SINOPE.
Town of Sinope--Osman Pacha--The Mussulmans--The Black Sea
Squadron--Exploit of Captain Drummond--Sebastopol Harbor--Achmet
Pacha--Citate--The Battle--Turkey, as a Military Power--Christian
Population--War in Asia--England and France--Declaration of War
--Embarkation of Troops.
We have alluded to the affair of Sinope, but not in terms
sufficiently strong to stigmatize its atrocity. The fleet under the
command of Osman Pasha was not cruizing in the Black Sea with any
intention of provoking hostilities on the part of the Russians: its
sole mission was to keep up communication between Constantinople
and the army of Anatolia, the Turks, while thus engaged, relying
upon the good faith of the Czar, who had undertaken to act only upon
the defensive so long as the negotiations with the Western Powers
were pending. Nor had Osman Pacha any reason for suspecting that so
flagrant a breach of faith would be committed, although three Russian
men of war had been observed on the 27th November reconnoitring off
the post. Fatal, however, was this reliance on the honor of Nicholas;
for, on the 30th November, about mid-day, and under cover of a
dense fog, a Russian squadron, consisting of three three-deckers,
three two-deckers, two frigates, and three steamers, entered the
bay of Sinope, while several frigates and corvettes cruised at
some distance, for the purpose of cutting off all assistance from
Constantinople.
Sinope is a town of some little importance, about one hundred miles
from the Bosphorus, and nearly facing Sebastopol; its dockyards and
arsenal, covering a considerable extent of ground, were ill protected
by a few insignificant batteries.
Resistance on the part of the Turks was almost hopeless, as their
entire squadron mounted altogether only 406 guns, while the Russian
ships carried no less than 760, and those mostly of very heavy
calibre. As soon as he had entered the bay, the Russian admiral
brought his ships deliberately to an anchor, sending at the same
time an officer to demand the unconditional surrender of Osman
Pacha’s fleet. He scarcely awaited the delivery of this message,
but immediately opened fire on the enemy, whose force, if duly
estimated, was at least three times greater than his own. So unequal
was the contest, that it can only be regarded as a massacre: in three
hours and a half the Turkish squadron was annihilated. The courage
displayed by the Mussulmans in this affair cannot be too highly
lauded. Most of the captains were killed, or blown up with their
ships: out of 4,575 men composing their crews, 4,155 were killed
in the engagement, 120 were taken prisoners, and 300 were wantonly
slaughtered in the conflagration of the defenceless town,--a worthy
consummation to this disgraceful act of piracy, the details of which
aroused the universal execration of the world.
The Emperor, on the other hand, was unable to dissemble his delight,
and readily accepted this massacre as a glorious set-off against
the rout of his troops at Oltenitza. An officer, despatched with the
welcome intelligence by Prince Menschikoff to the Czar, appeared
in the august presence covered with mud, and so exhausted with
fatigue that he actually fell asleep while the Emperor was reading
the despatches. The Czar roused him with the announcement that “his
horses were ready to convey him to the south,” and that, from the
rank of captain, he had risen to that of lieutenant-colonel.
The news of the disaster occasioned great consternation at
Constantinople. The crews of the allied squadron began naturally
enough to inquire among themselves whether they had been summoned
to the Bosphorus to be passive spectators of deeds such as we have
detailed.
At six o’clock on the morning of the 3d January, 1854, the
Anglo-Gallic squadron entered the Black Sea.
The English squadron was composed of nineteen ships, carrying 1,030
guns. The French, fifteen ships and 962 guns. They were accompanied
by a few Turkish steamers, each carrying about 1000 troops, and a
large supply of ammunition and provisions for the army in Asia.
At this time the Russian force in the Black Sea was composed of six
ships each of 120 guns, eight of 80 guns, and eight each of 50 or
60 guns, also three steamers, fifteen corvettes, and a few smaller
vessels.
At this conjuncture the representatives of the great Western Powers
addressed a letter to the Governor of Sebastopol, announcing that
the Anglo-Gallic fleet had been ordered to the Black Sea to protect
the shores that fringe the Ottoman territory against any act of
aggression: they, moreover, expressed a diplomatic hope that his
Excellency would give such instructions to the Russian admirals as
would prevent a hostile collision.
This letter was deficient in one main essential, since it studiously
avoided announcing that the combined fleet was engaged in convoying
a Turkish squadron, laden with munitions of war, having, moreover,
undertaken to defend it against any attack.
There is something in this omission which might be characterized by
a stronger designation than excessive caution.
