
[Sidenote: Sugar and Candy]
A great cause of ill health is overuse of sugar in concentrated form,
candy, etc., especially by the sedentary. One reason why sugar has a
high food value is that it is readily utilized for combustion, and if
taken between meals greatly increases the calories and may lead to
_overnourishment_.
[Sidenote: Water with Meals]
There is, for normal people, no objection to drinking a moderate amount
of water at meals--say one or two glassfuls--provided it is not taken
when food is in the mouth and used for washing it down.
[Sidenote: The Digestibility of So-called "Indigestible" Foods]
The science of dietetics will develop rapidly in the future, and in a
few years it will probably be possible to be more definite than we have
been here. At present there is much unknown, especially as to how far
our rules have to be modified for the particular individual. Personal
idiosyncrasies have to be taken into account. Sometimes "What is one
man's meat is another man's poison." On the other hand, many have
mistaken ideas as to their own idiosyncrasies. For instance, many people
think that nuts never agree with them, when the trouble really is that
they do not masticate them properly. Many think peanuts indigestible,
not realizing either the importance of mastication or the importance of
avoiding over-roasting. The ordinary peanuts are over-roasted. Peanuts
very slightly roasted and very thoroughly masticated seldom disagree
with one. Others believe that bananas never agree with them, when the
fact is they eat them too green. The banana vender usually finds that
the ignorant public buys his fruit best when its color is an even
yellow, and he puts aside for himself the only bananas ripe and fit to
eat, namely those which are mottled with black.
[Sidenote: Avoidance of Fads]
Each individual must use his own intelligence and common sense, avoiding
so far as he can the mistake of following a "fad" and accepting a theory
without sufficient evidence; and the opposite mistake of accepting as
hygienic the customs about him simply because they are customs, and thus
mistaking for fads any conclusions of science which are discordant with
current custom.
[Sidenote: Necessity of Medical Examination]
It is a good idea to consult a physician in regard to one's diet, and
endeavor intelligently to follow his advice and not insist on one's own
diet, selected from the standpoint of mere self-indulgence or custom.
Moreover, since many, without being aware of the fact, are affected with
Bright's disease, diabetes, etc., in their early stages, in which
dietetic precautions are especially necessary, it is well, even for
those who are apparently in good health, to be medically examined as a
preliminary to a rearrangement of their diet along the best lines.
CHAPTER III
POISONS
Section I--Constipation
If the human body be likened to a steam-engine, its wastes correspond to
the ashes.
[Sidenote: Retention of Body Wastes]
The injury which comes from the retention of the body's waste products
is of the greatest importance. The intestinal contents become dangerous
by being too long retained, as putrefying fecal matter contains poisons
which are harmful to the body. Abnormal conditions of the intestines are
largely responsible for the common headache malady, and for a generally
lowered resistance, resulting in colds and even more serious ailments.
Constipation is extremely prevalent, partly because our diet usually
lacks bulk or other needed constituents, but partly also because we fail
to eliminate regularly, thoroughly, and often.
Constipation, long continued, is by no means a trifling matter. It
represents a constant and cumulative tax which often ends in very
serious consequences.
[Sidenote: Water-Drinking]
Free water-drinking when the stomach is empty, especially before
breakfast, is beneficial in constipation. Free water-drinking at meals
may prove constipating. Excess of water should be avoided by the very
feeble or those suffering from heart trouble or dropsy.
[Sidenote: Laxative Foods]
The best regulators of the bowels are foods. Foods should possess
sufficient bulk to promote the action of the intestines and should
contain a due amount of laxative elements. Foods which are especially
laxative are prunes, figs, most fruits except bananas, fruit juices, all
fresh vegetables, especially greens of all sorts, wheat, bran, and the
whole grain cereals. Oils and fats are also laxative but can not be used
in sufficiently large quantities to produce very laxative effects
without producing loss of appetite. Foods which have the opposite
tendency are rice, boiled milk, fine wheat-flour in bread, corn-starch,
white of egg.
[Sidenote: Bran and Agar-Agar]
The use of wheat-bran in cereals, in bread, and even in vegetables is a
preventive of constipation, as is also the use of agar-agar, a Japanese
seaweed product. This is not digested and absorbed, but acts as a
water-carrier and a sweep to the intestinal tract. It should be taken
without admixture with laxative drugs.
[Sidenote: Mineral Oils]
Paraffin oil is especially good as an intestinal lubricant to assist the
food to slip through the intestinal tube at the proper rate of progress,
provided the oil is first freed, by long-continued shaking with water,
from certain dangerous impurities. Many refined preparations are on the
market for use in constipation. Underweight people should not use these
oils unless properly prescribed by a physician.
[Sidenote: Avoiding Drugs]
It is advisable, in general, to avoid cathartics except under medical
supervision, since certain drugs are often very harmful when their use
is long continued and the longer they are used the more dependent on
them the user becomes. Laxative drugs, even mineral waters, should never
be used habitually.
[Sidenote: Enemas]
The occasional, but not habitual, use of an enema (with warm water
followed always by a second enema of cool water, to prevent relaxation)
is a temporary expedient.
[Sidenote: Massage of the Colon]
Massage of the abdomen, deep and thorough, with a creeping movement of
the ends of the fingers on the left side of the abdomen from above
downward, also promotes the process of defecation.
The normal man and woman should find no difficulty in having complete
movements regularly two or three times a day by merely living a
reasonable life, being careful especially to avoid overfatigue, to
include sufficient bulk in the food, to take regular exercise,
including, in particular, breathing exercises, and to maintain an erect
carriage.
[Sidenote: Low Seated Water Closets]
High-seated water closets, so often found in institutions, hotels and
private houses, often favor constipation, as they do not permit of the
proper physiological attitude in defecation. They prevent the individual
from exercising abdominal pressure so essential for this function. Such
seats should be made much lower than they are, or the feet should rest
on a foot stool, in order to attain the proper attitude for thorough
emptying of the intestine.
[Sidenote: Number of Defecations]
Observations on the manlike apes show that they defecate three or four
times a day. Few of the human family have such ideal movements. Millions
are conscious of some shortcoming in this regard, and doubtless
millions more suffer from some shortcomings of which they are not
conscious. Many believe they have free movements when actually they are
suffering from a sluggishness in the rectum and other parts of the lower
intestine. A rectal examination often reveals unsuspected fecal
residues.
[Sidenote: Establishing Proper Habits]
The natural instinct to defecate, like many other natural instincts, is
usually deadened by failure to exercise it. Civilized life makes it
inconvenient to follow this instinct as promptly as, for instance, a
horse does. The impulse to go to stool, if neglected even five minutes,
may disappear. There are few health measures more simple and effective
than restoring the normal sensitiveness of this important impulse. It
may require a few weeks of special care, during which cold water enemas
at night, following evacuation by paraffin oil injection, may be needed.
It would be an excellent rule to visit the closet immediately after the
noon and evening meals, as faithfully as most people do after the
morning meal, until the reflex is trained to act at those, the most
natural, times for its action.
Before leaving the subject of intestinal poisoning, we may here again
mention the importance of avoiding the poisoning which comes from too
much protein. This poisoning is probably due largely to the
decomposition of protein in the colon.
[Sidenote: Use of Sour Milk]
One proposed method for reducing this decomposition of protein is
through the use of sour milk. Lactic acid, the acid of sour milk,
constitutes a medium in which putrefactive germs do not thrive. Hence,
if sufficient sour-milk germs can be kept in the intestines to
constantly manufacture lactic acid, putrefaction will be reduced. But,
as Professor Rettger and others have shown, the mere swallowing of a
little sour milk or of sour-milk tablets is seldom sufficient. The "good
germs" swallowed die of starvation before they do much good. To keep
them alive and enable them to multiply, we must feed them. The free use
of milk and of milk sugar, a little raw starch, or partially cooked
cereal such as Scotch brose (oatmeal cooked only ten minutes) will feed
the germs.
[Sidenote: Evidences of Injury]
The odor and character of the stools are indicative of the extent to
which our diet is injuring us. The odor is less offensive if the diet is
low in protein and thoroughly masticated.
Section II--Posture
One of the simplest and most effective methods of avoiding
self-poisoning is by maintaining an erect posture. In an erect posture
the abdominal muscles tend to remain taut and to afford proper support
or pressure to the abdomen, including the great splanchnic circulation
of large blood-vessels. In an habitual slouching posture, the blood of
the abdomen tends to stagnate in the liver and the splanchnic
circulation, causing a feeling of despondency and mental confusion,
headache, coldness of the hands and feet, and chronic fatigue or
neurasthenia, and often constipation.
A slouching attitude is often the result of disease or lack of vitality;
but it is also a cause.
[Sidenote: The "Consumptive Stoop"]
There is some reason to believe that "the consumptive stoop" leads to
tuberculosis partly through the lowering of resistance resulting from
the poisoning produced by a chronically relaxed abdomen.
Many persons who have suffered for years from the above-named symptoms
have been relieved of them after a few weeks of correct posture,
sometimes reenforced by the artificial pressure of an abdominal
supporter and by special exercises to strengthen the abdominal muscles.
Lying face downward with a pillow under the abdomen presses the blood
out of the congested splanchnic circulation.
[Sidenote: Breathing and Posture]
Breathing exercises are also very useful for correcting the chronic
evils of bad posture. Exercises taken when lying on the back, by raising
the legs or head, strengthen the abdominal muscles. Slow, deep
breathing, through the nose, while lying on the back, with a weight on
the abdomen, such as a bag of sand--2 to 4 lbs.--is beneficial.
[Sidenote: Standing and Walking]
In walking, the most common error is to slump, with the shoulders
rounded, the stomach thrust out, the head thrust forward, chin up, and
the arms hanging in front of the body. To those who walk or stand in
this fashion, let it be known that this is the "habitus enteroptoticus,"
or asthenic droop. It is characteristic of those with weak muscular and
nervous systems.
To set the shoulders back and square them evenly, to keep the chest high
and well arched forward, the stomach in and the neck perpendicular,
like a column, and the chin in, are simple fundamental measures that
most people know and many people disregard.
One should have a sense of the firmness or tautness of the abdominal
muscles and not of flabby relaxation. When one changes a slouching
posture into an erect posture, there is a sense of having reversed the
way the body hangs, as it were, on the spinal column.
Whether sitting, standing, or walking, these principles, that involve a
correct and pleasing carriage and a healthful relation of the organs and
structures of the body, should be observed by both men and women.
This perfect physical poise which places the muscles, organs,
circulation, and even the brain and nervous system in harmonious
relationship, adjusted for the best achievement, is well expressed in
sculpture dating back to 500-600 B. C., when the Spartans attained
supremacy in Greece. This same poise and symmetry is shown in modern
sculpture of fine types of manhood and womanhood.
[Sidenote: The Feet]
It is not enough to have an erect carriage and a well-poised head. We
must also have well-directed feet. It is pitiable to think how the work
of a fine head may be spoiled by misdirected feet. Weak foot, and its
final stage, flat foot, are more common among women than they are among
men, because it is not a purely local condition in the arch of the foot,
as so many suppose, but primarily due to a general weakened condition of
the leg muscles that support the arch. The more vigorous exercise of
boys as compared to that of girls protects them in some degree from this
malady.
[Sidenote: Toeing Straightforward]
Weak feet are gradually converted into flat feet by faulty standing and
walking posture and lack of leg exercise. Toeing out, whether walking or
standing, so commonly noted among girls and women, places a great strain
upon the arches of the foot. The correction of this fault by persistent
toeing in, Indian fashion, and daily exercise of the leg muscles (rising
on the toes twenty to forty times night and morning), will do much to
prevent flat foot.
[Sidenote: Chairs]
Not only in standing, but in sitting, erect posture has been found to be
a much more important factor in the maintenance of good health than is
generally supposed. A rocker, or any other chair which tilts, is restful
to the abdominal circulation, if the lower back is properly supported.
Bad posture is common among sedentary people. The ordinary chair
invites it. Every chair should be modeled like most modern automobile
seats, on a curve to fit the back. Almost any chair can be corrected by
placing a cushion so as to support the hollow of the back of the sitter.
The responsibility for correct posture rests, however, on the individual
and not on the chair.
[Sidenote: Sitting]
In sitting at a desk or table, when reading or working, the common fault
is to adopt a sprawling attitude, with the shoulders hunched up, the
elbows stretched outward, the body too far away from the desk or table,
and the weight resting on the buttocks. Very often the desk or table is
too high and the arms can not rest easily upon it, thus causing a
continuous strain on the structures around the shoulder-joints.
To correct this fault, use if possible a chair with a back that curves
forward. Sit well back in the chair, but close to the desk, so that the
fleshy inner part of the forearms may rest easily upon its surface
without pushing up the shoulders.
When it is necessary to lean over a desk, acquire the habit of inclining
the body forward by bending at the hips and not by distorting the
chest.
The arms should hang easily from the shoulder and the elbows should not
rest upon the table. The shoulders should be evenly square, as in the
correct standing posture. In right-handed people, the light should fall
over the left shoulder or directly from above. The body should rest upon
the full length of the thighs, not solely on the buttocks, and the feet
(not legs) be crossed and resting lightly on the ground on their outer
edges. In other words, the position should be freed from strain,
especially strain of special groups of muscles.
Pains, erroneously ascribed to rheumatism or sciatica, are often due to
faulty posture. Writer's cramp and many other needless miseries are
caused by neglect to develop proper postural habits in working or
reading.
[Sidenote: Posture in Children]
In children faulty posture may mar the future of the individual by
causing spinal curvature and physical deformities that interfere with
physical and mental efficiency throughout life, and often lower the
resistance to disease. Deep breathing through the nose and "setting up"
exercises are of incalculable importance in such cases.
The various types of faulty posture are so numerous that they can not be
listed here. Having once grasped the meaning of correct posture,
however, we can form a standard for ourselves, and any departure from
this standard should be looked upon as a menace to health. As in the
case of eye-strain, flat foot, work, worry, and drink, much depends on
the original physical and mental endowment of the individual as to how
much harm results from faulty posture. But always some harm results.
[Sidenote: Teaching Correct Posture]
The teaching of proper standing, proper walking and proper sitting
should be a part of all school discipline as it is at military schools,
especially as there is the temptation to crouch over the
school-desk--which is usually the source of the first deviation from
natural posture. An infant before it goes to school usually has a
beautiful, erect carriage, with the head resting squarely on the
shoulders.
[Sidenote: Posture and Character]
An erect posture is attractive from an esthetic point of view, and for
that reason is sure again to become fashionable with women, after a due
reaction from the present slouching vagary. It is also closely
associated with self-respect. We know that any physical expression of
an emotion tends reflexly to produce that emotion. Therefore, not only
does self-respect naturally tend to brace a man's shoulders and
straighten his spine, but, conversely, the assumption of such a
braced-up attitude tends to "brace up" the man's mind also. Tramps and
other persons who have lost their self-respect almost invariably slouch,
while an erect carriage usually accompanies those feeling their
respectability. We jokingly refer to those whose self-respect verges on
conceit as "chesty," while we compliment one who is not so extreme by
saying, "He is no slouch."
Between the slouch and slink of the derelict and the pompous strut of
the pharisee, or the swagger of the bully or the dandy, there is the
golden mean in posture, which stands for self-respect and
self-confidence, combined with courtesy and consideration for others.
Section III--Poisons from Without
The poisons which hitherto have been mentioned are those developed
within the body, especially in the intestine. It is not alone important
to keep down the total amount of poisons produced within the body. It is
equally important to exclude the entrance of any additional poisons from
outside.
[Sidenote: Habit-forming Drugs and Patent Medicines]
Among the poisons which must be kept out of the body should be mentioned
habit-forming drugs, such as opium, morphine, cocain, heroin, chloral,
acetanilid, alcohol, caffein, and nicotin. The best rule for those who
wish to attain the highest physical and mental efficiency is total
abstinence from all substances which contain poisons, including spirits,
wine, beer, tobacco, many much-advertised patent drinks served at
soda-water fountains, most patent medicines, and even coffee and tea.
Many so-called patent or proprietary medicines contain habit-forming
drugs, especially morphine, coal-tar preparations, caffein, and alcohol,
and depend largely for their sale upon the effects of these harmful
substances. Harmful preservatives and adulterants in foods, such as
saccharin, should also be avoided.
[Sidenote: Reducing the Habit]
For some persons the inevitable mode of improvement will be by
substituting the milder drugs for the stronger--beer for spirits, weak
tea for beer. The exact extent to which the milder poisons are injurious
has not yet been scientifically settled. Tea, for instance, if very weak
and used moderately, is, presumably, not injurious to any marked degree
to healthy persons. The trouble is, however, that sensitive people do
not keep moderate. In fact, the natural tendency of drug-craving is in
the opposite direction, from weak drugs to strong ones, as from beer to
spirits. In actual fact, it is much easier to abstain than to be
moderate. It should also be noted that the lax spirit in which many
people make an exception to the rules of health in favor of some mild
indulgence is very likely to lead to the making of many other exceptions
until they are, without knowing it, carrying a heavy load made up of
scores of little items of harmful indulgence. Moreover, experiments at
the Pasteur Institute have shown that the long-continued use of very
minute doses of poison ultimately produces appreciable harm. Each person
must decide for himself how far he chooses to depart from previous
habits or common customs for the sake of physical efficiency. The object
here is to state exactly what, in our present state of knowledge, is
believed to be the truth.
Those with feeble digestions or unstable nervous systems are especially
harmed by these poisons. A family history of nervously inclined people
calls for rigid care in such matters.
[Sidenote: Alcohol]
Scientific experiments have resulted in the interesting discovery that
the alleged "strength" obtained from beer, ales, and all intoxicating
beverages is a delusion and a snare. The poison simply gives a temporary
feeling of greater strength through paralysis of the sense of fatigue.
But the strength does not exist. On the contrary, the user of alcohol in
excess is weaker after taking it. Special classes of workmen have been
tested as to their efficiency under liquor in small amounts and without
it entirely, and it was invariably found that the liquor was a handicap,
but that, also invariably, the workmen _thought_ they could work harder
by its aid! Alcohol numbs the sense of fatigue and so deceives the user.
It is not a stimulant but a narcotic. The habit of taking a cocktail
before meals is doubly harmful, because it is often taken on an empty
stomach and because it poisons the system more quickly than when mixed
with food and retained in the intestines.
[Sidenote: Alcohol and Infectious Diseases]
It is well known that people who indulge in alcohol show less resistance
to infectious diseases than abstemious individuals. The paralysis of the
white blood-corpuscles is one of the strong arguments against the use of
alcohol. The experience of life insurance companies in England and
America has clearly shown that even the "moderate" use of alcoholic
beverages shortens human life. (See "Alcohol" in SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.)
Dr. Stockard has also shown in mice, on which he has experimented, that
the effect of alcohol on the germ-plasm is distinctly injurious. It is a
fair inference that the use of alcohol by parents tends to damage their
offspring.
[Sidenote: Tobacco]
The evils of tobacco have not been so much studied and are not so well
understood as those of alcohol. But every athletic trainer observes that
the use of tobacco lessens physical fitness. The ordinary smoker is
unconscious of this and often denies it. He sometimes says, "I'll stop
smoking when I find it hurting me; it doesn't hurt me now." The
delusive impression that one is well may continue long after something
has been lost from the fitness of the body, just as the teeth do not
ache until the decay has gone far enough to reach the nerve.
At Yale and at Amherst it has been found, by actual measurement, that
students not using tobacco during the college course had gained over the
users of tobacco in weight, height, growth of chest, and lung capacity.
Prof. Pack, of the University of Utah, finds that tobacco-using athletes
are distinctly inferior to those who abstain. Prof. Lombard, of the
University of Michigan, finds that tobacco lessens the power of the
voluntary muscles, presumably because of the depressing effect on the
central nervous system. There is also much experimental evidence to show
that tobacco in animals induces arterial changes. The present
well-marked upward trend of mortality from diseases of the arteries
offers a good reason for heeding such evidence and taking the safe side
in every controversy regarding it. (See "Tobacco" in SUPPLEMENTARY
NOTES.)
[Sidenote: Germs]
The poisons so far mentioned are limited to the amounts taken.
Infections with germs, however, bring in poisons, the quantities of
which tend to increase with the multiplication of the germs. It is,
therefore, especially important to avoid infections. We should not
depend altogether on the protection of our health officers. We must
guard our own individual bodies.
[Sidenote: Colds and La Grippe Germs]
Infections enter the body through the skin or mucous lining. The common
cold is believed to enter by the nose. We may avoid exposure to
infection from grippe and common colds by keeping away from congested
public places when there is an epidemic of grippe or colds, or when we
are ourselves fatigued or for any reason likely to catch cold.
The infections of common colds are always to be found in the nasal
passages and become active when the individual is subject to fatigue or
indigestion or both. The liability of catching cold is greater when the
mucous lining is injured. Nasal douches are injurious and impair the
protective ability of the mucous membrane. They should be used only on
prescription. A very gentle, warm spray of weak salt and water may be
used when the nose is filled with soot and dust. The fingers should be
kept from the nose. Handkerchiefs should be frequently changed, or
small squares of gauze used and subsequently burned.
[Sidenote: Tuberculosis Germs]
The germ of tuberculosis is probably conveyed oftenest through the
sputum of consumptives, when this sputum has been allowed to dry, has
become pulverized and is breathed into the system. All sputum should be
burned. It is well to avoid rooms occupied by consumptives who are not
careful with their sputum.
[Sidenote: Mosquito-borne Malaria and Yellow Fever]
Suitable wire netting will guard us from malaria and yellow fever, the
infections brought by mosquitoes and flies. The mosquito often carries
malaria, and in the tropics carries yellow fever and other diseases. As
some one has said: "A yard of screen in the window is better than a yard
of crape on the door." The greatest triumph in connection with the
building of the Panama Canal was not the engineering but the reduction
in the death-rate among the workers, which, on account of these
insect-borne diseases, had previously prevented the successful execution
of the undertaking.
Not only is it desirable to screen from mosquitoes, but to put oil on
any body of water where they breed. Even a small puddle can breed
millions of mosquitoes. No empty tin cans should be allowed to collect
about the kitchen door; they gather rain-water and soon breed
mosquitoes.
[Sidenote: Typhoid-free Water]
We take in many disease germs through food or drink. Every year 300,000
people in the United States enlist under the typhoid banner. To elude
the typhoid-germ we need first of all pure water. But when one is in
doubt as to the purity of water, it is advisable to boil water in order
to destroy possible typhoid germs and other dangerous germs and
impurities. Where hygienic water has been used a very large proportion
of the deaths from typhoid has been eliminated. Where this is not
feasible, it is desirable to use chlorinated lime (ordinary bleaching
powder) in the drinking water (one part to 200,000--shake up and leave
several minutes). If water of doubtful quality has to be drunk, it
should be at the middle or end of a meal when the healthy stomach
contains plenty of gastric juice, which to a limited extent has the
power to kill germs.
It is safer to keep out of swimming tanks that are not filtered or
refilled constantly, or chemically purified as by chlorinated lime.
[Sidenote: Typhoid-free Milk]
Another measure for avoiding typhoid is to pasteurize milk. Food that is
liable to contain typhoid or other dangerous germs, such as raw oysters,
and milk from typhoid-infected localities, should be avoided.
[Sidenote: The "Typhoid-fly"]
In protecting the food against all kinds of impurities which injure the
body, we must remember that the carrier of typhoid fever, the common
house-fly, deposits typhoid germs on the food, through which the germ is
taken into the system. The most effective method of fighting flies is by
preventing their breeding. Their favorite places for this are
horse-manure, but they will breed in almost any mass of fermenting
organic material. Manure piles and stables should be screened, and the
manure removed at least once in seven days. Garbage-pails should be kept
tightly covered. Fly-paper and fly-traps should be used. Houses should
be screened, and, in particular in the pantry, the food itself should be
screened. Flies are usually thirsty in the morning. By exposing a saucer
of one per cent. of formalin solution, the flies will be tempted to
drink this morning cocktail and pay the death-penalty.
A fly-trap has been invented by Professor Clifton F. Hodge, of the
University of Oregon, Eugene, Ore., which any one is free to construct
and which, if used universally about stables early in the season, would
greatly help toward banishing the fly altogether.
Flies occasionally gain entrance to the house in spite of the most
careful screening. The fumes of burning Pyrethrum powder (Persian insect
powder), used in the proportion of 2 lbs. per 1,000 cubic feet of air
space, will either kill or stupefy flies and mosquitoes, so that they
may be swept up and effectually destroyed. It may be distributed in pots
and pans, and ignited after sprinkling with alcohol.
[Sidenote: Other Vermin]
Ticks should also be carefully exterminated, as they are sometimes
responsible for such diseases as Rocky Mountain spotted fever, African
tick fever, and other infections. The bedbug is also by no means the
harmless creature which it is generally regarded. To its credit are
placed such maladies as relapsing fever. The flea has been responsible
for such terrible diseases as the plague. It often operates by means of
rats as its carrier to the human being. The louse is one of the direst
offenders in the insect line, as it must take the responsibility not
only for many cases of typhoid fever, but for the dread plague of
typhus, which is ravaging the European armies.
[Sidenote: Hookworm]
Hookworm disease is to be avoided by not treading barefoot on ground
polluted by victims of the disease, by preventing soil-pollution through
the proper disposal of human excrement, and by screening all
water-closets.
[Sidenote: Cleanliness]
Cleanliness is important for avoiding infections, and bathing is
important for cleanliness. The hands, the face, and finger-nails should
be kept clean, especially before meals. Any cut or crack in the skin or
mucous membrane may let in germs when the spot is dirty or is touched by
dirty hands. This is why surgeons are so scrupulously clean.
Super-cleanliness probably also explains the extraordinarily low
mortality of Jewish rabbis as a class.
The need of cleanliness is particularly great for those who work in
factories, mines, and other places where dirt is likely to be carried to
the mouth by the hands. Probably many diseases get a foothold in this
way without the victim realizing in the least that they were due to his
carelessness and lack of cleanliness.
Here, as elsewhere, esthetics and health go hand in hand. A person who
does not bathe daily is pretty certain to carry on his skin some
perspiration which, while he may be unaware of it, gives forth an
offensive odor.
[Sidenote: Perspiration]
Cleanliness is promoted by perspiring prior to bathing. Every one knows
the exhilaration which follows a healthy perspiration. Of course, the
most beneficial method of securing perspiration is the method applied to
the trotting horse--vigorous exercise. In fact, one of the benefits of
exercise is perspiration. When a person can not or will not take
exercise, perspiration can be induced by hot baths. Such extreme
measures ought not, however, to be taken too often. How often will
depend on the corpulence and other circumstances of each individual.
Sweating may be overdone, and should never be pushed to the extent of
exhaustion. The function of the skin in removing wastes from the body is
much less important than formerly supposed. The advice of a physician is
desirable. It should be remembered that all of us perspire insensibly as
well as visibly.
[Sidenote: Sex Infection]
Some of the most serious and widespread although usually unmentioned
infections are those from the venereal diseases, with a whole train of
terrible consequences, such as blindness, joint-diseases with
heart-complications, peritonitis, paralysis, and insanity. They are to
be avoided by living a life hygienic and clean, not only in body but in
mind and heart. From even the narrowest interpretation of hygiene, a
decent life is necessary for the maintenance of health. This is a
special subject on which most people are extremely ignorant. It is
seldom realized, for instance, that _all prostitutes are diseased_. This
was found to be the case in an investigation in Glasgow.
Dr. Rosenau says: "Every boy and girl, before reaching the age of
puberty should have a knowledge of sex, and every man and woman before
the marriageable age should be informed on the subject of reproduction
and the dangers of venereal diseases. Superficial information is not
true education. On the other hand, it is a mistake to dwell unduly upon
the subject, for in many instances the imagination and passion of youth
are inflamed by simply calling attention to the subject."
The Life Extension Institute can furnish special pamphlets covering
this important topic.
The loss of citizens to the State from the sterilizing influence of
gonorrhea upon the productive energy of the family, and the blighting
destructive effect of syphilis upon the offspring offer extremely
serious problems for preventive work.
Section IV--Teeth and Gums
There is one source of poisoning and infection so universal as to need
special mention. This is infection through the mouth. Considered from
the standpoint of efficiency, the modern mouth is out of adjustment with
modern conditions--or, perhaps we should say, modern conditions are out
of adjustment with it. Notwithstanding the numerous bacteria that
flourish within its portals, mouth secretions and the mucous membranes
do not seem to have the protecting power which is often manifest in
other regions of the body and which protects an animal in a state of
nature. Wild animals are not subject to caries or dental decay, as are
man and domesticated animals.
[Sidenote: Mouth-dangers]
There are two forms of mouth-danger that should be clearly
differentiated. Dental caries, or decay, is at first largely a chemical
process and affects the tooth proper. Pyorrhea, or Riggs's disease,
affects the tissues surrounding the root of the tooth, and is
accompanied with infection by pus bacteria, and possibly also by animal
parasites, termed endameba. Scrupulous cleanliness of the mouth largely
prevents both of these maladies.
[Sidenote: Dental Decay]
In caries, or dental decay, plaques or films of mucin from the saliva
form on the tooth-surfaces and enclose bacteria and particles of
carbohydrate food, which undergo fermentation with the formation of
lactic acid, which dissolves the lime salts on the surface of the teeth,
leaving only the organic matter. This organic matter is then attacked by
bacteria. Putrefaction sets in, and you have a cavity. This cavity is,
of course, a menace, as it harbors various forms of bacteria, which may
infect the general system through the root canals, or the digestive
system by being swallowed with the food, and also gives rise to
abscesses at the root-tips.
[Sidenote: Pyorrhea]
Pyorrhea is an infection of the gums or tooth-sockets. It begins beneath
the edges of the gums that have been injured and especially where there
has been an accumulation of tartar or lime-deposit. As the infection
progresses and destroys the membranes that attach the root of the tooth
to the socket, a pocket is formed around the root, and the tooth becomes
loosened. It is said that this disease is responsible for far more loss
of teeth than is decay.
[Sidenote: Systemic Injuries from Mouth Infection]
But this is not the only evil. In the pocket pus is continually being
formed and discharged into the mouth and swallowed. Also, as the teeth
rise and fall in their diseased sockets in ordinary chewing, bacteria
are forced into the circulation and may be carried to distant parts,
where they work harm according to their nature, selecting tissues for
their operation in which they can best thrive.
[Sidenote: Focal Infection]
It was formerly supposed that the ill effects from such conditions as
dental abscess and other pus foci were wholly due to the toxins or
poisonous products thrown into the blood-stream by the bacteria at the
focus. It is now known, however, that the bacteria migrate into outside
tissues through the blood- and lymph-streams. In joint affections, they
clog and obstruct the small blood-vessels, interfering with the
nutrition of the joint-tissues, causing deformity and enlargement, as in
arthritis deformans, as well as in acute inflammation, such as rheumatic
fever. Indeed, this condition of subinfection, or "focal infection," is
coming to be recognized as a far more important cause of disease than
the time-honored autointoxication, a term which has been greatly abused
and misused.
[Sidenote: Autointoxication]
The term "autointoxication" should properly be restricted to conditions
where poison arises from changes in the tissues or in the activities of
cells or organs, whereby substances are released into the circulation in
quantities harmful to the organism; in other words, where the secretions
of the body are altered, either in character or quantity, to such a
degree as to cause injurious effects, such as overactivity or
underactivity of the thyroid gland, or suprarenal gland.
The poison from undigested food, or from decomposing intestinal
contents, should be termed "intestinal intoxication," or "toxaemia,"
rather than "autointoxication," or "self-poisoning," as it is actually
due to infection from outside sources. Intestinal toxemia is, no doubt,
a fairly frequent cause of illness, but it has lately been shown that
stagnant bowels may cause true infection by micro-organisms that
penetrate the tissues, and that many conditions ascribed to intestinal
stagnation and the resultant chemical poisoning may actually be due to
focal infection, or subinfection, arising in other regions.
The light that has lately been thrown on chronic sources of focal
infection has cleared up many of the mysteries surrounding the causation
of certain obscure affections--chronic rheumatism, arthritis deformans,
certain forms of anemia, goitre, chronic heart and kidney troubles,
diabetes, ulcer of the stomach, duodenum, etc., and other forms of
chronic disease, especially those that have proved resistant to known
methods of treatment.
[Sidenote: Lowered Resistance]
There are many cases where the so-called focus has apparently become
established because of general bodily neglect and a general lowering of
resistance, in which the focus, even though it be the mouth, has
participated, and permitted the successful activities of germs or
parasites. After the focus has been established, however, it is often an
important and may be a deciding factor in keeping up the general
diseased condition of the body.
This principle of focal infection, well established as it is, should not
be accepted too literally, or given too wide an application, but no one
can question the importance of preventing the bacterial hosts of the
mouth from getting into the system, or the importance of getting them
out, if we have unwarily permitted them to enter.
All the ills that flesh is heir to are not caused by mouth-infection,
but enough of them are to more than justify a vigorous and world-wide
campaign for the better care of the teeth and for a thorough search for
mouth-infection in every case of obscure disease.
[Sidenote: Keeping the Mouth Aseptic]
[Sidenote: Over-dentistried Teeth]
Gum infection is not always due to conscious neglect. Some people do not
know how to properly cleanse the teeth. Others have tissues of low
resistance, and need to give extra care to tooth- and gum-cleansing
under the closest dental supervision. Others have spent large sums for
dental work that has filled the mouth with crowns and bridges difficult
to keep aseptic or surgically clean. There are various means which the
individual can use to prevent or cure these dental evils.
[Sidenote: General Hygiene]
First, the importance of thorough attention to general personal hygiene,
in order that a general resistance to mouth-infection may be built up,
can not be overemphasized.
[Sidenote: Vigorous Use of Jaws]
The cultivation of normal eating habits with respect to the vigorous use
of the jaws by thorough mastication, and the eating of hard, resistant,
crusty foods every day is the next desirable means of tooth and gum
hygiene.
[Sidenote: Cleansing]
A leading dentist expresses the hope that some day the human animal,
like other animals, will, through a correct diet, be able to get along
without the aid of the tooth-brush; but he adds that, in the meantime,
we need to advocate more tooth-, gum- and tongue-cleaning rather than
less. They should be cleaned night and morning and after each meal if
possible by rapid rotary brushing. Strong pressure is not advisable.
Rapidity of movement is the important point. This stimulates the
circulation and increases the resistance of the gums and cleanses the
teeth at the gum margins from the accumulations of tartar which are at
first soft and easily removable by a brush.
[Sidenote: Kind of Brush]
A brush should be used with bristles that are stiff and of different
lengths, so that the innermost crevices of the teeth may be reached. If
the gums are sensitive, a moderately stiff brush can be used until the
gums can bear the more vigorous treatment.
[Sidenote: Tongue Brushing]
The tongue should also be carefully cleansed with the tooth-brush. By
taking care not to hit the roof of the mouth, gagging is avoided.
[Sidenote: Tooth-Powders and -Pastes]
Tooth-powders and -pastes may be used, but should not be the main
reliance. Perhaps once a day for their use is often enough. Some
powders, if used too freely, are liable to unduly thin the enamel of the
teeth.
[Sidenote: Dental Floss]
The use of dental floss silk between the teeth, provided care is taken
not to press it against the gums, is also helpful.
[Sidenote: Emetin]
A number of investigators have reported the presence of an animal
parasite, the _endameba buccalis_, in all cases of pyorrhea, and it is
thought that this parasite may be one of the principal causes of this
disease. Emetin, the active principle of ipecac, which has been
successfully used in amebic dysentery, is now employed in the treatment
of this trouble. Such a remedy should only be used in connection with
thorough surgical treatment and dental prophylaxis. It is claimed that
in the early stages of pyorrhea a mouth-wash composed of two drops of
fluid extract of ipecac to a half-glass of water is very serviceable,
and as at that stage a mouth-wash is entirely harmless, it should be
tried, especially as it is now claimed that some degree of pyorrhea or
of endamebic infection is almost universally present.
[Sidenote: Alkaline Dentifrice]
[Sidenote: Food Acids]
For an alkaline dentifrice, there is nothing better than lime-water,
made from coarse, unslaked lime. Alkaline washes are very superficial in
their action, however, while fruit acids curdle and thus render
removable the mucin plaques and prevent the formation of tartar. They
also cleanse the tongue and membranes of the mouth generally, which may
be important sources of infection. These acids are found in grape-juice,
orange-juice, apples, and vinegar. Such mechanical cleansing is
particularly important before retiring, as it is usually during the
night that the most damage is wrought.
[Sidenote: Erosion]
The advice of the dentist should be sought as to the condition of the
teeth, especially as to whether there is any erosion or destruction of
enamel, before using either acid or alkaline washes exclusively.
[Sidenote: Periodic Examination]
Periodic examinations and cleanings by the dentist are the only safe
measures. If the dentist has facilities for giving _preventive_
treatment by specially cleaning the teeth, he should be visited every
other month. If such a program is adopted, it will generally be found
unnecessary to visit him for any other purpose.
[Sidenote: Saving Teeth]
Some dentists and physicians have until lately given too much attention
to the saving of teeth, without fully realizing the dangers of infection
from the mechanical devices employed. The teeth should not be extracted
on mere suspicion and without proper effort to save them, but it is far
more important to save a heart or a kidney or a set of joints than it is
to save a tooth. This is not to say that all bridge- and crown-work is
improper, but that such work should only be of a character that will
permit of surgical cleanliness in the mouth, and that such teeth should
always be examined by the X-Ray, when there is evidence of systemic
disease in order to be sure that the roots and sockets are not infected.
[Sidenote: Irregularities of Teeth]
In early life the jaws should be carefully examined by both dentist and
doctor in order to determine whether or not the proper development is
taking place. If upper and lower teeth fail to fit well together, extra
strain is placed upon certain teeth and the sockets are liable to injury
and infection. Faulty development can often be corrected and deformities
that interfere with proper mastication and place a strain on certain
teeth can thus be avoided.
[Sidenote: The Temporary Teeth]
The temporary teeth should not be allowed to be removed by decay.
Thorough dental and home care should prevent this. If cavities form,
they should be filled under proper precautions and the teeth should be
saved until the last minute, unless they are causing infection.
[Sidenote: Teeth and Infectious Diseases]
Amazingly good results from teeth-hygiene have been shown in a Boston
asylum, which cares for over 300 children. Before the introduction of a
dental clinic into this asylum, infectious diseases--diphtheria, mumps,
scarlet fever, pneumonia, measles, whooping cough, tonsillitis,
chicken-pox, croup, etc.--had been occurring for four years at the rate
of over 80 cases per year, but for three years after the dental clinic
was established the average was only 3 per year.
CHAPTER IV
ACTIVITY
Section I--Work, Play, Rest and Sleep
In order to live a hygienic life it is not only necessary, as shown in
the foregoing three chapters, to supply the body with wholesome
substances and to exclude unwholesome substances, but it is also
necessary that the body should at times act, and at other times be
inactive. There are two great forms of activity, work and play; and two
great forms of inactivity, rest and sleep. All four of these are needed
in the healthy life and in due relation to each other.
[Sidenote: The Daily Rhythm]
The whole personality should be utilized and energized in a daily
rhythm. When, as too often happens, the equilibrium and mutual
proportions of the various wholesome elements in a well-rounded life
have been lost, the balance should be restored if possible the next day.
If a physician has had his sleep broken, he should aim to make it up at
the earliest opportunity. If the afternoon exercise has had to be
omitted, an extra amount should be taken as soon as possible. Some
people find that while it is difficult to live a complete life every
single day, it is quite within their power to give every element its due
proportion in each week, taken as a whole. To go a step farther, when
the balance has not been kept even in a week as a whole, the next week
should be modified to compensate. But it is ideal to make the day, not
the week, the unit. It is almost as absurd to relegate all our exercise
to Saturday afternoon as to do all our eating on Sunday.
[Sidenote: Adjusting the Proportion of Work and Play]
It is distinctly unhealthful either to overdo or to underdo work, play,
rest, or sleep. "Moderation in all things" is a rule that is
particularly important in this realm. Not all people are in need of
exercise, nor are all in need of rest; but almost every one needs to
change his proportion between the two. To-day many people are suffering
from too much or too little work. For instance, the increase in diseases
of the heart is often due to nervous overstrain combined with either too
much or too little physical exertion.
The remedy for the evils of idleness is obviously to find some useful
work which will inspire real interest and enthusiasm. There are few
things more necessary to a normal healthy life than to have purposeful
work. A great dream or ambition in life often obviates personal ailments
and nullifies their potency. Work, when done with zest, is a wonderful
tonic. Exertion of any kind is usually pleasurable at first, and becomes
drudgery only when too far protracted.
[Sidenote: Need of Work]
Normal work is one of the greatest blessings of life, but too many miss
the joy of it, some because their work has gone to the extreme of
drudgery and others because it has shrunk into nothingness and futility.
Sometimes people become ill because their personality, hungry for work,
is given nothing but introspection to feed upon. This is the
self-imposed curse of the idle rich.
[Sidenote: Prevention of Overstrain]
Methods of preventing or correcting overstrain vary greatly, according
to the kinds of overstrain. In general, overstrain of any kind tends to
overfatigue. Overstrain is to be avoided, therefore, by paying heed to
Nature's fatigue-signals as soon as they appear. A very moderate degree
of fatigue is perhaps normal, but anything that approaches exhaustion
should be avoided with the utmost care.
[Sidenote: Working Hours]
Working hours should be so arranged as to enable the worker to fully
recuperate overnight, partly from sleep and partly from the recreation
enjoyed in leisure between work and sleep.
[Sidenote: Variety of Work]
Variety of work is especially needed in modern times, when
specialization tends to lead men to extremes. Changes in work which
prevent a sense of monotony will greatly increase the power to work. A
clerk will do more work, and do it more effectively, if he is
occasionally allowed something else to do than to foot up columns.
[Sidenote: Monotony and Interruption]
If the monotonous strain of performing numerical additions is
interrupted a few times daily, the adding faculty of the brain is given
much needed rest. Many men in the higher rank of workers complain of the
many interruptions which they suffer, but if they would welcome these
interruptions instead of allowing themselves to be irritated by them,
each interruption would serve the purpose of a vacation. It is in this
way that some of the greatest workers, like Gladstone, have been enabled
to accomplish so much.
The strain of modern life is sometimes special rather than general.
Often the strain comes on some one muscle or organ. Modern industry is
so constituted that the individual strains one part of the body while
other parts are in need of exercise.
[Sidenote: Eye-strain]
One of the organs which is most commonly strained in modern life is the
eye. In its modern use, the eye is constantly focusing at a short
distance. To look at the horizon is a rest. The reflex evils from
eye-strain are great and numerous and are often incorrectly ascribed to
entirely different causes. Headaches, nausea, and dizziness are
especially frequent results of eye-strain. Probably some of the
breakdowns in middle life are due primarily to the reflex effect of
eye-strain.