One copy of the epistle, however--such as it was--signed by General
Baraguay d’Hilliers, was intrusted to a French officer, commissioned
to deliver it to Prince Menschikoff in person. That officer embarked
on board H. M. S. _Retribution_, whose captain (Drummond), with
the copy bearing Lord Redcliffe’s signature, taking advantage of
a dense fog, and without any pilot, boldly steamed into the very
harbor of Sebastopol. Two shots were fired as a signal to bring
to, but they were disregarded; whereupon a Russian officer, in a
state of considerable excitement, hailed the frigate from a boat,
emphatically announcing that no vessel of war could be permitted
to enter the harbor, and that consequently the _Retribution_ must
forthwith retire. This requisition Captain Drummond refused to
comply with until the object of his mission had been accomplished.
He was then informed that the Governor was not in Sebastopol. The
commander of the _Retribution_ inquired for the deputy-governor,
to whom he delivered his despatches; and it is said that this
unfortunate officer was degraded to the ranks for permitting an
English man-of-war to make her way without opposition into a port so
jealously guarded.
While the parley between the English commander and the
deputy-governor was going on, the officers of the _Retribution_, by
the aid of cameras and pencils, took a series of sketches of the
works of Sebastopol, and thus made themselves masters of all the
information which the Russians had any interest in concealing.
On the 6th January, just as the allied fleets had taken possession of
the Black Sea in order to retain a “material guarantee” equivalent
to that of the Wallachian provinces, so unwarrantably seized by the
Czar, the army of Abdul Medjid on the Danube was preparing to prove
itself worthy of the important alliance he had just concluded.
His soldiers had shown well enough at Sinope that they knew how to
die: at Citate they satisfied Europe that they knew how to fight.
Though, for the most part, inexperienced levies, they were more than
a match for the veterans of the Czar, many of whom had for years past
been inured to hard fighting in the Caucasus, while many more had
seen something of warfare in the Hungarian campaign.
The Russians having determined to attack Kalafat, where Achmet Pacha
had resolved to establish himself in force, began to manœuvre so as
to reduce within the narrowest limits the Ottoman position: they
threw up also a considerable number of field-works, so as to command
almost every approach. Achmet Pacha felt that the moment had arrived
when it was incumbent upon him to act with vigor, if he did not wish
to break the spirit or lower the _morale_ of his men. Till the last
moment, however, he divulged his plans to no one; nor did he, till
the hour had arrived, intimate his intention of giving battle at
Citate, the nearest point to the enemy’s lines.
Citate is little more than a village, situate upon a gradual slope
commanding the surrounding plain, which is bounded by two ravines.
That on the eastern extremity is steep, abutting upon a lake, to the
rear of which is a long level tract, extending to the Danube. The
western gully is less abrupt, and inclines gradually towards a hill
behind the village. The main road to Kalafat lies in a north-westerly
direction between these ravines.
On a height above Citate, and to the left of the road, the Russians
had thrown up a redoubt, which subsequently had the effect of
preserving them from absolute destruction.
Achmet Pacha selected for this enterprise three regiments of cavalry,
thirteen battalions of infantry (altogether 11,000 men), and twenty
guns.
At sunset on the evening of the 5th January, the chosen band silently
quitted Kalafat, reaching the village of Maglovit at eight o’clock.
Some few found shelter in the deserted houses, but the greater part
bivouacked without fire and without shelter. The ground was covered
with half melted snow: the men were consequently compelled to keep on
foot till daybreak, when the bugle summoned them to proceed to the
scene of the impending action.
Two Turkish battalions were posted, with two guns, on the road, one
in the village of Maglovit, the other in that of Orenja, to keep
up the communication with Kalafat. A reserve of seven battalions
was stationed at the foot of the hill already alluded to, while the
other four battalions, with six guns (under the command of Ismail
Pacha, who led the attack), were posted somewhat in advance. The
day dawned fair, the air was clear and calm, and the sky cloudless.
Not a Russian sentry was visible, from the Turkish position, along
the whole valley of the Danube: from the unbroken silence it might
have been imagined that they had evacuated Citate. Six companies of
light infantry, headed by Teyfik Bey (the nephew of Omer Pacha), were
pushed forward _en tirailleurs_. They were on the point of occupying
the hill, when a heavy discharge of grape and canister plainly enough
revealed the presence of the enemy, as well as their intention of
disputing the position. A well-directed fire of musketry ensued, but
the Turkish sharpshooters, supported by four battalions of infantry
and a field battery, opened a murderous fire on the Russians, whose
artillery was miserably served in comparison with that of their
antagonists. They fought, however, with desperation; and as the
Turks advanced, carrying house after house at the bayonet’s point,
the Russians disputed every inch with all the frenzy of despair.
Quarter was neither asked nor given. Many of the Russian officers,
seeing their men give way, actually threw themselves on the swords of
the Mussulmans. The desperate struggle lasted more than four hours,
occasioning a heavy loss on both sides.