Eye-strain is to be prevented by scientifically adapted spectacles, by
care to secure the right kind of illumination, and in some cases by
systematically resting the eyes. Reading on moving trains or looking for
a long time at moving pictures may overstrain the eye. One should be
especially careful not to read in a waning light or, on the other hand,
to read in the glare of the sun. If one works facing a window, it is
advisable to wear an eye-shade; otherwise there is a struggle between
the tendency of the bright light to close the pupil and the tendency of
the work requirement to keep it open.
To offset the evils of a sedentary life, it is advisable to spend one
hour daily, or at least 15 minutes, in some kind of vigorous physical
exercises.
[Sidenote: Mechanical Home Exerciser]
The rowing-machine is probably the most beneficial form of mechanical
home exercise that is likely to be followed faithfully. Simple
stretching in bed when one wakes up is helpful, especially if combined
with breathing exercises.
[Sidenote: Stimulating Heart and Lungs]
The most beneficial exercise, as a rule, is that which stimulates the
heart and lungs, such as running, rapid walking, hill-climbing and
swimming. These should, of course, be graduated in intensity with
varying age and varying degrees of vitality.
[Sidenote: Exercise after Meals]
Gentle muscular activity after meals promotes normal digestion and
should be practised for a quarter or half an hour after each meal, but
violent exercises immediately after meals should be avoided, as a large
amount of blood is then engaged by the digestive system.
[Sidenote: Outdoor Exercise in Winter]
A very important fact for the average man to take into consideration is
that, whereas he naturally gets considerable out-of-door exercise in
summer, he allows it to lapse in the winter. Such a decided change in
the amount of exercise is dangerous and should be avoided by taking
regular gymnasium exercise. Even though a gymnasium is not elaborately
equipped, use can be made of such games as hand-ball, volley-ball and
other available games.
[Sidenote: Enthusiasm in Exercise]
Systematic exercise is important and beneficial, even when the
individual finds it uninteresting. The idea, which is now spread abroad,
that exercise in which one is not emotionally interested is of no
benefit, is quite incorrect. A gentleman who had this opinion was
challenged to test it and speedily changed his mind. For an entire
winter he faithfully attended a gymnasium, though it was an unceasing
bore to him. To his surprise, he found that he had never spent a winter
in such good health.
But, although exercise when self-imposed is wholesome, exercise to which
one is naturally attracted is more so. Golf, horse-back riding, tennis,
usually inspire enthusiasm, and enthusiasm itself is healthful. Walking
may also do so, if the walk has an object, as in mountain-climbing,
when often the artistic feelings may be enlisted in the sport. Working
out an ideal stroke in rowing, perfecting one's game in polo or other
sports, are other examples.
[Sidenote: The Greek Ideal]
[Sidenote: Injuries from College Athletics]
The Greeks lifted their sports to a higher level than ours by
surrounding them with imagination and making them a training in
esthetics as well as in physical excellence. The American idea is too
closely connected with the mere wish to win and the performance of mere
"stunts" and not enough with the idea of beauty of physique and control
of the body. There is accumulating considerable evidence that college
athletics often seriously injure those who engage in them, although they
were originated and encouraged for precisely the opposite effect. The
value of exercise consists not in developing large muscles nor in
accomplishing athletic feats, but in attaining physical poise, symmetry
of form, and the harmonious adjustment of the various parts of the body,
as well as in furthering the proper activity of cell-tissues and organs
and the elimination of waste products.
Even those whose work is largely muscular, unless it involves most of
the muscular system, may do well to exercise the unused
muscles--although Nature herself produces to some extent the necessary
compensation by what is known as the "law of synergic movement," by
which unused muscles profit by the exercise of those which are used.
[Sidenote: Exercise of the Mind, Will and Emotions]
Not only the functions of the body but those of the mind require
exercise--exercise in thinking, feeling, and willing. A person who does
not read or think loses some of his ability to read or think. The
physical worker, for instance, often allows his mind to become dull and
sodden. The accountant adds up figures all day and has no chance to
exercise his judgment or other mental faculties. In the same way a
person who does not exercise his artistic, poetic, or affectional side
will suffer its atrophy. The plaint of Darwin that he had allowed his
taste for music and poetry to atrophy could to-day be made by many
intellectual specialists. Good music is especially healthful.
The exercise of the will is of first importance. Many young people
to-day are brought up so well protected that they have lost the power to
decide for themselves. Will is exercised every time a decision is made.
One of the advantages of all games is that they require decision by the
players. A game like baseball calls out the exercise of almost every
power. It requires the mind to play, the emotions to enjoy, the will to
decide, the muscles to act, and all in mutual coordination.
[Sidenote: The Avocation]
Since the work of most people is likely to produce some unhygienic
element which can not be avoided, a compensation should be sought in an
avocation or "hobby," to be practised out of regular working hours. The
avocation should be far removed from the nature of the regular work.
Often the avocation can serve a productive purpose. Gladstone and Horace
Greeley sawed wood or chopped down trees for recreation. A well-known
engineer divided his recreation between writing stories and painting
pictures.
[Sidenote: Enjoy Recreation]
But one should beware of turning his play itself into work. Some people
read Shakespeare to "improve their mind," and make as hard work of it as
though they were studying geometry. We should enjoy our recreations for
their own sake, or else they are not recreations. All work and no play
make not only dull boys but dull men and women.
[Sidenote: Pleasures of Walking]
In some form, every one can secure recreation. If one can not play golf,
or polo, or tennis, or swim, or climb the Alps, at least he can walk,
and, if he tries, he can do so in good company on interesting highways
and byways.
[Sidenote: Games]
Recreations in which more persons than one take part are far superior in
this respect to those of a solitary nature. They require a give and
take, a matching of wits, a feeling of rivalry, and at the same time,
companionship.
Plays and moving pictures of the right character and free from morbid
suggestions, if enjoyed in moderation, are hygienic. Comedy is generally
more wholesome than tragedy. Laughter lengthens life; tears do not.
The proper kind of reading is often a most beneficial type of
recreation.
[Sidenote: Morbid Literature]
It is best for the average individual to avoid literature that deals
with the morbid and pathological, that depicts and analyzes abnormal
psychological conditions. Such studies are better left for alienists.
Literature of mawkish sentimentality should also be avoided. Within the
range of sound literature there is a wide choice of abundant material
affording healthful mental suggestions.
[Sidenote: Dancing]
Dancing combines wholesome exercise, social enjoyment, and the
acquirement of skill and grace, but it is seldom of much hygienic value
because it is frequently overdone, and often involves bad air and loss
of sleep. In one large plant where the employes were examined by the
Life Extension Institute, the management regarded the harmful effect of
dancing as their chief obstacle to efficiency. Many of the large force
of girls and women were accustomed to dance until late in the night,
bringing on a condition of chronic fatigue.
[Sidenote: Card-playing]
Card-playing and similar games afford wholesome mental recreation for
some persons. However, they, too, are liable to be associated with late
hours, and other disadvantages even when they do not degenerate into
gambling. Card-playing, dancing, and many other popular forms of
amusement often border on dissipation.
[Sidenote: Suicidal Amusement]
Amusements which weaken and degrade are not hygienic. Many who need
amusement make the fatal mistake of getting it in suicidal ways, in the
saloons, dives, and the low dance-halls.
Play is simply a half way stage between work and rest. In a hygienic
life there must be a certain amount of actual rest. Every bodily power
requires rest after exertion. The heart rests between beats. The muscles
require relaxation after every contraction. The man who is always tense
in muscle and nerve is wearing himself out.
[Sidenote: Relaxation]
The power to relax, when fatigue requires it, is one of the most
important safeguards one can possess. Lying down when tired is a good
rule. A very hard-working college president when asked about the secret
of his working-power and length of life replied, "My secret is that I
never ran when I could walk, never walked when I could stand, never
stood when I could sit, and never sat when I could lie down."
[Sidenote: A Rule for the Lazy]
Such rules as these are valuable, of course, only when the requirements
of one's occupation tend toward ceaseless activity. For idle and lazy
people the rule should be reversed--never to lie down when one could
sit, never to sit when one could stand, never to stand when one could
walk, and never to walk when one could run! A complete life must have
all in due proportion. Relaxation is only a short vacation, as it were,
between two activities.
[Sidenote: Bathing and Swimming]
Bathing and swimming supply, in their numerous forms, examples of both
healthful activity and relaxation. A cold spray or shower, alternated
with hot, affords excellent gymnastics for the skin. A very hot bath,
lasting only a minute, or even a hot foot-bath, is restful in cases of
general fatigue. The most restful of all is a neutral, that is, tepid,
bath of about the body-heat (beginning at 97 or 98 degrees and not
allowed to drop more than 5 degrees and continued as long as
convenient).
[Sidenote: How to Induce Sleep]
The wonderful nervous relaxation induced by neutral baths is an
excellent substitute for sleep in case of sleeplessness, and often
induces sleep as well. Neutral baths are now used not only in cases of
insomnia and extreme nervous irritability, but also in cases of acute
mania. When sleep occurs in a neutral bath, it is particularly restful.
A physician who often sleeps in the bath tub expresses this fact by
saying that "he sleeps faster" there than in bed.
Sleep may also be induced by monotonous sound, or lack of sound, or the
monotonous holding of the attention. Keeping awake is due to continued
change and interruption or arrest of the attention.
Exercise taken in the afternoon will often promote sleep at night in
those who find sleep difficult. Slow, deep, rhythmic breathing is useful
when wakeful, partly as a substitute for sleep, partly as an inducer of
sleep.
Sleep is Nature's great rejuvenator, and the health-seeker should avail
himself of it to the full. Our sleep should not only be sufficient in
duration but also in intensity, and should be regular.
[Sidenote: Hours of Sleep]
The number of hours of sleep generally needed varies with circumstances.
The average is seven to nine. In general one should sleep when sleepy
and not try to sleep more. Growing children require more sleep than
grown-ups. Parents often foolishly sacrifice their children's sleep by
compelling them to rise early for farm "chores," or in order to sell
papers, or for other "useful" purposes.
[Sidenote: Eating before Retiring]
One's best sleep is with the stomach empty. It is true that food puts
one to sleep at first, by diverting blood from the head; but it disturbs
sleep later. Water, unless it induces bladder-action during the night,
or even fruit, may be taken without injury before retiring. If one goes
to bed with an empty stomach, he can often get along well with six or
seven hours' sleep, but if he goes to bed soon after a hearty meal, he
usually needs from eight to ten hours' sleep.
[Sidenote: Place of Sleep]
It has already been pointed out that sleeping outdoors is more restful
than sleeping indoors.
[Sidenote: Pillows]
A pillow is not a necessity if one sleeps lying prone with one arm
extended above the head and the leg opposite drawn up. This sleeping
attitude can easily be reversed to the opposite side. It has one
advantage over pillow-sleeping, that of not tending to round shoulders.
This prone position is often used now for infants, but is seldom enjoyed
by adults.
[Sidenote: Type of Bed]
A modern "hard" bed is far preferable to the old-fashioned soft (and
hot) feather bed.
[Sidenote: Character of Thoughts]
The character of sleep depends largely on the mental attitude on going
to bed. One should get into the habit of absolutely dropping work and
cares at bed-time. If then one suggests to himself the pleasantest
thought which memory or imagination can conjure up, his sleep is likely
to be far more peaceful and restful than if he takes his worries to bed,
to keep him awake until sleep comes in spite of them, and to continue to
plague him in his dreams. If one is worried, it is a good plan to read
something diverting, but not exciting, just before retiring.
Section II--Serenity and Poise
As we have seen, not only the body but the mind needs its due activity
and rest. As to the mind, the important question is the quality of the
activity rather than the quantity. If we are to be really healthy, our
mental attitude must be healthy. A healthy mental attitude implies many
elements, but they are all roughly summed up in the word "serenity."
Probably no other one hygienic requirement is of greater importance than
this. Moreover, the attitude of "healthymindedness" should be striven
for not only in order to produce health, but as an end in itself, for
which, in fact, even health itself is properly sought. In short the
health of the body and the health of the mind act and react on each
other.
[Sidenote: Influence of the Health on the Character]
We may generally keep serene through following the other measures
already described. Discontent is undoubtedly very often the consequence
of wrong conditions in the body, and though melancholy, worry,
peevishness, fear generally appear as arising from outward conditions,
there are usually real physical sources, existing within the body
itself. These are at times most difficult of recognition. A person who
is physically ill is likely to be ill-satisfied with everything, without
suspecting the fundamental cause of the discontent. When the apparent
"cause" is removed, the discontent remains none the less, and fastens
itself on the next thing that comes along.
[Sidenote: The "Cause"]
Although some little event such as the mistake of a tradesman or a cross
word of a friend may seemingly "cause" a disagreeable reaction in a man
if he is ill (whether he knows he is or not), the same "cause" does not
necessarily produce that same reaction at all times. When he is in a
healthy mood, the "cause" may be entirely inadequate to bring about the
same result.
[Sidenote: Approach of Menstrual Period]
The near approach to the menstrual period in women is often accompanied
by mental depression and physical fatigue which it is almost impossible
for the sufferer to recognize at the time as caused by anything but
"real" or outside misfortunes.
[Sidenote: Hidden Causes]
Other physical conditions act in the same way. The hidden cause may be
constipation, eye-strain, or the effects of alcohol or other drugs, a
sedentary life, a bad posture, or weak abdominal muscles; and the proper
remedy may be an enema, a pair of glasses, a vigorous swim, deep
breathing exercises or an abdominal supporter, an erect carriage or a
general change of daily habits. A young man returning from a surveying
trip in the mountains of Colorado in which an ideal hygienic out-of-door
life was lived, said, "I never saw so good-natured a crowd of rough men.
Nothing ever seemed to make them angry. They were too full of exultant
health."
[Sidenote: Mental Rewards from Health]
Health for the body awakens mental capacities where they exist. Failure
in mental work can often be traced to failure in physical health; and
the restoration of bodily health is often essential to success in the
tasks of the mind. This is especially true of the artistic professions,
where the kind of product is dependent so largely upon the state of the
emotions, upon exhilaration and enthusiasm. A noted sculptor who, a
number of years ago, was "down and out" in the artistic world, after a
period of years "came back" with a masterpiece, having adopted a more
hygienic life.
Epictetus taught that no one could be the highest type of philosopher
unless in exuberant health. Expressions of Emerson's and Walt Whitman's
show how much their spiritual exaltation was bound up with their health
conditions and ideals. "Give me health and a day," said Emerson, "and I
will make the pomp of emperors ridiculous."
[Sidenote: Influence of the Mind on Health]
But what most concerns us in this section is that the mind has an
important influence over the condition of the body. A Kansas poultryman,
who owns a hen which he claims to value at $10,000 because of her
qualities as a breeder, a few years ago knew a great deal more about how
to maintain the health of his poultry than he did about how to maintain
his own health. Long and bitter experience had taught him that he
obtained freedom from sickness among hens only by being very careful to
feed them on a special diet; to give them drinking water at regular
intervals--warmed in winter; to supply them with well ventilated and
cleanly houses, and so on. But, after all this, he found there was one
condition, which, if unfulfilled, still precluded the realization of
maximum possibilities. "A discontented hen won't lay eggs," was the
startling discovery. "When I see a man go into the yard and 'holler'
loudly at the hens, and wave his arms, making them scatter, frightened,
in all directions, I say to that man: 'You call at the office and get
your pay and go.' But when I see a man go into the yard, and call gently
to the hens, so that they all gather around him and coo and cluck and
eat out of his hand, I raise that man's pay."
[Sidenote: Physical Manifestations]
It can not be too much emphasized that mental perturbation affects the
body in many ways. Shame fills our cheeks with blood. Fear drives the
blood away. Excitement quickens the heart-beat. Grief brings tears, the
reaction of glands about the eyes, and sighs, the disturbances of
regular breathing. A great shock to the mind may cause fainting, the
rush of blood from the head into the abdomen. Worry will interfere with
digestion and sleep. The X-ray has detected the arrest of the
peristaltic movement of the stomach and intestines because of a strong
emotion. Some peculiarly constituted people, who take their work and
obligations with a kind of seriousness that amounts almost to fear, can
not eat anything of consequence until their day's work is ended. The
digestive processes seem to be at a standstill until then. A curious
fact is that strong emotion may lead to a great increase in the sugar in
the blood, sometimes enough to cause its appearance in the urine as
though the person had diabetes. One man expresses this by saying,
"bitterness of soul banishes sweetness even from the body."
[Sidenote: The Demands on the Mind]
It is doubtless on account of such influences of the mind on the body
that some persons who have attempted to improve their health by what
they call "thoroughly masticating" their food--but who have interpreted
this phrase as having a purely mechanical meaning--have wondered why
they were not benefited when they forcibly held their food in their
mouths until they performed a certain number of chews, while in fact
they were making a bore of eating and were forgetting to taste and
enjoy. The mind and the emotions refuse to be ignored in this way, and
exact due penalty from the body when they are not satisfied. To attain
the desired results from any hygienic measure, it is apparently
necessary, in some degree at least, to satisfy the mind along with the
body.
[Sidenote: Hypochondriacs]
There is in fact a danger to which some people are especially
subject--the danger of becoming hypochondriacs from paying too much
attention to physical hygiene. Such a person becomes fearful lest he is
not doing exactly the right thing. He looks suspiciously at every
article of food and fears that it will disagree. He fears that he has
strained his heart; he worries over the loss of an hour's sleep; he
chafes because his employer has not given him a vacation at the right
time or of the right length. The hypochondriac thus neutralizes
practically all the benefit of other hygienic measures by disregarding
this special measure of keeping serene. It might, in many cases, be
better to disregard some rules of hygiene than to worry over them.
[Sidenote: "Mind-cure"]
On this theory the devotees of mind-cure cults have derided every
hygienic measure but one--their "mind-cure." They sometimes succeed in
the "real cure of imaginary ailments," and the "imaginary cure of real
ailments." In the latter case, the mental contentment lasts only until
the real ailment becomes too aggressive to be ignored. But it is a great
mistake to stake everything on the simple resource of mental
equanimity. In some cases it is criminal, as for instance to refuse
surgery for cancer, or outdoor living for tuberculosis.
In its proper place, "mind-cure" is an essential part of individual
hygiene. In order to get the benefit of the other rules, there must be
no worrying or watching of symptoms. After the regimen of exercise,
baths, diet, etc., has been selected, it must be followed as a matter of
course, with confidence that it will help, and with patience as to the
rate of improvement which will follow.
[Sidenote: Worry]
It would seem that incessant, even if mild, worry is more exhausting
than occasional fits of intense anger or fright or overexcitement, just
as we waste more water from a spigot left slightly open all the time
than from one which is alternately closed and wide open. Worry, if
unceasing, will often drain away the largest store of nervous energy.
Worry seems, as it were, to short-circuit nerve currents in the brain,
which normally form a long circuit through the body. One man, with this
simile before him, has found he can stop worrying almost at will, avoid
the supposed continuous short circuit and save up his nervous energy
until it is needed.
[Sidenote: Rejoice at Things as They Are]
We must rejoice at things as they are; they might be worse! If we should
count up we should be surprised to find how seldom the things we fear or
worry about really happen. It is a true proverb that "half the trouble
never comes."
[Sidenote: Serenity an Art]
Each must learn for himself how best to avoid anger, fear, worry,
excitement, hate, envy, jealousy, grief, and all depressing or abnormal
mental states. To do so is an art which must be practised, like skating
or bicycle-riding. It can not be imparted merely by reading about it.
[Sidenote: "One Day at a Time"]
When, as unfortunately is often the case, the difficulty of maintaining
one's serenity seems insuperable, the battle can often be won by "living
one day at a time." Almost any one in ordinary conditions of adversity
has it within his or her power, for merely one day or at any rate one
hour, or one minute, to eliminate the fear, worry, anger, or other
unwholesome emotions clamoring to take possession. At the expiration of
say the hour, or minute, the same power can be exercised for the next
ensuing period, and so on until one is caught napping, after which he
must pick himself up and patiently try again.
[Sidenote: The Hurry Habit]
In modern life, which has been gradually speeded to the breaking-point,
many people are suffering from a constant oppressive sense of hurry.
Most people have "so much to do," that they can not do it. This fact is
of much annoyance and at the same time spurs them on in the vain
endeavor to catch up. When once it is realized that the sense of hurry
actually reduces the effective speed of work--in other words, that "the
more haste, the less speed"--the situation has been reached in which the
individual can teach himself some practical philosophy.
[Sidenote: Religion and Philosophy]
An immense help in the field of mental hygiene is to be obtained from
religion and philosophy, although this is not the place to advocate any
particular form of either, and from the standpoint of hygiene, it does
not greatly matter! One may get his chief help from the Bible, from
faith-healing cults, from writers like Emerson, from Tagore and other
Orientals, or from Marcus Aurelius and Epictetus.
[Sidenote: "Religion of Healthymindedness"]
Professor William James commends the adoption of a "religion of
healthymindedness" in which we renounce all wrong or diseased mental
states, cultivating only the healthy ones, such as courage, patience,
optimism, and reverence.
[Sidenote: The Habit of Happiness]
When the mind turns from shadow to sunshine, the body will tend also to
assume the radiance of health. Stevenson said that there is no duty we
so much underrate as the duty of being happy. The habit of being happy
enables one to be freed, or largely freed, from the domination of
outward conditions. Though the trait is apparently totally lacking in
some, while existing to a high degree in others, experience has shown
that conscious cultivation will develop it to an appreciable degree,
even in very stubborn cases. As in little Pollyanna's "Glad Game," it is
possible to find something to be glad about in every situation in life.
[Sidenote: Control of Attention]
The secret of equanimity consists not so much in repressing the fear or
worry, as in _dropping_ or ignoring it--that is, diverting and
controlling the attention. It does no good to carry a mental burden.
"Forget it!" The main art of mental hygiene consists in the control of
attention. Perhaps the worst defect in the Occidental philosophy of life
is the failure to learn this control. The Oriental is superior in such
self-training. The exceptional man in Western civilization who learns
this control can do the most work and carry the most responsibility. On
much the same principle as the Indians used when their young men were
trained to endure pain self-inflicted, we might well devote a few
minutes each day to the difficult task of changing at will our attention
from the thing which is engrossing it to anything else we choose; or,
what is more difficult still, to blank nothingness. When we have
sufficiently strengthened this power, we can turn off the current of our
thoughts as we turn off the lights and lie down to sleep in peace, as a
trained sailor does in a storm.
[Sidenote: Making Up One's Mind]
If a person's work is drudgery but has to be endured, the making up of
the mind to endure it cheerfully, the relinquishment of the doubtful but
fascinating pleasure of dwelling upon one's misery, is found to largely
obviate the burden. It is the making up of the mind which presents the
difficulty. The truth is that we instinctively shrink from making,
_without reservation_, important decisions as to our future course of
conduct. We balk even at really committing ourselves not to worry. A man
who, when he complained of his lot, was advised to "grin and bear it,"
replied that he'd have to bear it, but he'd be hanged if he'd grin!
[Sidenote: Intensity of Desires]
The decision which is perhaps the hardest to make and, at the same time,
the most important from the standpoint of health and working-power, is
the decision _not to care too much_ about the objects we are seeking to
achieve. We need not subscribe to the Nirvana philosophy. A certain
intensity of desire is normal, but modern life tends to a morbid
frenzied intensity. Most of us need, in the interest of mental health or
sanity, to moderate our desires. A business man who had set his heart on
fulfilling a large responsibility nearly wrecked his health from worry
over the outcome. His wise physician prescribed that, before sitting
down to his desk each day, he should spend five minutes repeating and
impressing on his mind the words, "I don't give a hang! I don't give a
hang!" The truth is many people fail because of over-anxiety lest they
fail. Some invalids die from an exaggerated desire not to die.
[Sidenote: Ruling Ourselves]
A helpful precept, when one is failing in some crucial undertaking from
his very over-anxiety to succeed, is to replace the ambition to succeed
by a determination to pass the crisis unruffled, whether one succeeds or
fails, "He that ruleth himself is greater than he that taketh a city,"
and incidentally if we rule ourselves we are far more likely than
otherwise to take the city, if that be possible at all.
An ideal course of conduct implies a constant readiness, after all has
been done which can be done, to renounce one's feverish desires and
accept whatever higher powers decree, even if it be death. This is one
of the supreme aims of every great philosophy or religion. Job (13:15)
said, "Though He slay me, yet will I put my trust in Him," and Christ
exclaimed, "If it be possible let this cup pass from me; nevertheless,
not as I will, but as Thou wilt."
CHAPTER V
HYGIENE IN GENERAL
Section I--The Fifteen Rules of Hygiene
The aids to health discussed in the preceding chapters may be summarized
in specific formulas classified under the four heads, Air, Food,
Poisons, and Activity, corresponding to the four chapters, and under
fifteen sub-heads, corresponding to the fifteen sections.
I. AIR.
1. Ventilate every room you occupy.
2. Wear light, loose and porous clothes.
3. Seek out-of-door occupations and recreations.
4. Sleep out, if you can.
5. Breathe deeply.
II. FOOD.
6. Avoid overeating and overweight.
7. Eat sparingly of meats and eggs.
8. Eat some hard, some bulky, some raw foods.
9. Eat slowly.
III. POISONS.
10. Evacuate thoroughly, regularly and frequently.
11. Stand, sit and walk erect.
12. Do not allow poisons and infections to enter the body.
13. Keep the teeth, gums and tongue clean.
IV. ACTIVITY.
14. Work, play, rest and sleep in moderation.
15. Keep serene.
The application of these rules to one's daily life must be varied with
each individual. The most practical method is for the individual to
begin the improvement he would seek by constructing a typical day's
program in which time is provided for, say, breathing and other
exercises in bed, bath, toilet, walk to business, meals, amusement,
etc., with special notes and memoranda as to the particular faults of
omission and commission to be corrected. One might also, as Benjamin
Franklin records in his autobiography, keep a daily record for a week as
to how nearly the program is lived up to. By dint of such and other
stimuli, the transition in habits can be made, after which the "rules"
cease to be rules, as carrying any sense of restriction, and become
automatic like putting on or taking off one's clothes.
Section II--The Unity of Hygiene
[Sidenote: The Rules Interrelated]
The above rules embody our preachment on individual hygiene. We have
stated them as fifteen separate kinds of procedure. In actual life,
however, our acts can not be so separated. The neglect or observance of
one rule carries with it, to some extent, the neglect or observance of
other rules. For instance, one can not take muscular exercise without,
to some extent, taking breathing exercises. Swimming serves as a means
of cleanliness, of skin gymnastics, of general exercise and of
amusement. A game of tennis implies the practise, to some extent, of at
least five of the fifteen rules.
The human body is a "harp of a thousand strings," which are intended to
harmonize. If one of them is out of tune, it is likely to cause discord
throughout, while to tune up one helps the harmony of all.
[Sidenote: Medical Specialists]
Any one ailment has a far-reaching effect throughout the system. It is
because of this far-reaching effect that the "one idea" specialist in
medicine has so often thought his particular specialty to be the one and
only gateway to all therapeutics and hygiene. The oculist is liable to
look at all ailments as related to the eyes; the dentist as related to
the teeth; the mental hygienist as related to wrong attitudes of mind.
If we examine their claims, we find that they are usually right in their
affirmations, though wrong in their denials. It is their affirmations in
which we are here interested. They find that the ailments within their
own special province extend in unsuspected ways, and to a surprising
degree into seemingly remote fields; and that to remedy the special
defect which they can treat, will often go a long way toward remedying
numerous other ailments.
[Sidenote: Remote Effects of Ailments]
It has already been noted that eye-strain leads to an astonishing number
of serious nervous affections, and that corrective eyeglasses will often
work wonders for remedying those ailments and improving the general
health. There may be other unhygienic conditions equally responsible for
these symptoms, and the correction of which may produce equally
wonderful improvement. Vertigo may be due to eye-strain, or it may be
due to wrong posture or to pressure of wax on the ear-drum. Diabetes may
be aggravated by too much sugar, by infected tooth-sockets, or by too
much worry. Tuberculosis may be due jointly to indoor-living, lack of
exercise, wrong diet, wrong posture, sexual excess, alcohol,
nerve-strain, and numerous other preconditions, besides infection with
the tubercle bacillus. The social evil can be fought not only directly
by attack on prostitution, and by appeals to self-control and moral
ideals, but also indirectly by diminishing the consumption of alcohol
and other drugs, for alcohol not only produces abnormal sexual desire
but reduces the strength of will by which that desire is repressed.
Forel asserts that the social evil can not be controlled until the use
of alcohol as a beverage is abolished.
[Sidenote: Popular Delusions]
It is not uncommon for people to attribute their ailments to the less
important rather than the more important cause, and so fail to get the
best benefits of hygiene. Many people bemoan the fact that they sat in a
draft and "therefore" caught cold, when what they most needed was not to
keep out of drafts but to keep in such condition that drafts would do
them good, not harm. Benjamin Franklin, a century ago, believed, what we
now know to be true, "that people who live in the forest, in open barns,
or with open windows, do not catch cold, and that the disease called 'a
cold' is generally caused by impure air, lack of exercise, or
overeating."
[Sidenote: So-called "Overwork"]
Most people who are "overworked" are, more properly speaking, simply the
victims of bad air, bad diet, poisons, or worry. They believe that
because they are tired it must be work which is hurting them. The man
who breaks down in middle life commonly imagines that he has ruined his
health by overwork. The college girl thinks she has ruined her health by
study. All these "overworked" people prove their case by showing that
they improve in health when given a vacation. This simply shows that a
bad condition can often be remedied by improving the general health in
any way whatever, even if the primary source of the difficulty is not
reached. They are undoubtedly working beyond their working capacity; but
their working capacity is only a fraction of what it would be if they
took exercise, were not constipated, did not eat too much, abjured
alcohol, or ceased to worry continually. If they lived hygienically in
these respects, the work which was a drag might be an inspiration. A
physician of wide experience says that every day men come to him broken
down in health, invariably telling him that they have overworked; and
yet upon questioning them he finds that none of them works as hard as
he. Their breakdown was due to the terrible load of unphysiological
habits which they had been carrying--a load so great that scarcely any
work could be carried in addition.
[Sidenote: An All-round Regime]
Other examples might be given of ascribing ailments and disabilities to
the less important instead of the more important causes. The error is
almost always made of resting the blame on only one cause. In
consequence most health-seekers make the mistake of making only one
correction in their daily regime of life. One will cease alcohol
drinking, another will give up tobacco smoking, another will give up
coffee; a third will cease using all "red meats," another turns
vegetarian, another adopts a raw food diet; another takes up outdoor
sleeping; another adopts a daily game of golf; another embraces a mental
healing cult; another takes up mastication. But great and permanent
results require the adoption of an all-round, well-balanced regime.
Section III--The Obstacles to Hygiene
[Sidenote: Effort of the Will]
It is not enough that the individual should know how to live. Knowledge
is of no avail without practise. Mr. Moody, the evangelist, once said of
religious conversion, "Merely to know is not to be converted. I once
boarded a train going in the wrong direction. Some one told me my
mistake. I then had knowledge, but I did not have 'conversion' until I
acted on that knowledge--seized my traveling-bag, got off that train,
and boarded one going in the opposite direction." Many people are on the
wrong train in hygiene, as in religion, and know it. They are traveling
fast to that kind of perdition which in the end unhygienic living always
brings. In fact, a great many people practise unhygienic habits more
through indifference than through ignorance. Most people have acquired,
by imitation of their neighbors, a great number of unhygienic habits and
have continued in these habits for so many years, that they can not get
rid of them, except through a great effort of will. This effort they are
usually unable or unwilling to put forth unless very strong incentives
are brought to bear. Often--in fact, if the truth were known,
usually--they wait until ill health supplies the incentive. The man who
is most receptive on the subject of health conservation, is, in the
majority of cases, the man who has just had some ominous warning of
coming ill health; although there is now a small but increasing number
who do not wait so long, men who pride themselves on keeping "in the
pink of condition." These are the men who are rewarded for their efforts
by enjoying the highest reaches of working-power.
[Sidenote: Cost of Good Health]
The ordinary man, in ordinary good health, does not want or thinks he
does not want to live hygienically. He sees all sorts of imaginary
objections to adopting a hygienic life, and closes his eyes to its real
and great advantages. One of the objections often trumped up is that the
practise of hygiene costs too much--that it can only be a luxury of the
rich. It is quite true that here, as elsewhere in human life, wealth
confers great advantages. The death-rate among the rich is always less
than that among the poor. And yet the rich have unhygienic temptations
of their own, while the poor, on their part, are far from living up to
their opportunities.
[Sidenote: Missionaries]
There are really only two material disadvantages from which the poor
suffer in their opportunities to live a healthy life: One is unhygienic
housing, both at home and at work; the other is unhygienic toil. It must
be admitted that millions of unfortunates are unable individually to
remedy these two disadvantages in their lot in life. Yet they can, even
in these two respects, accomplish much if they take an intelligent
interest in hygiene. The graduates of tuberculosis sanatoria are largely
among the poor and they are doing much good missionary work in securing
better ventilation, both in the home and in the workroom. They find this
possible partly by insisting on more open windows in home and workshops,
partly by changing their home to one better equipped with windows or
situated in the suburbs instead of in the city, partly by changing their
occupations, partly by getting the cooperation of their employer or
simply by cooperating with him when he is ready to do his part. The
workman can also accomplish something through the Trades Unions,
especially in regard to hours of work. Employers will increasingly
cooperate in this movement, as they come to realize that the securing of
efficiency in their workmen is to their interest, and that monotony,
long hours, and other unhygienic elements which are now, through sheer
carelessness, often imposed on their workmen, bring back in the end big
financial losses on themselves.
Except for the evils mentioned--those of housing and working
conditions--there are few people so poor that they can not buy the means
of living a healthy life. In fact, hygiene is one of the few precious
gifts which can be had almost for the asking. Most people can sleep
out-of-doors, if they will--if in no other way than by the so-called
indoor window-tent--or can take deep-breathing exercises without cost.
It costs nothing to stand, sit, and walk erect, to evacuate thoroughly,
regularly, and frequently. It costs less than nothing to avoid
overeating and overweight, and to be totally abstinent from alcohol and
tobacco.
[Sidenote: Cost of Food]
Almost all can allow enough time for meals to eat slowly. Coarse and raw
foods are always to be had and are usually cheaper than the
conventional soft, concentrated cooked foods. In fact, meat, eggs, and
like foods are among the most expensive and the least desirable. If we
compare the cost of flour and of the other cheapest food materials, with
the cost of oysters, one of the dearest, we find that the latter is
fifty times as expensive as the former for the same food value. This
takes no account, of course, of the expenses involved in cooking either
of them. It has been proved by actual experience that one can live in
the best of health on food costing as low as ten cents a day, exclusive
of the labor of preparing, cooking and serving. Mrs. Richards, in her
"Cost of Food," says that this is possible anywhere in America within
fifty miles of a railroad. The only real objection to living on this
minimum expense is the lack of variety. The following is a brief list of
foods in ascending order of cost per 100 calories of food value, the
cheapest being at the beginning and the dearest at the end: glucose,
corn-meal, wheat-flour, oatmeal, cane-sugar, salt pork, rice, wheat
bread, oleomargarine, beans, peas, potatoes, butter, milk, cheese,
beef-stew, ham, mutton-chops, beef, eggs, and oysters. If the foods in
this list be looked up in the table given in the SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES for
their protein, fat, and carbohydrate contents, it will be seen that a
well-balanced ration is possible without the use of expensive foods. In
fact, among the cheap foods are some consisting mostly of protein, some
consisting mostly of fat, and some consisting mostly of carbohydrate.
For instance, cheap sources of protein are skim milk, beans, cheese, and
peanuts. Cheap sources of fat are oleomargarine and cottonseed-oil.
Cheap sources of carbohydrate, i.e., starch and sugar, are bread,
bananas, potatoes, glucose, and even ordinary sugar. If a diet, selected
for cheapness, is not at first well balanced, a judicious admixture of
one or more of the foods just mentioned, will restore equilibrium. A
cheap bulky food is cabbage.
[Sidenote: Repaid Cost]
Most of the rules of hygiene cost nothing to observe. But even when
hygiene is costly at first, the cost is usually repaid in the end many
times over. To ventilate a house in winter always costs a certain
additional expenditure for coal, but it is better to pay the coal bill
than the doctor's bills. To sleep out-of-doors costs some extra
blankets, bedding, clothing, and roll curtains, but these not only save
the cost of heating an indoor sleeping-room, but save also the cost of
ill-health. There is no better economy than to keep one's working-power.
To lose it means to lose its earnings and to have, in addition, the
heavy expenses of medical attendance, medicines, and nursing, and often
to lose life itself with its potential earnings of every sort. In short,
an unhygienic life, for the sake of economy, is "penny-wise and
pound-foolish."
[Sidenote: "I Have No Time"]
Many busy men object to hygiene because, they say, they have no time for
it. They imagine that to devote an hour each day to exercise or
relaxation is a waste of time and that they are really economizing their
time by working that hour instead. We are here referring, not to those
who can not control their working-time, but to those who deliberately
choose to work when hygiene would require them to play. It is often
those who fix their own working-hours, rather than those whose
working-hours are fixed for them, who overwork the most. If these could
know the suffering which sooner or later follows inevitably as the
consequence of this mistaken policy, they would not pursue it for a
single day. A slight loss of working-power comes immediately. A careful
observer of mental workers found that an hour invested in exercise in
the afternoon often pays for itself within a day, by rendering possible
more rapid work. He also found an improvement in the quality of his
work. The razor-edge of the mind needs daily honing through physical
exercise. The same principle applies to all work. It is just as
necessary to stop, at intervals, our physical and mental machinery for
oiling and repairs, as to stop the machinery of a factory.
[Sidenote: "Too Much Trouble"]
Another objection is that the practise of hygiene is "too much trouble."
It is undoubtedly true, that no one who has unhygienic habits can
overcome them without a certain amount of "trouble." The people who get
the best results are those who are never deterred by trouble so long as
the trouble is worth while. For those who have not the necessary
enthusiasm or self-control to break their unwholesome habits by sheer
will power, the best advice is to so arrange their lives as to make the
practise of hygiene inevitable. One physician in Chicago deliberately
got rid of his automobile and other means of locomotion in order to
force himself to walk to all his patients, and so secure enough physical
exercise. Another man in New York City, with the same object in view,
selected the location for his dwelling so that there was no rapid
transportation available to take him to his office, making the walking
back and forth a necessity from which he could not escape.
[Sidenote: Simplicity of Hygienic Living]
The only difficulty lies in overcoming the inertia of acquired habits.
After one has changed his habits, it is just as easy to live rightly as
to live wrongly. The rules of hygiene are not restrictive, but
liberating. They may seem at first restrictive, for they prohibit many
things which we have been in the habit of doing; but they are really
liberating, for the things we were doing were unrealized restrictions on
our own power to work, to be useful, or even to enjoy life. The "rules"
of hygiene are thus simply the means of emancipating us from our real
limitations. These so-called rules, when tried, will prove to be not
artificial but natural, not difficult but easy, not complicated but
simple. They are almost as simple as the direction to bathe in the river
Jordan. It is, in fact, their very simplicity and availability to which
is largely due their deplorable neglect and the failure to realize the
wonderful benefits following their careful and continued observance.
[Sidenote: The Evil of Romancing]
Not only a healthy mental attitude toward life, but a healthy mental
attitude toward one's own unhygienic habits is essential. It is a very
common thing for a man to romance over his shortcomings, or his
unhealthy physical conditions, to make humor of them to his friends.
Very often the first step toward a better physical condition is a change
in this mental attitude.
Section IV--The Possibilities of Hygiene
[Sidenote: The Preventability of Disease and Death]
Certain it is that more people would practise hygiene if they could be
made to realize in some vivid way how much they needed it. Few persons,
even when they read and accept the statistics on the subject, really
have a picture of the imperative need of hygiene as an integral part of
every human life. It is not brought home to them how widespread is
illness, how numerous are preventable deaths, how many are the
tendencies toward individual and racial deterioration.
The report of the Roosevelt Conservation Commission on National
Vitality, indicates that annually there are in the United States over
600,000 deaths which might be prevented if existing knowledge of hygiene
were properly applied; that at least half of the 3,000,000 and more
sick-beds constantly kept filled in the United States are unnecessary;
that the financial loss from earnings cut off by preventable disease and
premature death amounts to over $1,500,000,000 annually; and that over
15 years are lost to the average life through the lack of application of
knowledge which already exists but which simply has not yet been
disseminated and applied.
[Sidenote: Impairments Unsuspected]
The health examinations of the Life Extension Institute have revealed
unsuspected ailments in persons who considered themselves well, and to
an extent which has astonished even those who have long been familiar
with these subjects. Among large groups of clerks and employes of banks
and commercial houses in New York City with an average age of 27 and all
supposedly picked men and women, only 1 per cent. were found free of
impairment or of habits of living inviting impairment. Of those with
important physical impairments, 89 per cent. were, prior to the
examination, unaware of impairment; 16 per cent. of the total number
examined were affected with organic heart trouble, 42 per cent. with
arterial changes, ranging from slight thickening to advanced
arteriosclerosis, 26 per cent. with high or low blood pressure,
40 per cent. had sugar, casts, or albumin in the urine, 24 per cent. had
a combination of urinary and other serious impairment, 47 per cent. had
decayed teeth or infected gums, 31 per cent. had faulty vision
uncorrected.
Among industrial groups, not exposed to any special occupational hazard
or poisoning, the figures were as follows: With an average age of 33,
none were found to be free of impairment or habits of living inviting
impairment. Of those with important physical impairments, 89 per cent.
were, prior to the examination, unaware of impairment; 3 per cent. of
the total number examined were affected with organic heart trouble;
53 per cent. with arterial changes, ranging from slight thickening to
advanced arteriosclerosis; 23 per cent. with high or low blood
pressure; 45 per cent. had sugar, albumin or casts in their urine;
26 per cent. had a combination of urinary and other serious impairment;
69 per cent. had decayed teeth or infected gums; 41 per cent. had faulty
vision uncorrected.
[Sidenote: Minor Ailments]
There are few persons in America to-day who reach the age of forty sound
and normal in every part of the body, especially if we include among
abnormalities the minor ailments. The extent to which minor ills are
prevalent among those who pass for "well" people is not generally
appreciated. Once we penetrate beneath conventional acquaintance we
almost invariably learn of some functional trouble, such as impairment
of heart, circulation, liver, kidneys, stomach; or gallstones,
constipation, diarrhea; or insomnia, neurasthenia, neuritis, neuralgia,
sick-headache; or tonsillitis, bronchitis, hay fever, catarrh, grippe,
colds, sore throat; or rupture, enlarged glands, skin eruptions; or
rheumatism, lumbago, gout, obesity; or decayed teeth, baldness,
deafness, eye ailments, spinal curvature, flat foot, lameness; or sundry
other "troubles."
These ailments, though regarded as "minor," should be recognized
promptly and accepted as the signal that the person is moving in the
wrong direction. There is no need for alarm provided this warning is
heeded. Otherwise disaster is almost certain sooner or later to follow.
The laws of physiology are just as inexorable as the laws of physics.