At noon every dwelling in the village had been captured, and the
Russians were retreating in tolerable order along the road; but they
there found themselves confronted by two fresh regiments of Turkish
cavalry, which had advanced unperceived along the ravine to the right
of the village. Thus situated, the Russians had no alternative but
to take shelter with their guns behind their redoubt. They thus
obtained a partial shelter from the Turkish cavalry. At this moment
Ismail Pacha, who had had two horses killed under him, and had been
badly wounded, yielded the command to Mustapha, and he, with two
battalions that had not yet been engaged, and with four field-pieces,
hastened to attack the redoubt, in conjunction with four additional
battalions, each flanked by five guns. In half an hour more the
destruction of the Russians would have been complete; but at this
moment the attention of the combatants was arrested by an occurrence
in another part of the plain.
As might have been expected, the intelligence of this engagement
had already reached the Russians quartered in the surrounding
villages, and reinforcements to the extent of 10,000 men and sixteen
guns, might be seen rapidly advancing in various directions upon
the Turkish reserve, which was well prepared to receive them. The
Russians were marching in the direction of Kalafat, so as to place
the Turks between two fires. The Mussulman generals, however, though
in a critical position, concerted measures well, and at the proper
moment, after having again displayed the superiority of their
artillery, led their gallant battalions against the enemy, who
speedily took to flight, strewing the ground with an immense quantity
of arms, accoutrements, and ammunition.
The Turks had now been eight hours under arms, besides having
bivouacked, in the depth of winter, without fire, on the muddy
ground; but they were still eager to attack the redoubt, where the
Russians remained literally penned in like sheep. Achmet Pacha,
however, sounded a retreat, which was executed in perfect order. The
Turks left 338 killed on this hard fought field, and carried away
700 wounded; while the Russian loss could not have been less than
1500 killed and 2000 wounded. At nightfall the redoubt was abandoned;
and the Russians, after burying their dead, completely evacuated
Citate, and all the other villages which had served them as advanced
posts.
We have been thus particular in the details of this action, because
it was, in fact, one of the most important of the campaign. The
Ottoman troops, elated with so decisive a victory over a detested
foe, were now only anxious to be led again to battle. On the
7th, Omer Pacha, who had hastened to the spot on hearing of the
achievement of this division of his army, gratified their wishes, and
on that and the three following days engagements took place, each
terminating in results favorable to the cause of the Sultan.
Turkey thus at once resumed her position as a military power, and
gave earnest, that when the ten or twelve millions, constituting her
Christian population, shall have accepted the offer of the Sultan
to bear arms like their Mahometan fellow-subjects, she will be in a
position to protect herself against any aggression. Time of course
must elapse before this takes place; but enough has been done to
prove that the protection of England and France need not be always
indispensable to the existence of the Turkish empire.
It is unnecessary for our present purpose to follow the hostile
armies on the Danube through all their operations. It will be
sufficient to observe, that after the various engagements in the
neighborhood of Kalafat, Omer Pacha resumed the plan on which he
had previously proceeded at Giurgevo and Oltenitza, the object of
which was to constrain the Russians to detach a portion of their army
in order to cover Bucharest. He had no desire to attempt any rash
enterprise, but prudently kept watch, so as to avail himself of any
favorable contingency; his character presenting a happy combination
of daring and prudence.
While the events we have related were proceeding, the war was
being carried on with vigor on the frontier of Asia: numerous
conflicts took place, attended with much slaughter, but not with any
very commensurate results. The most important battle was that of
Akhaltzik, claimed by the Russian General, Prince Andronikoff, as a
great victory. Like that of Sinope, it was celebrated at Petersburg
by a solemn _Te Deum_; “The most pious Czar,” in the words of the
Government organ, “thanking the Lord of lords for the success of the
Russian arms in the sacred combat for the orthodox faith.” (!)
The allied squadron in the Black Sea, after having escorted a
Turkish squadron freighted with supplies to Batoum, Trebizonde,
and Checkvetil, reconnoitred the Russian fleet in Sebastopol, and
returned to the Bosphorus.
England and France having announced to the world their intention
of affording to Turkey both moral and material support, but their
_moral_ aid having failed to avert the invasion of the Danubian
provinces, the massacre of Sinope, or the treachery of Austria,
masked as it was under the guise of friendship, it became incumbent
on the two Western Powers to abandon at once all further discussion,
and to appeal to the stern but inevitable arbitrament of the sword.
The Queen’s declaration of war appeared in the Gazette of the 28th
of March: on the preceding day, at Paris, the Minister of State read
to the Legislative corps a message from the Emperor, announcing
“that the last resolution of the Cabinet of St. Petersburg had
placed Russia in a state of war with respect to France--a war, the
responsibility of which belonged entirely to the Russian Government.”
Great now was the activity displayed at the naval port, and arsenals
of England and France. From Portsmouth and Southampton regiment after
regiment were embarked--ships were commissioned faster almost than
they could be got ready for sea--and additional reinforcements were
despatched in all haste to Sir Charles Napier’s magnificent Baltic
fleet, which sailed from Spithead on the 11th of March.