There is no compromising with Nature. No man can disobey the laws of
health to which he has been bred by Nature without paying for it--any
more than a man can sign a check against his bank account without
reducing the amount. He may not be immediately bankrupt, and until he
exhausts his account he may not experience any inconvenience from his
great extravagance, but Nature keeps her balances very accurately, and
in the end all claims must be paid.
[Sidenote: The Personal Equation]
It is true, of course, that some persons have greater resistance than
others. If we had a convenient barometer by which to measure daily the
state of our vitality, we might register the effect of every unhygienic
act. But it is so seldom that endurance is accurately measured that few
people appreciate the enormous differences in people and the variations
of the same person at different times. These differences and variations
have a range of many hundred per cent. Some people can not walk upstairs
or run across the street without being out of breath, while others will
climb the Matterhorn without overstrain. The fact that certain people
have lived to the century-mark in spite of unhygienic living is
sometimes cited to prove that hygiene is ineffective. One might as well
cite the fact that certain trees are not blown down in a gale or are not
quickly destroyed by insect-pests to prove that gales have no tendency
to blow down or insects to destroy trees.
[Sidenote: Over-confidence]
The truth is that a person who has so much vitality as to lead him to
defy the laws of health and to boast that he pays no price no matter how
he lives, is likely to be the very man to exhaust his account of health
prematurely. There was, a few years ago, a famous American, possessed of
prodigious bodily vigor. He ought to have lived a century. Unfortunately
he had this "insolence of health." He was warned several times against
overwork, lack of sleep, and abuse of his digestion. But he merely
smiled and claimed that such warnings were for others, not for him. He
met an untimely end, due as his physicians believed and as he himself
acknowledged, when too late, to his abuse of the great powers with which
Nature had endowed him and to the neglect of personal hygiene.
[Sidenote: Possible Health Attainment]
Conversely, an observance of the laws of hygiene affords wonderful
results in producing vitality and endurance. Insurance companies are
discovering that even weak and sick people, will, if they take good care
of themselves, outlive those with robust constitutions who abuse them.
To those unfamiliar with the subject in its larger aspects, the
possibilities seem almost beyond belief. As an example of the wonderful
gains which can be secured by obeying the laws of hygiene may be cited
the case of a young man who a few years ago was scarcely able to drag
himself into the sun in Colorado, where he was endeavoring to rid
himself of tuberculosis. He not only succeeded, but subsequently, by
dint of following substantially all of the rules of hygiene here laid
down, became an athlete and capable of running twenty-five miles for
sheer love of sport and apparently without the overstrain experienced by
"Marathon" runners. Kant and Humboldt are cases typical in different
fields of achievement of many of the world's most vital men who have
actually made over their constitutions from weakness to strength.
Cornaro says that it was the neglect of hygienic laws which made him all
but a dead man at thirty-seven, and that the thoroughgoing reform of his
habits which he then effected made him a centenarian. His rules, drawn
up four hundred years ago and described in his interesting work "The
Temperate Life," are, so far as they are explained, almost identical
with those given in this book. It is difficult to assign a limit to the
good which can be accomplished by practising these rules and so
minimizing the poisons which usually narrow and shorten our lives.
[Sidenote: Immortal Animal Cells]
So far as science can reveal, there seems to be no principle limiting
life. There are many good and bad reasons why men die, but no underlying
necessary reason why they must die. The brilliant Carrel has kept tissue
cells of animals alive outside of the body for the past three years.
These cells are multiplying and growing, apparently unchanged by time,
to all appearances immortal so long as they are periodically washed of
poison and nourished in a proper medium. If we could at intervals
thoroughly wash man free of his poisons and nourish him, there seems to
be no reason why he should not live indefinitely.
Section V--Hygiene and Civilization
In view of the vast extent of human misery from ill health, the question
naturally arises, How does it happen that the world is burdened with so
colossal a load? Is it no more than is biologically normal? Is it true
that in other organisms, animals and plants, ill health is the rule
rather than the exception? Are all races of men subject to the same
heavy load?
[Sidenote: Natural Adjustments Upset]
These questions have not yet received sufficient attention. The answer
seems to be that man is suffering from his own mistakes made
unconsciously and in ignorance. He has upset the equilibrium which
Nature had established among the various powers and activities of his
body, and between himself and the outside world. Man has done mischief
for his own body similar to what he has done for the natural resources
on which he lives. In Professor Shaler's epoch-making little book, "Man
and the Earth," he shows, for instance, that the little layer of soil
on the surface of the earth from which plants and animals derive their
nutriment was, before the advent of man, replenished quite as fast as it
was washed away, but that after man had put his plow into it and had
taken off the protective mat of vegetation, he unconsciously despoiled
the accumulation of ages. "In a plowed field, an hour's torrential rain
may wash off to the sea more than would pass off in a thousand years in
the slow process of erosion which the natural state of the earth
permits." He also shows that the constant croppings of the soil rob it
of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other elements faster than Nature restores
them. The problem of conservation is to reestablish the balance which
has been lost through the depredations of man, for instance, to lessen
soil-wash by terracing, and to restore to the soil the lost elements by
supplying nitrates and phosphates and by other methods of scientific
farming.
In the same way man has upset his pristine animal mode of living and
needs to find scientific ways to restore the equilibrium. Most of the
present-day problems of hygiene arise from introducing, uncompensated,
the effects of certain devices of civilization. The inventions of
civilization have done so much for man that he is apt to unduly glorify
them and to overlook the injurious by-products. These by-products are
often of prodigious significance to the race. The invention of houses
introduced the problem of house hygiene; the invention of clothing, the
problem of clothing hygiene; that of cooking, the problem of food
hygiene; that of division of labor, the problem of industrial hygiene;
and so on. To make these statements more concrete, we may consider some
of them in more detail.
[Sidenote: Houses Artificial]
The invention of houses has made it possible for men to live in all
climates, yet this indoor living is responsible for much disease. The
houses give comfortable shelter and warmth and protect us from the
elements and from wild animals. But the protection has been overdone.
Like his cousin, the anthropoid ape, man is biologically an outdoor
animal. His attempt at indoor living has worked him woe, but so
gradually and subtly has it done so that only recently have we come to
realize the fact. At first, dwellings were really outdoor affairs,
caves, lean-tos, tents, huts with holes in the roof and the walls.
These holes served to ventilate, though they were not intended for that
purpose. The hole in the roof was to let out the smoke and the holes in
the walls to let in the light. Gradually the roof-hole developed into a
chimney with an open fireplace, which, in turn, gradually changed into a
small flue for stoves whereupon it almost ceased to serve any
ventilating function. The stove in turn has largely gone and is replaced
in many cases by the hot-water or steam radiator, without any attempt at
ventilation. The holes in the wall gave way, after the invention of
glass, to windows which let in the light without letting in the air.
Weather-strips, double windows, vestibule-doors, interior rooms,
completed the process of depriving man of his outdoor air, shutting him
into a cell in which he now lives--a sickened but complaisant
prisoner--often twenty hours of the twenty-four. Tuberculosis, one of
the worst scourges of mankind, is primarily a house disease. It is
prevalent as indoor living is prevalent, and reaches its maximum in the
tenement quarter of a great city.
[Sidenote: Effects on Different Races]
Only by generations of natural selection could we expect to make man
immune to the evils of bad air. The robust Indian and the Negro, whose
races, until the last generation or two, roamed in the open, fell easy
prey to tuberculosis as soon as they adopted the white man's houses and
clothes. The Anglo-Saxons who have withstood the influence of indoor
living for several generations have, probably by the survival of the
fittest, become a little better able to endure it, while the Jews, a
race which has lived indoors longer than any other existing race, are
now, probably by the same law of survival, the least liable to
tuberculosis, except when exposed to especially unfavorable conditions
of life.
[Sidenote: Compensation for Civilization]
But we, of this generation, can not afford to wait for natural selection
to fit the race to an indoor environment; hence the supreme importance
to us of air hygiene. We must compensate for the construction of our
houses by insisting on open windows, or forced drafts, or electric fans,
or open-air outings, or sleeping porches, or the practise of deep
breathing, or all of these things.
[Sidenote: Clothing Artificial]
In the same way, clothing has protected our bodies from the cold but
enervated or constricted them as well. The aboriginal tribes, even in
cold climates, seldom used clothing. The Eskimo is an exception. The
tribes toward the South Pole in similarly cold climates often have
little more clothing than a blanket which they hang over their shoulders
toward the wind. The weak, pale skin--to whose lack of adaptability we
owe the chilling preceding a cold--the bald head, the distorted foot,
the corns upon it, the cramped waist, are among the results of clothing
ourselves wrongly. Hence we are discovering the need of restoring, as
far as we can, the original conditions by making our clothes more light,
more loose, and more porous, and, when possible, by taking the "barefoot
cure," or the air bath.
[Sidenote: Cooking Artificial]
We come next to foods, and note that civilization has invented cooking
and artificial foods. These inventions have greatly widened the variety
of man's diet, but the foods of civilization are largely responsible for
the decay of our teeth and the abuse of our digestive and eliminating
organs.
[Sidenote: Soft Foods Artificial]
Judging from man's teeth and digestive apparatus as well as his general
kinship to the anthropoid ape, it is reasonable to believe that, before
fire was discovered, man was primarily a frugivorous animal, whose
ordinary diet consisted of fruits, nuts, and tender shoots. While man
still uses these fruits, nuts, and salads, his chief reliance is on
prepared food, bread, butter, meat, and cooked vegetables. The diet of
our progenitors must have been largely one requiring chewing,
consisting, as it did, of hard fruits and stalks and perhaps also grains
and flesh. Observation of manlike apes shows that they chew their food
more thoroughly than man. Doubtless nuts constituted a considerable part
of primitive food and required cracking by the teeth. The work we now do
in flour-mills or the kitchen or with the knife and fork, was then done
with the teeth. We even have our cook mash our potatoes and make
puddings and pap of our food after it reaches the kitchen. Having
already shirked most of the task of mastication by softening and cutting
our food before it reaches our mouths, we shirk the rest of it by
washing it down with water, or worse. An Italian dentist, who has had a
wide range of observation, says that the knife and fork have committed
"unpardonable crimes" by robbing the front teeth of their work of
cutting. He sometimes prescribes for loose teeth the task of cutting a
pound of bread daily. Whether any of it is swallowed or not is not
important, but he insists that it must be cut by the teeth.
[Sidenote: Concentrated Food Artificial]
The deplorable lack of residue in modern food is one of the consequences
of civilized life, for the bulky foods have been crowded out by
concentrated foods, and, in many cases, the concentrated foods have been
formed by getting rid of residue. Instead of chewing the sugar-cane, we
use sugar, a concentrated extract which leaves no residue. We crush the
juices from our fruits and throw away the pulp. We take the bran out of
our grain and with it the vitamins essential to health. The bulky
foods--fruits and fibrous vegetables--are often dropped from our menus.
[Sidenote: Hurry Artificial]
The hurry habit, another unfortunate by-product of civilized life, is
one of the chief promoters of indigestion. In civilization we live by
the clock. We schedule our trains and crowd our meal-time to catch them.
We make engagements in neglect of the requirements of digestion. We
have, in consequence, as one of the institutions of civilization, the
"quick-lunch counter." At first we bolted a meal purposely and
consciously. Later we formed the habit of food-bolting, and it now seems
quite natural.
[Sidenote: Use of Flesh Food]
[Sidenote: Misled Appetites]
To the door of the hurry habit may also be laid the excessive use of
flesh foods. Carnivorous animals bolt their food. Frugivorous animals,
to which class the human race properly belongs, eat slowly. But when,
through the perversions of civilized life, frugivorous man is forced to
eat as fast as the carnivores, he instinctively adopts a similar diet.
As someone has expressed it "when we eat as fast as a dog, we naturally
crave the food of a dog." Our apelike progenitors had few, if any, flesh
foods and only those which they could catch with the hand and eat raw.
Our eliminating organs, the liver and the kidneys, have been framed to
meet the demands of man's natural diet, but not adapted to handle the
diet of civilized men in the excessive use of flesh foods and the use of
alcohol. These organs are, fortunately or unfortunately, provided with a
large factor of safety and can stand a great deal of abuse, but the
cumulative effect of this abuse, especially when combined with an
unhygienic life in general, sooner or later leads to disaster. Our
tastes have also been perverted. The appetite is very likely to be
innocently misled by the delicacies which civilization has invented, as
well as by the tricks of cooking, seasoning, and preparing. For this
reason, we can not trust, as thoroughly as we would like, the ordinary
leadings of taste. The solution of this problem of nutrition, like the
solution of the housing problem, must be sought by retaining the
advantageous food customs which we now find about us and substituting
scientific customs for the disadvantageous ones.
[Sidenote: Other Evils of Civilization]
It would be impossible to enumerate all the inventions of civilization
which have brought us difficult problems of individual hygiene. We shall
name only a few more. The invention of chairs, though adding to human
convenience, has tended to produce wrong posture, from which spinal,
nervous and digestive disturbances follow. The invention of the alphabet
and of printing has made possible the accumulation of knowledge, but has
promoted eye-strain with a great train of attendant evils. The device of
division of labor has created much wealth, but destroyed the normal
balance of mental and physical work, recreation and rest. From this
follow occupational diseases of overstrain, bad posture, industrial
poisons, and a craving for narcotics. A combination of conditions has
lessened the opportunities for prompt discharge of the body waste, and
so led to dulling of the reflex which promotes defecation. We are only
just beginning to realize how serious are the consequences.
[Sidenote: "Remedies" that are Worse than the Evils]
We have described many of the unhygienic practises common to-day as
direct results of upsetting Nature's equilibrium. Others are indirect
results. These latter practises may be described as attempts to remedy
the evils of the former, the "remedies," however, being often worse than
the diseases. Much of our drugging, some of our wrong food habits and
not a little of our immorality are simply crude and unscientific
attempts to compensate for disturbances or deviations from a normal
life. We wake ourselves up, as it were, with caffein, move our bowels
with a cathartic, induce an appetite with a cocktail, seek rest from the
day's fatigue and worries in nicotin, and put ourselves to sleep with an
opiate. In these practises we are evidently trying in wrong ways to
compensate respectively for insufficient sleep, insufficient
peristalsis, indigestion, overfatigue, and insomnia--evils due, as
previously explained, to upsetting Nature's balance, between work,
play, rest and sleep.
So also our overeating is largely an unscientific effort to compensate
for overconcentration of diet,--that is, an effort to get bulk. Again,
too much protein is in large measure due to the need of compensating for
rapid eating, for as has been remarked, protein is the one kind of food
which can be eaten fast with impunity.
Again, a large part of our moral derelictions is due to an unbalanced
life from which amusements are largely omitted. The "bad" boy in the
city streets is usually following his instinct for amusement, of which
the lack of playgrounds has deprived him. Dissipations of many kinds are
explained in a similar way. It is largely because workmen are so often
drudges and lack normal recreations that they seek amusement in the
concentrated form they find in saloons, gambling places, dives and dance
halls.
Finally those economic and social conditions of civilization which have
resulted in deferring marriage beyond the best physiological age, lie
behind prostitution and its terrible train of consequences including the
venereal diseases.
The worst of it is that these wrong remedies, instead of helping,
aggravate the disease. They become part of a vicious circle, which
continues in an endless round.
[Sidenote: Shortened Human Life]
The combined effects of all the unhygienic modes of living are
undoubtedly greatly to shorten human life. Most other mammals live about
five times the growing period. In man, this would mean that the normal
life-span should be about a century and a quarter, an age which is now
reached only in one case out of millions.
[Sidenote: No Return to Nature]
Yet it would be foolish, even if it were possible, to attempt a complete
"return to Nature" by abolishing all the ways and conventions of
civilization. This would be throwing away our social inheritance and
returning to barbarism. We must go forward, not backward. Just as the
cure for the evils of Democracy is said to be more Democracy; so the
cure for the evils of civilization must be more civilization. The
equilibrium of Nature having been upset by civilization, science, one of
the great products of civilization, must now work out the remedies. Just
as the waste of the soil which civilization has brought is to be
compensated by that great product of civilization, scientific
agriculture, so the waste of vital resources is to be compensated by
scientific hygiene. The saving of civilization depends on following not
those who repudiate it, like Thoreau, but those who make use of it, like
Pasteur. What the world needs is not to abolish houses, but to ventilate
them; not to go naked, but to devise better clothes, which have all the
advantages and none of the disadvantages of those we now wear; not to
return to the diet of the anthropoid apes, but to remodel that which we
have; not to give up chairs, but to improve the form of chairs; not to
abandon reading, but to employ corrective eyeglasses and clear printing;
not to abrogate division of labor, but to shorten the hours of labor and
provide wholesome recreations and special compensating advantages when
needed. When, in future centuries, these come to be reckoned among the
great triumphs of civilization, we may expect human life to be longer
and perhaps stronger than in any primitive state of Nature, just as
where modern scientific forestry has been applied we find longer lived
and better trees than ever grew in Nature's jungles.
Section VI--The Fields of Hygiene
[Sidenote: Public Versus Individual Hygiene]
The object of this book is primarily to instruct the individual as to
what he can do to maintain his own individual health. But individual
hygiene is only one particular branch of hygiene, and it is well for the
individual, partly out of public spirit, partly in self-defense, to have
some idea of the other important branches, namely, public hygiene, the
hygiene practised by the health officer, semipublic hygiene, the hygiene
of schools, institutions, and industrial establishments, and race
hygiene or eugenics, the most important of all.
All these branches are so closely related that it is impossible to mark
any exact dividing-line. But, in a general way, there is a broad
distinction between eugenics, which is the hygiene of future
generations, and the other two, which relate to the present generation,
as also between these two themselves. Thus public hygiene is that which
is practised by the government for its citizens, while individual
hygiene is that which is practised by the citizens for themselves.
Public hygiene consists chiefly in efforts by the government to
maintain a wholesome environment in which to live, including good
outdoor air--without smoke or foul odors--clean streets, pure water,
good sewers, quarantine, and legal regulations concerning houses,
schools, prisons, hospitals, and other public institutions, foods sold
in markets, and conditions of employment. It is chiefly useful in
preventing _acute_ or infectious diseases, such as typhoid fever,
scarlet fever, measles, whooping-cough, small-pox, yellow fever, and
diphtheria, and in preventing accidents and occupational diseases.
Individual hygiene is chiefly useful in preventing the _chronic_ or
degenerative diseases, that is, diseases of nutrition and of
circulation, such as heart and kidney affections, nervous prostration,
insanity.
Public hygiene has made much progress during recent years. In
consequence, the number of deaths from the acute or infectious diseases
has been greatly diminished. Health officers are beginning to
demonstrate the truth of Pasteur's words, "It is within the power of man
to rid himself of every parasitic disease."
It is this work which has reduced the general death-rate in civilized
countries and sometimes cut it in two, as at Panama. The United States
Public Health Service, on invitation of the Peruvian Government,
recently cut the death-rate in two in one of Peru's disease-ridden
cities.
Individual hygiene, on the other hand, has been greatly neglected,
especially in the United States, and, doubtless largely as a
consequence, the death-rates from the chronic or degenerative diseases
are increasing rapidly. A further consequence is that, in the United
States, while the death-rate in the early years of life (when infectious
diseases do most of the killing) has been decreasing, the death-rate in
later life (when the chronic diseases do most of the killing) is
increasing. In Sweden, on the other hand, where individual hygiene is
more generally applied, the death-rate is declining at all times of
life. (See "Signs of Increase of the Degenerative Diseases,"
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.)
Both public and individual hygiene are being invoked in the fight
against tuberculosis, a disease at once infectious and chronic, due to
germs and to wrong methods of living.
[Sidenote: Cooperation Necessary]
No matter how thoroughly an individual attempts to care for his own
health, he will find it almost impossible to avoid infections, at
times, without the organized help of the community in which he lives. A
man may do his best to keep his windows open, to breathe deeply, to eat
hygienically, to hold his activities within the limits of overfatigue,
to screen his house against flies and leave no tin cans about his
kitchen door to breed mosquitoes; but if the city in which he lives has
no good air for him to breathe, if his city's water supply is
contaminated, if neighboring malarial swamps are not drained or covered
with oil, if flies alight on the food before it comes to his own house,
if the food contains disease germs or dangerous preservatives, or if his
next-door neighbor visits him and leaves infection behind him, mere
personal defenses will hardly be adequate.
Even in so private a matter as moving the bowels, sometimes the fault
lies partly with circumstances beyond the control of the individual.
Unfortunately in most of our cities and small towns "Comfort Stations"
are rare or unknown, and when they are available they are often in such
an insanitary condition as to be a source of danger through the spread
of communicable disease. Constipation, as we have seen, is a far more
serious matter than it is sometimes thought to be.
It is therefore incumbent on the individual to contribute his share to
the hygienic work of society as a whole, in particular to take an active
interest in health legislation and administration. A man can not live to
the best advantage in a life isolated from all social obligations, any
more than could Robinson Crusoe, who was unable to launch his canoe in
the ocean, after he had been at great pains to construct it, because he
had no one to help him. Each man should take part in the great social
hygienic struggle, if he is to reap the highest rewards in his own
personal hygienic struggle. And he can do a great deal if he will be
patient and persistent. If, for instance, he would always insist on
suitable air conditions in public buildings, electric cars, theaters,
and churches, and encourage others to do so, it would not take long to
make air reform general.
[Sidenote: The Consumer's Duty]
In fact, it is the common public, constituting the consumer, who has it
in his power to bring about most of the necessary reforms in public
hygiene. When the consumer really values hygienic environment, the
producer will supply it. The great improvement in recent years in
drinking water was brought about through the appreciation, by the
consumer, of the danger from impure water. His complaints produced the
change. Hotels found it profitable to provide and advertise pure water.
So also the education of the public as to the dangers of a common public
drinking cup led to the invention of bubbling fountains and cheap
individual cups and to the introduction of these conveniences in railway
stations and other public places.
We need to concern ourselves particularly with the character of our
public water supply, air supply and food supply, the number of bacteria
in milk, the fitness for human consumption of the meat, fowl, fish, and
shell-fish sold in the public markets, and the use of adulterants and
preservatives in canned and bottled goods.
[Sidenote: Quacks and Quackery]
Quacks and quackery should be vigorously fought by laymen as well as
physicians. Quacks live by lying and misleading advertisements. Every
one should cooperate to encourage the movement by which newspapers and
magazines are giving up quack and immoral advertisements and the
advertisements of alcoholic beverages. Especially should we refuse to
patronize the quack advertiser. When no one is deceived by him, he will
cease to advertise. A more immediate method is to change from the
newspaper containing such advertising to one which does not. We should
also appeal to the editors to reform their advertising, as many of them
are now doing.
[Sidenote: Vaccination]
Vaccination is now a known preventive against smallpox, typhoid fever,
and other germ maladies. Its use should be advocated and the ignorant
prejudice against it should be overcome.
[Sidenote: Social Evil]
Last but not least, the individual should cooperate in the great
movement against the social evil.
As soon as an individual becomes interested in caring for his own health
and for the health of his family, his interest will not cease at
individual hygiene; he will wish to improve the efficiency of the public
health service by increased appropriations, improved equipment and
personnel; and to cooperate with the health officer.
[Sidenote: Eugenics]
Race hygiene or eugenics, which has been mentioned as the third and most
important branch of hygiene, aims to conserve the health of _future_
generations, through the action of those now living. Hygiene (individual
and public) teaches us how to create for ourselves healthful conditions
of living, but on every side we see evidences of the fact that we cannot
entirely control conditions of health through hygiene only. Not all
maladies by any means can be attributed to unnatural or unhygienic
conditions of living. It is true that if followed out faithfully, the
rules of hygiene will enable a man to live out his maximum natural
life-span, with the maximum of well-being, and to run no risk of
allowing any inherent weakness to be brought out. But some persons, even
if they followed what is very nearly the normal code for the human
being, would scarcely be able to avoid dire physical and mental fates.
In short, we find that besides the hygienic factor in life which we may
call environment, there is something else on which the health of the
individual depends. This something else is heredity, or "the nature of
the breed." Back of all the individual can do by hygiene lies his
inheritance. To change this the individual can do nothing, but the
parents of the individual can affect his inheritance, and we as parents
can affect the inheritance of our offspring.
[Sidenote: Trustees of the Racial Germ-plasm]
First, we can carry through life uninjured the essential germ plasm
which has been entrusted to our care. We should never forget that this
germ plasm, which we receive and transmit, really belongs, not to us,
but to the race; and that we have no right, through alcoholic or other
unhygienic practises, to damage it; but that, on the contrary, we are
under the most solemn obligation to keep it up to the highest level
within our power. We are the trustees of the racial germ plasm that we
carry.
[Sidenote: Wise Combinations of Germinal Traits]
Second, we can affect the life of our offspring by our choice in
marriage. The basis of the development of desirable or undesirable
tendencies or traits lies, of course, in the mating from which the
individual springs. On the kind of combinations of germinal traits that
are made by marriage depends whether or not undesirable traits shall
reappear in the offspring. For instance, a man may inherit a defect from
his father because his father married a certain type of woman. Had the
father selected a different type, the children might not have inherited
the father's defect. The importance of choice in marriage results from
certain laws of inheritance, which make it clear that by proper
combinations of individuals certain bad traits may be entirely "bred
out."
[Sidenote: Choice in Marriage]
As soon as men and women acquire the knowledge that their choices in
marriage largely determine whether or not their physical and mental
faults and virtues will reappear in children, they feel a sacred
responsibility in that act of choosing. A little conscious knowledge of
what kind of combinations of traits bring about their reappearance in
offspring can not help but modify a person's taste, and thus
automatically direct the choice of a mate, which choice will still be,
and rightfully, an instinctive one. Upon the wisdom with which choices
in marriage are now made depends in large degree the health and
efficiency of all the individuals who will constitute society in the
coming generations. As the science of eugenics gathers a greater wealth
of evidence and subjects it to vigorous analysis, its ability to guide
the race to higher levels will become more positive and far-reaching.
This can be done without surrendering the general principle of
individual freedom. It will not reduce but increase the number of
natural love-marriages. The errors of crude and superficial or
overenthusiastic eugenists should not obscure the enormous possibilities
of the science for the human race. Eugenic knowledge is, therefore, not
only a personal advantage but a social necessity.
[Sidenote: Social Progress]
For society as a whole, a thoroughgoing eugenic program must include:
(1) The prevention of reproduction by the markedly unfit, such as the
feeble-minded, by sterilization of the most unfit and by segregating the
remainder in public institutions.
(2) The enactment of wise marriage laws.
(3) The development of an enlightened sentiment against improper
marriages and the putting at the disposal of individuals contemplating
marriage the data accumulated and principles worked out by eugenic
students.
The Eugenics Record Office of Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y., is
now engaged in collecting such material.
For us of the present generation, hygiene is of immediate concern; but
if we are to build for future generations, hygiene must give way to, or
grow into, eugenics. The accomplishment of a true eugenic program will
be the crowning work of the health movement and the grandest service of
science to the human race. (For further comments on this subject see
"Eugenics" in SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.)
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS
SECTION I
NOTES ON FOOD
[Sidenote: Balancing the Diet]
It will help to balance the ration and to avoid an excess of protein and
also to avoid a deficiency of either fat or carbohydrate, if we take a
bird's-eye view of the various common foods in respect to the protein,
fat and carbohydrate they contain. For this purpose the following table
has been constructed.
[Sidenote: Common Foods Classified]
COMMON FOODS CLASSIFIED
---------------+-----------------+-------------+--------------
| Poor in | Rich in | Very rich in
| Fat. | Fat. | Fat.
---------------+-----------------+-------------+--------------
Very high in | White of Eggs | |
Protein | Cod Fish | |
| Lean Beef | |
| Chicken | |
| Veal | |
---------------+-----------------+-------------+--------------
High in | Shell-fish | Most Fish |
Protein | Skim Milk | Most Meats |
| Lentils | Most Fowl |
| Peas | Whole Egg |
| Beans | Cheese |
---------------+-----------------+-------------+--------------
Moderate or | Most Vegetables | Peanuts | Fat Meats
Deficient in | Bread | Milk | Yolk of Eggs
Protein | Potatoes | Cream Soups | Most Nuts
| Fruits | Most Pies | Cream
| Sugar | Doughnuts | Butter
---------------+-----------------+-------------+--------------
The foods given in the uppermost compartment are those "very high" in
protein (above 40 per cent. of their total calories, or food value,
being protein). Those in the two compartments next below are merely
"high" in protein (20 to 40 per cent.), while the lowest three
compartments contain those "moderate or deficient" in protein (zero to
20 per cent.).
The compartment farthest to the right contains a list of those foods
"very rich in fat." The two compartments next to the left contain those
"rich in fat," and the three compartments to the extreme left contain
those "poor in fat."
With reference to carbohydrates (starch or sugar), we can say that the
foods in the lower left compartment are very rich in carbohydrate. Those
in the two neighboring compartments (the one beginning "shell-fish" and
the one beginning "peanuts") are moderate, and those in the remaining
compartments are those poorest in carbohydrate.
Thus, practically, the nearer the name of any food is to the upper
corner of this triangular table, the more protein that food contains;
the nearer it is to the right hand corner, the more fat; and the nearer
to the remaining corner (lower left), the more carbohydrate (starch and
sugar).
[Sidenote: Ideal Food Proportions]
An ideal proportion of the three food elements is to be had only in the
middle compartment of the lowest row. But it is by no means necessary or
advisable to confine one's diet to the few foods which happen to fall in
that compartment, provided foods chosen from other compartments
_balance_ each other. Thus, fruit and nuts balance each other, the one
being at the left and the other at the right of the ideal compartment.
In the same way, potatoes and cream balance each other, as do bread and
butter. Instinctively these combinations have been chosen, especially
bread and butter. This combination is, however, slightly too low in
protein, and a better balance is obtained by adding a little from the
compartment vertically above the ideal. In this way we obtain the
familiar meat-, egg-, or cheese-sandwich, constituting of itself a
fairly well-balanced meal.
In short, in order to maintain a diet correct as to protein, it is only
necessary to make our main choices from the lowest row and, in case the
foods so chosen are near the bottom, to supplement these by a moderate
use from the row above and a still more sparing use of those in the top
compartment.
The following more detailed and specific table of food values will prove
helpful to those who desire intelligently to balance their diet or to
provide balanced menus for their families. A very little attention to
this subject will enable one to acquire sufficient knowledge of dietetic
needs to successfully govern the diet in a general way without weighing
or measuring the food. In the following table the number of calories
available in ordinary food portions is stated. Such a table should not,
of course, be memorized, but an occasional reference to it will enable
one soon to acquire a working knowledge of the food values of the main
articles in the dietary.
TABLE OF FOOD VALUES
THE WEIGHT (IN GRAMS, OUNCES AND ROUGH MEASURE) OF A PORTION CONTAINING
100 CALORIES OF EACH FOOD AND THE NUMBER OF CALORIES IN THE 100 IN THE
FORM OF PROTEIN, FAT AND CARBOHYDRATE.[A]
-----------------------------+----------------+-----+-----+------------------
| "Portion" |Wgt. of 100| Percent of
Name of Food | Containing | Calories |
| 100 Calories +-----+-----+-----+----+-------
| Roughly | | |Pro- |Fat |Carbo-
| Described |Gram |Ounce|tein | |hydrate
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
VEGETABLES
-----------------------------+----------------+-----+-----+-----+----+-------
*Artichokes, as purchased, | | | | | |
average, canned | |430 |15. | 14 | 0 | 86
*Asparagus, as purchased, | | | | | |
average, canned | |540 |19. | 33 | 5 | 62
*Asparagus, as purchased, | | | | | |
average, cooked | |206 | 7.19| 18 |63 | 19
*Beans, baked, canned |Small side dish | 75 | 2.66| 21 |18 | 61
*Beans, Lima, canned |Large side dish |126 | 4.44| 21 | 4 | 75
*Beans, string, cooked |Five servings |480 |16.66| 15 |48 | 37
*Beets, edible portion, | | | | | |
cooked |Three servings |245 | 8.7 | 2 |23 | 75
*Cabbage, edible portion | |310 |17. | 20 | 8 | 72
*Carrots, edible portion, | | | | | |
average, fresh | |215 | 7.6 | 10 | 8 | 82
Carrots, cooked |Two servings |164 | 5.81| 10 |34 | 56
*Cauliflower, as purchased, | | | | | |
average | |312 |11. | 23 |15 | 62
*Celery, edible portion, | | | | | |
average | |540 |19. | 24 | 5 | 71
Corn, sweet, cooked |One side dish | 99 | 3.5 | 13 |10 | 77
*Cucumbers, edible portion, | | | | | |
average | |565 |20. | 18 |10 | 72
*Egg plant, edible portion, | | | | | |
average | |350 |12. | 17 |10 | 73
Lentils, cooked | | 89 | 3.15| 27 | 1 | 72
*Lettuce, edible portion, | | | | | |
average | |505 |18. | 25 |14 | 61
*Mushrooms, as purchased, | | | | | |
average | |215 | 7.6 | 31 | 8 | 61
*Onions, fresh, edible | | | | | |
portion, average | |200 | 7.1 | 13 | 5 | 82
*Onions, cooked |Two large | | | | |
| servings | 240 | 8.4 | 12 |40 | 48
*Parsnips, edible portion, |One and a half | | | | |
average | servings | 152 | 5.3 | 10 | 7 | 83
Parsnips, cooked | | 163 | 5.74| 10 |34 | 56
*Peas, green, canned |Two servings | 178 | 6.3 | 25 | 3 | 72
*Peas, green, cooked |One serving | 85 | 3. | 23 |27 | 50
Potatoes, baked |One good sized | 86 | 3.05| 11 | 1 | 88
*Potatoes, boiled |One large sized | 102 | 3.62| 11 | 1 | 88
*Potatoes, mashed (creamed) |One serving | 89 | 3.14| 10 |25 | 65
*Potatoes, steamed |One serving | 101 | 3.57| 11 | 1 | 88
*Potatoes, chips |One-half serving| 17 | .6 | 4 |63 | 33
*Potatoes, sweet, cooked |Half of average | | | | |
| potato | 49 | 1.7 | 6 | 9 | 85
*Pumpkins, edible portion, | | | | | |
average | | 380 |13. | 15 | 4 | 81
Radishes, as purchased | | 480 |17. | 18 | 3 | 79
Rhubarb, edible portion, | | | | | |
average | | 430 |15. | 10 |27 | 63
*Spinach, cooked, as |Two ordinary | | | | |
purchased | servings | 174 | 6.1 | 15 |66 | 19
*Squash, edible portion, | | | | | |
average | | 210 | 7.4 | 12 |10 | 78
*Succotash, canned, as |Ordinary serving| | | | |
purchased, average | | 100 | 3.5 | 15 | 9 | 76
*Tomatoes, fresh, as |Four average | | | | |
purchased, average | tomatoes | 430 |15. | 15 |16 | 69
*Tomatoes, canned | | 431 |15.2 | 21 | 7 | 72
*Turnips, edible portion, |Two large | | | | |
average | servings | 246 | 8.7 | 13 | 4 | 83
Vegetable oysters | | 273 | 9.62| 10 |51 | 39
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
FRUITS (FRESH OR COOKED)
-----------------------------+----------------+-----+-----+-----+----+-------
*Apples, as purchased |Two apples |206 | 7.3 | 3 | 7 | 90
Apples, baked | | 94 | 3.3 | 2 | 5 | 93
Apples, sauce |Ordinary serving|111 | 3.9 | 2 | 5 | 93
*Apricots, edible portion, | | | | | |
average | |168 | 5.92| 8 | 0 | 92
Apricots, cooked |Large serving |131 | 4.61| 6 | 0 | 94
*Bananas, yellow, edible | | | | | |
portion, average |One large |100 | 3.5 | 5 | 5 | 90
*Blackberries, as purchased, | | | | | |
average | |170 | 5.9 | 9 |16 | 75
Blueberries | |128 | 4.6 | 3 | 8 | 89
*Blueberries, canned, as | | | | | |
purchased | |165 | 5.8 | 4 | 9 | 87
Cantaloupe |Half ordinary | | | | |
|serving |243 | 8.6 | 6 | 0 | 94
*Cherries, edible portion, | | | | | |
average | |124 | 4.4 | 5 |10 | 85
*Cranberries, as purchased, | | | | | |
average | |210 | 7.5 | 3 |12 | 85
*Grapes, as purchased, | | | | | |
average | |136 | 4.8 | 5 |15 | 80
Grape fruit | |215 | 7.57| 7 | 4 | 89
Grape juice |Small glass |120 | 4.2 | 0 | 0 | 100
Gooseberries | |261 | 9.2 | 5 | 0 | 95
*Lemons | |215 | 7.57| 9 |14 | 77
Lemon juice | |246 | 8.77| 0 | 0 | 100
Nectarines | |147 | 5.18| 4 | 0 | 96
Olives, ripe |About seven | | | | |
| olives |37 | 1.31| 2 |91 | 7
*Oranges, as purchased, | | | | | |
average |One very large |270 | 9.4 | 6 | 3 | 91
Oranges, juice |Large glass |188 | 6.62| 0 | 0 | 100
*Peaches, as purchased, | | | | | |
average |Three ordinary |290 |10. | 7 | 2 | 91
Peaches, sauce |Ordinary serving|136 | 4.78| 4 | 2 | 94
Peaches, juice |Ordinary glass |136 | 4.80| 0 | 0 | 100
*Pears |One large pear |173 | 5.40| 4 | 7 | 89
Pears, sauce | |113 | 3.98| 3 | 4 | 93
*Pineapples, edible portion, | | | | | |
average | |226 | 8. | 4 | 6 | 90
Raspberries, black | |146 | 5.18| 10 |14 | 76
Raspberries, red | |178 | 6.29| 8 | 0 | 92
*Strawberries, as purchased, | | | | | |
average |Two servings |260 | 9.1 | 10 |15 | 75
*Watermelon, as purchased, | | | | | |
average | |760 |27. | 6 | 6 | 88
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
COOKED MEATS
-----------------------------+----------------+-----+-----+-----+----+-------
+Beef, round, boiled (fat), | | | | | |
1099++ |Small serving | 36 | 1.3 | 40 |60 | 00
+Beef, round, boiled (lean), | | | | | |
1206++ |Large serving | 62 | 2.2 | 90 |10 | 00
+Beef, round, boiled (med.), | | | | | |
1188++ |Small serving | 44 | 1.6 | 60 |40 | 00
+Beef, 5th right rib, | | | | | |
roasted, 1538++ |Half serving | 18.5| .65| 12 |88 | 00
+Beef, 5th right rib, | | | | | |
roasted, 1616++ |Small serving | 32 | 1.2 | 25 |75 | 00
+Beef, 5th right rib, |Very small | | | | |
roasted, 1615++ | serving | 25 | .88| 18 |82 | 00
+Beef, ribs, boiled, 1169++ |Small serving | 30 | 1.1 | 27 |73 | 00
+Beef, ribs, boiled, 1170++ |Very small | | | | |
| serving | 25 | .87| 21 |79 | 00
*Calves foot jelly, as | | | | | |
purchased | |112 | 4. | 19 |00 | 81
*Chicken, as purchased, | | | | | |
canned |One thin slice | 27 | .96| 23 |77 | 00
*Lamb chops, boiled, edible | | | | | |
portion, average |One small chop | 27 | .96| 24 |76 | 00
*Lamb, leg, roast |Ordinary serving| 50 | 1.8 | 40 |60 | 00
+Mutton, leg, boiled, 1184++ |Large serving | 34 | 1.2 | 35 |65 | 00
+Pork, ham, boiled (fat), | | | | | |
1174++ |Small serving | 20.5| .73| 14 |86 | 00
+Pork, ham, boiled, 1192++ |Ordinary serving| 32.5| 1.1 | 28 |72 | 00
+Pork, ham, roasted (fat), | | | | | |
1484++ |Small serving | 27 | .96| 19 |81 | 00
+Pork, ham, roasted (lean), | | | | | |
1511++ |Small serving | 34 | 1.2 | 33 |67 | 00
*Turkey, as purchased, | | | | | |
canned |Small serving | 28 | .99| 23 |77 | 00
+Veal, leg, boiled, 1182++ |Large serving | 67.5| 2.4 | 73 |27 | 00
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
CAKES, PASTRY, PUDDING AND DESSERTS
-----------------------------+----------------+-----+-----+-----+----+-------
*Cake, chocolate layer, as |Half ordinary | | | | |
purchased | square piece | 28 | .98| 7 |22 | 71
*Cake, gingerbread, as |Half ordinary | | | | |
purchased | square piece | 27 | .96| 6 |23 | 71
*Cake, sponge, as purchased |Small piece | 25 | .89| 7 |25 | 68
Custard, caramel | | 71 | 2.51| 19 |10 | 71
Custard, milk |Ordinary cup |122 | 4.29| 26 |56 | 18
Custard, tapioca |Two-thirds | | | | |
| ordinary | 69.5| 2.45| 9 |12 | 79
*Doughnuts, as purchased |Half a doughnut | 23 | .8 | 6 |45 | 49
*Lady fingers, as purchased | | 27 | .95| 10 |12 | 78
*Macaroons, as purchased | | 23 | .82| 6 |33 | 61
Pie, apple, as purchased |One-third | | | | |
| ordinary piece | 38 | 1.3 | 5 |32 | 63
*Pie, cream, as purchased |One-fourth | | | | |
| ordinary piece | 30 | 1.1 | 5 |32 | 63
*Pie, custard, as purchased |One-third | | | | |
| ordinary piece | 55 | 1.9 | 9 |32 | 59
*Pie, lemon, as purchased |One-third | | | | |
| ordinary piece | 38 | 1.35| 6 |36 | 58
*Pie, mince, as purchased |One-fourth | | | | |
| ordinary piece | 35 | 1.2 | 8 |38 | 54
*Pie, squash, as purchased |One-third | | | | |
| ordinary piece | 55 | 1.9 | 10 |42 | 48
Pudding, apple sago | | 81 | 3.02| 6 | 3 | 91
Pudding, brown betty |Half ordinary | | | | |
| serving | 56.6| 2. | 7 |12 | 81
Pudding, cream rice |Very small | | | | |
| serving | 75 | 2.65| 8 |13 | 79
Pudding, Indian meal |Half ordinary | | | | |
| serving | 56.6| 2. | 12 |25 | 63
Pudding, apple tapioca |Small serving | 79 | 2.8 | 1 | 1 | 98
Tapioca, cooked |Ordinary serving|108 | 3.85| 1 | 1 | 98
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
FRUITS (DRIED)
-----------------------------+----------------+-----+-----+-----+----+-------
*Apples, as purchased, | | | | | |
average | | 34 | 1.2 | 3 | 7 | 90
Apricots, as purchased, | | | | | |
average | | 35 | 1.24| 7 | 3 | 90
*Dates, edible portion, | | | | | |
average |Three large | 28 | .99| 2 | 7 | 91
*Dates, as purchased | | 31 | 1.1 | 2 | 7 | 91
*Figs, edible portion, | | | | | |
average |One large | 31 | 1.1 | 5 | 0 | 95
*Prunes, edible portion, | | | | | |
average |Three large | 32 | 1.14| 3 | 0 | 97
*Prunes, as purchased | | 38 | 1.35| 3 | 0 | 97
*Raisins, edible portion, | | | | | |
average | | 28 | 1. | 3 | 9 | 88
*Raisins, as purchased | | 31 | 1.1 | 3 | 9 | 88
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
CEREALS
-----------------------------+----------------+-----+-----+-----+----+-------
*Bread, brown, as purchased, |Ordinary thick | | | | |
average | slice | 43 | 1.5 | 9 | 7 | 84
*Bread, corn (johnnycake) | | | | | |
as purchased, average |Small square | 38 | 1.3 | 12 |10 | 72
*Bread, white, home made, as |Ordinary thick | | | | |
purchased | slice | 38 | 1.3 | 13 | 6 | 81
Corn flakes, toasted |Ordinary cereal | | | | |
| dishful | 27 | .97| 11 | 1 | 88
*Corn meal, granular, | | | | | |
average | | 27 | .96| 10 | 5 | 85
*Corn meal, unbolted, | | | | | |
edible portion, average | | 26 | .92| 9 |11 | 80
*Crackers, graham, as | | | | | |
purchased |Two crackers | 23 | .82| 9 |20 | 71
*Crackers, oatmeal, as | | | | | |
purchased |Two crackers | 23 | .81| 11 |24 | 65
*Hominy, cooked |Large serving |120 | 4.2 | 11 | 2 | 87
*Macaroni, average | | 27 | .96| 16 | 2 | 83
*Macaroni, average, cooked |Ordinary | | | | |
| serving |110 | 3.85| 14 |15 | 71
*Oatmeal, average, boiled |One and a half | | | | |
| serving |159 | 5.6 | 18 | 7 | 75
*Popcorn, average | | 24 | .86| 11 |11 | 78
*Rice, uncooked | | 28 | .98| 9 | 1 | 90
*Rice, boiled, average |Ordinary cereal | | | | |
| dish | 87 | 3.1 | 10 | 1 | 89
*Rice, flakes |Ordinary cereal | | | | |
| dish | 27 | .94| 8 | 1 | 91
*Rolls, Vienna, as | | | | | |
purchased, average |One large roll | 35 | 1.2 | 12 | 7 | 81
*Shredded wheat |One biscuit | 27 | .94| 13 | 4.5| 82.5
*Spaghetti, average | | 28 | .97| 12 | 1 | 87
*Wheat flour, entire wheat | | | | | |
average | | 27 | .96| 15 | 5 | 80
*Wheat flour, graham, | | | | | |
average | | 27 | .96| 15 | 5 | 80
*Wheat flour, patent roller | | | | | |
process, family and | | | | | |
straight grade spring | | | | | |
wheat, average | | 27 | .97| 12 | 3 | 85
*Zwieback |Size of thick | | | | |
| slice bread | 23 | .81| 9 |21 | 70
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
DAIRY PRODUCTS
-----------------------------+----------------+-----+-----+-----+----+-------
*Butter, as purchased |Ordinary pat or | | | | |
| ball | 12.5| .44| .5|99.5| 00
*Buttermilk, as purchased |One and a half | | | | |
| glass |275 | 9.7 | 34 |12 | 54
*Cheese, American, pale, as |One and a half | | | | |
purchased | cubic in | 22 | .77| 25 |73 | 2
*Cheese, cottage, as | | | | | |
purchased |Four cubic in | 89 | 3.12| 76 | 8 | 16
*Cheese, full cream, as |One and a half | | | | |
purchased | cubic in. | 23 | .82| 25 |73 | 2
*Cheese, Neufchatel, as |One and a half | | | | |
purchased | cubic in. | 29.5| 1.05| 22 |76 | 2
*Cheese, Swiss, as |One and a half | | | | |
purchased | cubic in. | 23 | .8 | 25 |74 | 1
*Cheese, pineapple, as |One and a half | | | | |
purchased | cubic in. | 20 | .72| 25 |73 | 2
*Cream |One quarter | | | | |
| ordinary glass | 49 | 1.7 | 5 |86 | 9
Kumyss | |188 | 6.7 | 21 |37 | 42
*Milk, condensed, sweetened, | | | | | |
as purch. | | 30 | 1.06| 10 |23 | 67
*Milk, condensed, | | | | | |
unsweetened (evap. cream) | | | | | |
as purchased | | 59 | 2.05| 24 |50 | 26
*Milk, skimmed, as |One and a half | | | | |
purchased | glasses |255 | 9.4 | 37 | 7 | 56
*Milk, whole, as purchased |Small glass |140 | 4.9 | 19 |52 | 29
Whey, as purchased |Two glasses |360 |13 | 15 |10 | 75
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
SWEETS AND PICKLES
-----------------------------+----------------+-----+-----+-----+----+-------
*Catsup, tomato, as | | | | | |
purchased, average | |170 | 6. | 10 | 3 | 87
*Honey, as purchased |4 teaspoonfuls | 30 | 1.05| 1 | 0 | 99
*Marmalade (orange peel) | | 28.3| 1. | .5| 2.5| 97
*Molasses, cane | | 35 | 1.2 | .5| 0 | 99.5
*Olives, green, edible | | | | | |
portion |Seven olives | 32 | 1.1 | 1 |84 | 15
*Olives, ripe, edible | | | | | |
portion |Seven olives | 38 | 1.3 | 2 |91 | 7
*Pickles, mixed, as | | | | | |
purchased | |415 |14.6 | 18 |15 | 67
*Sugar, granulated |3 teaspoonfuls | | | | |
|or one and a | | | | |
|half lumps | 24 | .86| 0 | 0 | 100
*Sugar, maple |4 teaspoonfuls | 29 | 1.03| 0 | 0 | 100
*Sirup, maple |4 teaspoonfuls | 35 | 1.2 | 0 | 0 | 100
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
NUTS
-----------------------------+----------------+-----+-----+-----+----+-------
*Almonds, edible portion, | | | | | |
average |About eight | 15 | .53| 13 |77 | 10
*Beechnuts | | 14.8| .52| 13 |79 | 8
*Brazil nuts, edible |Three ordinary | | | | |
portion | size | 14 | .49| 10 |86 | 4
*Butternuts | | 14 | .50| 16 |82 | 2
*Cocoanuts | | 16 | .57| 4 |77 | 19
*Chestnuts, fresh, edible | | | | | |
portion, average | | 40 | 1.4 | 10 |20 | 70
*Filberts, edible portion, | | | | | |
average |Ten nuts | 14 | .48| 9 |84 | 7
*Hickory nuts | | 13 | .47| 9 |85 | 6
*Peanuts, edible portion, | | | | | |
average |Thirteen double | 18 | .62| 20 |63 | 17
*Pecans, polished, edible | | | | | |
portion |About eight | 13 | .46| 6 |87 | 7
*Pine nuts (pignolias), | | | | | |
edible portion |About eighty | 16 | .56| 22 |74 | 4
*Walnuts, California, | | | | | |
edible portion |About six | 14 | .48 | 10 |83 | 7
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
MISCELLANEOUS
-----------------------------+----------------+-----+-----+-----+----+-------
*Eggs, hen's, boiled |One large egg | 59 | 2.1 | 32 |68 | 00
*Eggs, hen's whites | |181 | 6.4 |100 | 0 | 00
*Eggs, hen's, yolks |Two yolks | 27 | .94| 17 |83 | 00
*Omelet | | 94 | 3.3 | 34 |60 | 6
*Soup, beef, as purchased, | | | | | |
average | |380 |13. | 69 |14 | 17
*Soup, bean, as purchased, | | | | | |
average |Very large plate|150 | 5.4 | 20 |20 | 60
*Soup, cream of celery, as | | | | | |
purch., average |Two plates |180 | 6.3 | 16 |47 | 37
*Consomme, as purchased | |830 |29. | 85 |00 | 15
*Clam chowder, as purchased |Two plates |230 | 8.25| 17 |18 | 65
-----------------------------+----------------+-----+-----+-----+----+-------
[A] Abstracted from A Graphic Method of Practical Dietetics, Irving
Fisher, Journal of A. M. A., Vol. xlviii, pp. 1316-1324.
[*] Chemical Composition of American Food Materials. Atwater and Bryant.
U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin, No. 28.
[+] Experiments on Losses in Cooking Meats. (1900103, Grindley, U. S.
Department of Agriculture Bulletin, No. 141.)
[++] Laboratory number of specimen, as per Experiments on Losses in
Cooking Meat.
[Sidenote: Cost of Ready to Serve Foods]
The following table, adapted from one compiled by Gephart and Lusk
("Analysis and Cost of Ready to Serve Foods"), shows in convenient form
the relative energy values and cost of the more commonly used articles
of food.
A brief glance at this table will show how easily one might slowly
starve on very expensive food, and yet how easily the energy food needed
can be secured at a very low cost.
It would, of course, be a great mistake to regulate the diet solely with
regard to fuel value. Digestibility, as well as protein, mineral and
vitamin requirements, must also be considered. Nevertheless, the main
requirement is for fuel, and this, as the table shows, can be secured at
a surprizingly low cost.
===========================================================================
| No. of | Cost of One
Name of Food. | Calories in | Order "Quick
| One Order.[B]| Lunch"
| | Restaurant.
-------------------------------------------+---------------+---------------
Napoleon | 418.6 | $0.05
Crullers | 416.6 | .05
Cabinet pudding and vanilla sauce | 416.6 | .05
Cocoanut pie | 357 | .05
CD--Roast beef sandwich with roll | 357 | .05
Bath buns | 357 | .05
Bread custard pudding | 357 | .05
Pineapple pie | 357 | .05
Corn muffins | 357 | .05
Apple pie | 357 | .05
New England pudding with vanilla sauce | 312.5 | .05
Chocolate spiced cakes. | 312.5 | .05
Walnut layer cake with marshmallow | |
icing | 312.5 | .05
Milk crackers | 312.5 | .05
Bread pudding with vanilla sauce | 312.5 | .05
Pumpkin pie | 312.5 | .05
D--Lamb croquettes and mashed potatoes | 833.3 | .15
Coffee cake | 277.7 | .05
Rhubarb pie | 277.7 | .05
D--German meat cakes and French fried | |
potatoes | 833.3 | .15
Old-fashioned molasses cake | 277.7 | .05
Lemon pie | 277.7 | .05
CD--Vienna roast with French fried potatoes| 833.3 | .15
Butter cakes | 277.7 | .05
Minced ham sandwich | 277.7 | .05
Pork and Boston beans | 833.3 | .15
Cornmeal cakes with maple cane sirup | 500 | .10
D--Ham croquettes | 500 | .10
Cold rice pudding | 277.7 | .05
Ham sandwich with roll | 250 | .05
Banana layer cake | 250 | .05
CD--Creamed chipped beef on toast | 833.3 | .15
Cocoa | 250 | .05
CD--Roast beef cutlet with tomato sauce | 833.3 | .15
CD--German meat cakes with lyonnaise | |
potatoes | 833.3 | .15
CD--Swiss cheese sandwich | 250 | .05
C --Boston baked beans | 500 | .10
D--Vienna roast, spaghetti and potatoes | 625 | .15
Chocolate cornstarch with cream | 227.2 | .05
Wheat cakes with maple cane sirup | 500 | .10
Milk crackers and milk | 500 | .10
CD--American cheese sandwich | 227.2 | .05
C --New York baked beans | 500 | .10
Hot corn bread | 416.6 | .10
CD--Country sausage | 227.2 | .05
Indian pudding with maple sauce | 227.2 | .05
CD--Minced tongue sandwich with tea | |
biscuits | 227.2 | .05
Cream roll | 227.2 | .05
D--Beef cakes with brown gravy and | |
macaroni | 625 | .15
C --New York beans, on the side | 227.2 | .05
Graham crackers | 227.2 | .05
D--Broiled ham | 833.3 | .20
D--Roast beef hash, browned | 625 | .15
Oyster pie | 625 | .15
CD--Minced chicken sandwich | 227.2 | .05
Apple tapioca pudding | 227.2 | .05
Potato salad | 416.6 | .10
Chocolate layer cake | 208.3 | .05
CD--Breaded veal cutlet and tomato sauce | 833.3 | .20
Egg plant fried in butter | 625 | .15
Buckwheat cakes with maple cane sirup | 417.6 | .10
D--Roast beef croquettes with macaroni | 625 | .15
D--Fried bacon with French fried potatoes | 833.3 | .20
D--Sardine sandwich | 208.3 | .05
CD--Minced ham sandwich with olives | 208.3 | .05
CD--Ham and New York Beans | 625 | .15
Vanilla cornstarch with cream | 208.3 | .05
CD--Roast beef cutlet and mashed potatoes | 625 | .15
D--Lamb cutlet and mashed potatoes | 625 | .15
Cocoanut cake | 208.3 | .05
Cream cheese walnut sandwich | 208.3 | .05
C --New York baked beans with tomato sauce | 416.6 | .10
D--Ham and Boston beans | 625 | .15
D--Liver and onions with French fried | |
potatoes | 833.3 | .20
CD--Beef stew | 625 | .15
CD--Pork and New York beans | 625 | .15
CD--Ham sandwich | 192.3 | .05
Rice croquette with bacon | 625 | .15
Baked apple with cream | 416.6 | .10
D--Frankfurters and potato salad | 625 | .15
Baked beans with macaroni | 625 | .15
Cup of coffee (containing cream and | |
sugar) | 192.3 | .05
D--Mince pie | 417.6 | .10
CD--Lamb stew | 625 | .15
CD--Broiled salt mackerel with mashed | |
potatoes | 833.3 | .20
Cherry pie | 357 | .10
Pound cake | 357 | .10
D--Chicken cutlet and mashed potatoes | 625 | .20
CD--Shredded wheat and milk | 357 | .10
Cream tapioca pudding | 192.3 | .05
Soda crackers and milk | 357 | .10
Strawberry pie | 357 | .10
Chocolate eclair | 192.3 | .05
CD--Baked lamb pie (individual) | 625 | .15
CD--Corned beef sandwich | 192.3 | .05
D--Broiled bacon | 833.3 | .20
Rice cakes with maple cane sirup | 625 | .15
D--Cold ham | 500 | .15
D--Roast beef croquettes and spaghetti | 500 | .15
CD--Chipped beef and scrambled egg | 833.3 | .20
D--Minced ham with scrambled eggs | 833.3 | .20
Peach pie | 357 | .10
D--Baked macaroni and cheese | 357 | .10
Huckleberry pie | 357 | .10
French toast with maple cane sirup. | 625 | .15
CD--Corned beef and New York beans | 500 | .15
Blackberry pie | 357 | .10
CD--Veal pot pie with dumplings | 500 | .15
CD--Creamed codfish on toast | 500 | .15
D--Vienna roast with stewed tomatoes | 500 | .15
CD--Tomato omelet | 625 | .20
D--Small oyster fry | 625 | .20
Hot rice with cream | 500 | .15
D--Plain oyster fry with bacon | 625 | .20
CD--Hamburger steak | 625 | .20
D--Corned beef hash, browned in pan | 500 | .15
D--Corned beef hash, steamed | 500 | .15
Cream | 500 | .15
CD--Chicken wings on toast | 625 | .20
D--Country sausage and French fried | |
potatoes | 500 | .15
CD--Corned beef and Boston beans | 500 | .15
CD--Two fried eggs | 500 | .15
CA--Ham omelet | 625 | .20
CD--Plain omelet | 500 | .15
CA--Fried liver and mashed potatoes | 500 | .15
CD--Creamed chipped beef | 500 | .15
D--Large oyster fry | 833.3 | .25
Apple fritters with fruit sauce | 312.5 | .10
D--Fish cakes with tomato sauce | 500 | .15
French fried potatoes, extra order | 312.5 | .10
Chocolate cornstarch with whipped cream| 156.25 | .05
Shredded wheat and cream | 416.6 | .15
D--Chicken croquette and French fried | |
potatoes | 500 | .15
CD--Corned beef hash with poached egg | 625 | .20
CD--Ham and eggs | 833.3 | .25
D--Ham and potato salad | 625 | .20
CD--Baked shad and dressing | 625 | .20
CD--Hamburger steak with Spanish sauce | 625 | .20
Charlotte russe | 156.25 | .05
CD--Creamed eggs on toast | 625 | .20
D--Bacon and eggs | 833.3 | .25
Strawberry fruit jelly with whipped | |
cream | 156.25 | .05
CD--Buckwheat cakes with country sausage | 625 | .20
D--Oyster sandwich | 312.5 | .10
C --Chicken giblets on toast | 625 | .20
Hot rice with butter | 312.5 | .10
Pimento olive cheese sandwich | 156.25 | .05
CD--Liver and bacon with lyonnaise potatoes| 833.3 | .25
CD--Corned beef hash, browned, with two | |
poached eggs | 833.3 | .25
Buttered toast | 312.5 | .10
CD--Liver and bacon | 833.3 | .25
CD--Chicken hash | 416.6 | .15
D--Two scrambled eggs | 416.6 | .15
CD--Milk | 277.7 | .10
Apple sauce with whipped cream | 147.05 | .05
Hot rice with poached egg | 416.6 | .15
CD--Corned beef with potato salad | 416.6 | .15
Fish cakes with poached egg | 625 | .20
CD--Cold roast beef | 416.6 | .15
D--Hot rice with milk | 277.7 | .10
CD--Small steak | 833.3 | .30
Baked apple | 138.8 | .05
Baked apple with ice cream | 277.7 | .10
D--Two lamb chops | 833.3 | .30
D--Chicken salad sandwich | 277.7 | .10
CD--Corned beef hash, steamed, with | |
poached egg | 500 | .20
C --Boston beans on side | 131.57 | .05
Tomato sandwich | 131.57 | .05
D--Lamb chops, breaded, with mashed | |
potatoes | 500 | .20
CD--Maple flakes with milk | 277.7 | .10
CD--Corned beef | 416.6 | .15
CD--Bulgarzoon | 131.57 | .05
D--Spanish omelet with French fried | |
potatoes | 625 | .25
Baked apple custard with whipped cream | 250 | .10
Boiled rice, side order | 131.57 | .05
CD--Fried egg sandwich | 250 | .10
CD--Onion omelet | 500 | .20
CD--Baked weak fish with dressing | 500 | .20
CD--Sirloin steak | 1250 | .50
Fresh cooked oatmeal with cream | 416.6 | .15
CD--Fish cakes with macaroni | 500 | .20
Sliced bananas with cream | 250 | .10
C --Macaroni, side order | 125 | .05
CD--Roast sirloin of beef and mashed | |
potatoes | 500 | .20
D--Tomato omelet with potatoes | 625 | .25
CD--Two boiled eggs | 357 | .15
CD--Fish cakes with spaghetti | 500 | .20
CD--Macaroni omelet and tomato sauce | 625 | .25
CD--Small steak with onions | 833.3 | .35
CD--Fish cake sandwich | 227.2 | .10
CD--Egg salad | 500 | .20
CD--Parsley omelet | 500 | .20
Green split pea soup | 227.2 | .10
Vanilla ice cream | 227.2 | .10
CD--Tenderloin steak with onions | 1250 | .55
CD--Cornflakes and milk | 227.2 | .10
Strawberry tart | 227.2 | .10
CD--Tuna fish salad | 500 | .25
CD--Sirloin steak with onions | 1250 | .55
Pineapple fruit jelly with whipped | |
cream | 108.69 | .05
CD--Cup custard | 227.2 | .10
CD--Roast beef with potato salad | 500 | .25
CD--Tenderloin steak | 1250 | .60
D--Milk toast | 312.5 | .15
Strawberry cornstarch with whipped | |
cream | 104.16 | .05
Strawberry ice cream | 208.3 | .10
CD--Clam chowder | 416.6 | .20
C --Chicken soup | 312.5 | .15
CD--Crab meat salad | 416.6 | .20
Vegetable soup | 192.3 | .10
Stewed rhubarb | 92.59 | .05
CD--Creamed chicken on toast | 357 | .20
Strawberries with cream | 277.7 | .15
Strawberry short cake | 277.7 | .15
CD--Chicken omelet | 416.6 | .20
CD--Deviled crab | 277.7 | .20
Sliced bananas | 89.28 | .05
CD--Spaghetti and cheese | 178.57 | .10
CD--Fried ham | 416.6 | .25
D--Minced chicken sandwich with lettuce | 166.66 | .10
C --Bean soup with croutons | 166.66 | .10
CD--Hot roast beef sandwich | 250 | .15
CD--Club sandwich | 416.6 | .25
CD--Sliced chicken sandwich | 156.25 | .10
CD--Poached eggs on toast | 500 | .20
Strawberries with ice cream | 192.3 | .15
C --Cream of wheat | 125 | .10
Blackberries and cream | 113.63 | .10
Stewed corn | 52.08 | .05
C --Creamed asparagus on toast | 192.3 | .20
Watermelon | 125 | .15
C --Tomato soup with rice | 73.52 | .10
Sliced pineapple | 35.21 | .05
Grape Fruit | 78.12 | .15
CD--Raw oysters | 55.55 | .15
Sliced tomatoes with lettuce | 50 | .15
C --Sliced tomatoes | 30.48 | .10
Tomatoes and lettuce with dressing | 53.19 | .20
Cantaloupe | 36.23 | .15
Champagne[E] | 357 | 1.00
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
[B] These values cover the whole portion as served, including bread and
butter.
[C] Contains 15 per cent. or over of heat in protein.
[D] Contains the protein of meat, milk, eggs or cheese.
[E] Not purchased in the restaurant.
[Sidenote: The Minimal Cost of Food]
Professor Graham Lusk has very kindly contributed the following comments
and additional table, derived from this material:
"The above are analyses of 350 different samples of foods purchased over
the counters of a company which maintains a chain of restaurants in New
York City, and obtained without knowledge on the part of these
restaurants that the analyses were contemplated.
"One may reliably assume that for the man of ordinary size, who lives
without doing any special muscular exercise, the fuel requirement of the
body each day amounts to 2,500 calories of heat. Translated into common
terms, this is the quantity of heat which would be required to raise
about 25 quarts of water from the freezing to the boiling point. Miss
Cauble, a special investigator of the Association for the Improvement of
the Condition of the Poor, kindly estimated the cost at wholesale prices
of the ingredients of different portions sold in the restaurants. These
are given in Table 9 beginning on page 64 of the pamphlet from which the
above table was derived. The data enable one to construct a new table
which gives the estimated wholesale cost of 2,500 calories in the
various familiar forms of food sold in the restaurant. This represents
the minimum cost of fuel for the support of an adult during twenty-four
hours without taking into consideration labor, fuel or rent which, in
the case of the restaurant, must be included in the cost of the foods
when they are eaten. It represents the minimal cost of food in the home.
"It appears from the table given below that the cost of 2,500 calories
in the wholesale market varies from $.04 in the case of boiled rice to
$.61 for shad. About half of the dishes can be obtained at wholesale at
a price less than $.25 for 2,500 calories, or less than a cent per
hundred calories, a cost which is the standard striven for in school
lunches. The table is given on the next page.
ESTIMATED WHOLESALE COST OF THE UNCOOKED INGREDIENTS OF 2500 CALORIES
CONTAINED IN STANDARD FOODS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THEIR INCREASING COST.
Apple tapioca pudding $.04
Rice, boiled (side order) .04
Bath buns .06
Pie, apple .07
Pie, rhubarb .08
Apple, baked .09
Pie, strawberry .09
Cocoa .09
Crullers .10
*Fish cakes with tomato sauce .13
Muffins, corn .13
*Lamb croquette and mashed potatoes .14
*Beans, Boston baked .15
*Beef, corned .15
Pie, lemon .15
Chicken wings on toast .16
Napoleon .16
*Salad, potato .16
Toast, buttered .16
Cream roll .17
*Beef, creamed, chipped, on toast .18
Cakes, butter .19
*Roast, Vienna, and spaghetti and potatoes .19
Pudding, tapioca, creamed .20
Sandwich, oyster .20
*Veal cutlet, breaded and tomato sauce .20
*Beef, corned, hash browned in pan .21
*Liver and bacon .21
*Roast, Vienna, with French fried potatoes .21
*Stew, lamb .21
*Beans, New York, baked .22
Cakes, buckwheat, with maple cane sirup .22
Coffee, cup of (contained cream and sugar) .22
Pudding, bread, with vanilla sauce .24
*Beef, corned, hashed, steamed .25
Oatmeal, fresh cooked, with cream .25
*Stew, beef .25
Pie, oyster .26
Potatoes, French fried, extra order .26
*Sandwich, ham .26
*Beef, creamed, chipped .27
*Sandwich, corned beef .27
*Beef, corned, hashed, steamed, with poached egg .28
*Mackerel, broiled salt, with mashed potatoes .28
Milk .29
Pudding, rice, cold .29
*Rice, hot, with poached egg .29
Soup, bean, with croutons .29
*Sandwich, minced chicken .30
Cornstarch, chocolate, with cream .31
Ice cream, strawberry .31
*Omelet, ham .32
Sandwich, cream cheese walnut .32
*Omelet, plain .33
Cornstarch, vanilla, with cream .34
*Omelet, onion .34
*Oyster fry, small .34
*Eggs, fried (2) .35
*Sandwich, fried egg .35
Sausage, country .35
*Chicken croquette and French fried potatoes .36
*Eggs, creamed, on toast .36
*Omelet, parsley .37
*Omelet, Spanish, with French fried potatoes .37
*Sandwich, tomato .39
*Eggs, scrambled (2) .40
*Lamb chops (2) .40
Sandwich, club .40
*Salad, tuna fish .41
Custard .43
*Sandwich, chicken, sliced .43
*Steak, tenderloin .43
*Ham, fried .44
*Sandwich, roast beef, hot .44
Strawberries with cream .44
Toast, milk .45
*Eggs, boiled (2) .47
*Omelet, chicken .47
*Sandwich, minced chicken with lettuce .49
*Eggs, poached on toast (2) .59
*Shad, baked, and dressing .61
[*] These orders contained bread and butter, which are figured in the
food values. Of the orders containing bread the fractional part of the
nutritional energy of the order from this source averaged 43.7 per cent.
of the total.
"Contemplation of these results may be made after the housekeeper has
carefully gone through the monthly hills for food, divided the cost of
the total food by the number of days in the month and then divided this
figure by the number of people in the family, counting children between
five and fifteen years of age at two-thirds of an adult.
"It would be interesting to know whether the cost of food for the adult
as determined in this fashion was $.25, $.50 or $1.00 per day. Wherever
the higher values are reached it is certain that extravagant profits are
paid to middlemen or great waste exists in the kitchen.
"The theme might still further be elaborated, but the essential data for
those interested in food economics can be obtained from the table
itself. Wholesale prices are used for the reason that retail prices are
subject to great variation. The fluctuation of retail prices does not
make it feasible to give their equivalents for the wholesale list, but
the relationship can be judged by noting the equivalents for the
extremes. In this table, for example, the retail price of 2500 calories
of rice would be about 13 cents as against 4 cents wholesale, and for
shad about $1.50, retail as against 61 cents wholesale."
CALORIES OF FOOD CONSUMED DAILY[F]
[F] _Skandinavisches Archiv fuer Physiologie_ XXXI. Band. 1., 2 u. 3.
Heft, Leipzig, Verlag Von Veit & Comp., 1914.
The following table is derived from data produced by Becker and
Hamalainen of the University of Helsingfors, Finland, from actual
experiment with individuals alternately resting and working at their
respective trades while in the "respiration calorimeter."
--------------+----+---------+-----+-----------------+--------+---------
| | | | During | During | Total
| | | | Rest | Work | Calories
| | | +-----------------+--------+ per Day
Occupation | Age| Height | Wgt.|Calories|Calories|Calories| (8 Hrs.
| | Ft.-Ins.| Lbs.|per Hour|per Hour|per Hour| Work.
| | | | |per Lb. | | 16 Hrs.
| | | | |of Body | | Rest)
| | | | |Weight | |
--------------+----+---------+-----+--------+--------+--------+---------
MEN
--------------+----+---------+-----+--------+--------+--------+---------
Shoemaker | 56 | 5-0 | 145 | 73 | .50 | 172 | 2544
Shoemaker | 30 | 5-8 | 143 | 87 | .60 | 171 | 2760
Tailor | 39 | 5-5 | 141 | 72 | .50 | 124 | 2144
Tailor | 46 | 5-101/2 | 161 | 102 | .63 | 135 | 2712
Bookbinder | 19 | 6-0 | 150 | 87 | .58 | 164 | 2704
Bookbinder | 23 | 5-41/2 | 143 | 85 | .59 | 163 | 2664
Metalworker | 34 | 5-4 | 139 | 81 | .58 | 216 | 3024
Metalworker | 27 | 5-5 | 130 | 99 | .76 | 219 | 3336
Painter | 25 | 5-11 | 154 | 104 | .67 | 231 | 3512
Painter | 27 | 5-8 | 147 | 111 | .79 | 230 | 3616
Joiner | 42 | 5-7 | 154 | 81 | .50 | 204 | 2928
Joiner | 24 | 5-51/2 | 141 | 85 | .60 | 244 | 3312
Stone-worker | 27 | 5-11 | 156 | 90 | .57 | 408 | 4704
Stone-worker | 22 | 5-8 | 141 | 85 | .60 | 366 | 4288
Sawyer | 42 | 5-5 | 167 | 86 | .50 | 501 | 5384
Sawyer | 43 | 5-5 | 143 | 84 | .59 | 451 | 4952
--------------+----+---------+-----+--------+--------+--------+---------
WOMEN
--------------+----+---------+-----+--------+--------+--------+---------
Hand-sewer | 53 | 5-3 | 139 | 75 | .54 | 83 | 1864
Hand-sewer | 35 | 5-6 | 143 | 64 | .45 | 88 | 1728
Machine-sewer | 53 | 5-3 | 139 | 75 | .54 | 103 | 2024
Machine-sewer | 19 | 5-3 | 110 | 64 | .58 | 119 | 1976
Wash-woman | 43 | 5-3 | 125 | 75 | .60 | 285 | 3480
Wash-woman | 19 | 5-3 | 110 | 64 | .58 | 186 | 2512
Waitress | 43 | 5-3 | 125 | 75 | .60 | 228 | 3024
Waitress | 19 | 5-3 | 110 | 64 | .58 | 143 | 2168
Bookbinder | 22 | 5-4 | 105 | 70 | .65 | 98 | 1904
Bookbinder | 22 | 5-3 | 112 | 61 | .54 | 127 | 1992
--------------+----+---------+-----+--------+--------+--------+---------
For example, for sawyers (an active occupation), the heat production and
consequent requirement in calories worked out as follows:
During rest 84 calories x 16 h. 1344
During work 451 calories x 8 h. 3608
----
Total calories 4952
The tailor (sedentary occupation) showed the following heat production
and calorific requirement:
72 calories x 16 h. 1152
124 calories x 8 h. 992
----
Total calories 2144
These figures show the wide variation in food requirements according to
age, weight and occupation.
[Sidenote: Basal Metabolism]
Francis G. Benedict and his co-workers at the Nutrition Laboratory of
the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and Prof. Graham Lusk of Cornell
University, have also made a large number of experiments to ascertain
what is termed the basal metabolism or heat production of the body at
perfect rest, and also that under varying degrees of activity. The
results are closely in agreement with the above.
Benedict has lately produced evidence to show that the basal metabolism,
or heat production, at rest is not governed entirely by such factors as
body weight and body surface, but by the amount and activity of the
active protoplasmic cells of the body--the cells that compose the organs
and muscles and blood. The condition of these cells when the
measurements are taken (which may be influenced by age, sleep, previous
muscular exercise and diet) materially affects the amount of heat
production and the requirements in energy food. Such experiments show
why a man must literally burn up his own body, if he takes in no fuel in
the form of food. Benedict's views also account for the higher energy
requirement of men as compared to women, who, as a rule, have more fat
and less muscular tissue than men.
[Sidenote: Diet and Endurance]
We have quoted Rubner (_vide_ page 38) as condemning the very old
popular idea that meat is very "strengthening." Actual experiments on
this point have shown exactly the opposite to be the case. Meat eating
and a high-protein diet instead of increasing one's endurance, have been
shown, like alcohol, to actually reduce it.
An experiment was made by one of the authors to determine this question.
The experiment consisted of endurance tests made on 49 persons
representing the two types of dietetic habits. The persons experimented
upon constituted three classes: first, athletes accustomed to
high-protein and full-flesh dietary; second, athletes accustomed to a
low-protein and non-flesh dietary; third, sedentary persons accustomed
to a low-protein and non-flesh dietary. The subjects consisted of Yale
students and instructors, a Connecticut physician, and several other
physicians and nurses. All of the low-protein and non-flesh subjects
except one had abstained from flesh foods for periods of 4 to 20 years,
and 5 of them had never eaten such foods.
The experiments furnished a severe test of the claims of the
flesh-abstainers. Two comparisons were planned, one between flesh-eating
athletes and flesh-abstaining athletes, and the other between
flesh-eating athletes and flesh-abstaining sedentary workers. The
results would indicate that the users of low-protein and the non-flesh
dietaries have far greater endurance than those who are accustomed to
the ordinary American diet.
In the absence of any exact mechanical method of measuring endurance,
simple endurance tests were employed, such as holding the arms
horizontally as long as possible and deep knee bending. The tests were
made before witnesses.
The comparison for arm holding shows a great superiority on the side of
the flesh-abstainers. Only 2 of the 15 flesh-eaters succeeded in holding
their arms out over a quarter of an hour, whereas 22 of the 32
abstainers surpassed that limit. None of the flesh-eaters reached half
an hour, but 15 of the 32 abstainers exceeded that limit. Of these 9
exceeded an hour, 4 exceeded 2 hours and 1 exceeded 3 hours.
In respect to deep knee bending, if we take the number 325 for
reference, we find that, of the 9 flesh-eaters only 3 surpassed this
figure, while of the 21 abstainers, 17 surpassed it. Only 1 of the 9
flesh-eaters reached 1,000 as against 6 of the 21 abstainers. None of
the former surpassed 2,000 as against 2 of the latter.
Similar results have been found in other investigations. It is probable
that the inferiority of meat-eaters in staying power is due primarily to
high protein, not to meat _per se_.
In 1906, nine Yale students under the direction of one of the authors
experimented with Mr. Horace Fletcher's method of thorough mastication
and instinctive eating. The experiment began with an endurance test on
January 14, and consisted mainly of two parts, each of which lasted
about ten weeks.
The object of the first half of the experiment was to test the claims
which have been made as to the effects upon endurance of thorough
mastication combined with implicit obedience to appetite. Our conclusion
in brief is that these claims, so far as they relate to endurance, are
justified.
The method may be briefly expressed in two rules.
1. _Mastication._--Thorough mastication of all food up to the point of
involuntary swallowing, with the attention directed, however, not on the
mechanical act of chewing, but on the tasting and enjoyment of the food;
liquid foods to be sipped and tasted, not drunk down like water. There
should be no artificial holding of food in the mouth beyond the time of
natural swallowing, even if, as is to be expected at the start, that
swallowing is premature. It is not intended to "count the chews," or to
hold the food forcibly in the front of the mouth, or to allow the tongue
muscles to become fatigued by any unnatural effort or position, or in
any other way to make eating a bore. On the contrary, every such effort
distracts one from the natural enjoyment of food. Pavlov has shown that
without such attention and enjoyment of the taste of food, the secretion
of gastric juice is lessened. The point of involuntary swallowing is
thus a variable point, gradually coming later and later as the practise
of thorough mastication proceeds, until the result is reached that the
food remains in the mouth without effort and becomes practically
tasteless. Thus the food, so to speak, swallows itself, and the person
eats without thought either of swallowing or of not swallowing it;
swallowing is put into the same category of physiological functions as
breathing, which ordinarily is involuntary.
2. _Following instinct._--Never to eat when not hungry, even if a meal
(or more than one, for that matter) is skipped. And when a meal is
taken, not to be guided by the quantity of food offered, or by past
habit, or by any theories as to the amount of food needed. The natural
taste or appetite is alone consulted, and the subject selects, from the
food available, only those kinds and amounts which are actually craved
by the appetite. After practise, the appetite gradually becomes more
definite and discriminating in its indications.
During the second half of the experiment the two rules above mentioned
were continued in force, but a third rule was added, namely, when the
appetite was in doubt, to give the benefit of that doubt to low-protein
and non-flesh foods. In other words, the influence of suggestion was
invoked to hasten the change which had been inaugurated by arousing the
natural appetite. Suggestion was introduced merely because the
experiment was limited in time. In no case was it allowed to override
the dictates of appetite.
Careful records of the amount of food taken and the constituents in (1)
protein, (2) fats and (3) starches and sugars, were kept for each man
for each day. In order to avoid weighing the food at the table and the
annoyance which such a procedure involves, the food was all weighed in
the kitchen and served in definite portions of known food value. From
the records thus supplied, it was easy, by means of a "mechanical diet
indicator" devised for the purpose, to find the proportions of food
elements. The first result of the experiment was a reduction in the
amount of protein consumed.
During the first four weeks, the men consumed an average of from 2,760
to 3,030 calories per day, of which 120 to 240 were in the flesh foods,
such as meats, poultry, fish and shell-fish, and that 2.4 to 2.7
calories of protein were ingested for each pound of body-weight.
Translating Professor Chittenden's figures for the physiological
requirement of ingested protein, we find it to be from 1.3 to 1.7
calories per pound of body-weight. Thus the men were at this time
consuming nearly double the Chittenden allowance. During the last four
weeks of the experiment all these magnitudes were lower. The per capita
calories ranged from 2,220 to 2,620, of which only 40 were in flesh
foods, and the protein had fallen to 1.4 to 1.9 calories per pound of
body-weight, which corresponds closely to the Chittenden standard.
Gymnasium tests were made at the beginning, middle and end of the
experiment. These tests were of two kinds--tests of strength and tests
of endurance.
During the first period there was a slight increase in strength (from an
average "total" strength of 1,076 to 1,118), and during the second
period a slight fall to 995, which is about 12 per cent. from the
mid-year's 1,118, and about 8 per cent. from the original 1,076. Thus
the strength of the men remained nearly stationary throughout the
experiment.
It is fortunate that the strength of the men remained so nearly
stationary; for it demonstrates the more clearly that the increase in
endurance which will be shown below was an increase in endurance
_per se_, and not in any degree due to an increase in strength. Strength
and endurance are entirely distinct and should be separately measured.
The strength of a muscle is measured by the utmost force which it can
exert _once_; its endurance by the number of times it can repeat a given
exertion _well within its strength_.
After much consideration and consultation it was decided not to place
reliance on the ordinary ergographs as a means of measuring endurance.
Instead, seven simple gymnastic tests of physical endurance were
employed, and one of mental endurance. The seven physical tests were:
(1) Rising on the toes as many times as possible.
(2) Deep knee bending, or squatting as far as possible and rising to the
standing posture, repeating as often as possible.
(3) While lying on the back, raising the legs from the floor to a
vertical position and lowering them again, repeating to the point of
physical exhaustion.
(4) Raising a 5-lb. dumb-bell (with the triceps) in each hand from the
shoulder up to the highest point above the head, repeating to the point
of physical exhaustion.
(5) Holding the arms from the sides horizontally for as long a time as
possible.
(6) Raising a dumb-bell (with the biceps) in one hand from a position in
which the arm hangs down, up to the shoulder and lowering it again,
repeating the motion to the point of physical exhaustion. This test was
taken with four successive dumb-bells of decreasing weight, viz., 50,
25, 10 and 5 lbs. respectively.
(7) Running on the gymnasium track at a speed to suit the subject, to as
great a distance as possible.
The mental test consisted of adding specified columns of figures as
rapidly as possible, the object being to find out whether the rapidity
of performing such work tended to improve during the experiment.
PERCENTAGE OF IMPROVEMENT IN ENDURANCE (EXACT OR UNDERSTATED) OF EIGHT
MEN.
AVERAGE.
B Lq. Lw. M P R T W
Jan.-Mar. 33+ 36 50 -- 26 18+ 66+ 33
Jan.-June 84+ 84+ 181 29 56+ 89+ 80+ 107+
The figures of this table show an undoubted increase in endurance, both
for the first half and more especially for the whole period of the
experiment.
Three methods of estimating the increase of endurance between January
and June were used. These may be put together in the following table:
PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE OF ENDURANCE, JANUARY TO JUNE, BY THREE METHODS.
AVERAGE SIX TESTS.
B E Lq. Lw. M P R T W
85 13 194 95 212 56+ 73 66 109
OMITTING DOUBTFUL CASES "+"
84+ ... 84+ 181 29+ 56+ 89+ 80+ 107+
"PURE" ENDURANCE OF BICEPS.
... ... 62 ... 50 ... 170 200 100+
The first line of this table tells us the average of the recorded
improvement in endurance shown for each man. The average of these
averages is 101 per cent. for the entire club, and is probably within
the truth; for most of the individual figures which go to make up this
result are understatements, not overstatements.
The second line shows the average improvement in tests in which there is
no doubt that the figure is at least not too high, though it may be too
low. The average of these is 89 per cent., and is therefore certainly
too low an estimate of the average improvement for the eight men who
improved at all.
The third line shows the increase of _pure_ endurance (that is,
endurance considered apart from strength) for the five men for whom the
figures were available. The average of these is 116 per cent.
We are quite safe in saying, therefore, that the average improvement of
the eight men who improved was 90 per cent.
The phenomena observed during the experiment may be summarized as a
slight reduction of total food consumed, a large reduction of the
protein element, especially of flesh foods, a lessened excretion of
nitrogen, a reduction in the odor, putrefaction, fermentation and
quantity of the feces, a slight loss of weight, a slight loss of
strength, an enormous increase of physical endurance, a slight increase
in mental quickness. These phenomena varied somewhat with different
individuals, the variations corresponding in general to the varying
degree in which the men adhered to the rules of the experiment.
That we are correct in ascribing the results, especially in endurance,
to dietetic causes alone, cannot reasonably be doubted when it is
considered that no other factors of known significance were allowed to
aid in this result.
While the results of the present experiment lean toward "vegetarianism,"
they are only incidentally related to its propaganda. Meat was by no
means excluded; on the contrary, the subjects were urged to eat it if
their appetite distinctly preferred it to other foods.
The sudden and complete exclusion of meat is not always desirable,
unless more skill and knowledge in food matters are employed than most
persons possess. On the contrary, disaster has repeatedly overtaken many
who have made this attempt. Pavlov has shown that meat is one of the
most and perhaps the most "peptogenic" of foods. Whether the stimulus it
gives to the stomach is natural, or in the nature of an improper goad or
whip, certain it is that some stomachs which are accustomed to this
daily whip have failed, for a time at least, to act when it was
withdrawn.
Nor is it necessary that meat should be permanently abjured, even when
it ceases to become a daily necessity. The safer course, at least, is to
indulge the craving whenever one is "meat hungry," even if, as in many
cases, this be not oftener than once in several months. The rule of
selection employed in the experiment was merely to _give the benefit of
the doubt_ to the non-flesh food; but even a _slight_ preference for
flesh foods was to be followed.
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