DÆMONISM OR _SHAMANISM_
Korean cities without priests or temples; houses without “god shelves”;
village festivals without a _mikoshi_ or idols carried in festive
procession; marriage and burial without priestly blessing; an absence
of religious ceremonials and sacred books to which real or assumed
reverence is paid, and nothing to show that religion has any hold on
the popular mind, constitute a singular Korean characteristic.
Putting aside Buddhism with its gross superstitions, practised chiefly
in remote places, and the magisterial homage before the Confucian
tablets to the memory of the Great Teacher, the popular cult--I dare
not call it a religion--consists of a number of observances dictated by
the dread of bodiless beings created by Korean fancy, and representing
chiefly the mysterious forces of nature. It may be assumed, taking
tradition for a guide, as certain of the litanies used in exorcism and
invocation were introduced along with Buddhism from China, that Korean
imagination has grafted its own fancies on those which are of foreign
origin, and which are of by no means distant kinship to those of the
_Shamanism_ of northern Asia.
The external evidences of this cult are chiefly heaps of stones on the
tops of passes, rude shrines here and there containing tawdry pictures
of mythical beings, with the name in Chinese characters below, strings
from which depend small bags of rice, worn-out straw shoes, strips of
dirty rags, and, though rarely, rusty locks of black hair. Outside of
many villages are high posts (not to be confounded with the distance
posts) with their tops rudely carved into heads and faces half human,
half dæmonic, from which straw ropes, with dependent straw tassels,
recalling the Shintoism of Japan, are stretched across the road. There
are large or distorted trees also, on which rags, rice-bags, and old
shoes are hung, and under which are heaps of stones at which it is
usual for travellers to bow and expectorate. On the ridge poles of
royal buildings and city gates, there are rows of grotesque bronze
or china figures for the purpose of driving away evil dæmons, and at
crossroads a log of wood perforated like a mouse-trap, and with one
hole bunged up, over which travellers step carefully, may sometimes
be seen. In cities the beating of drums accompanied by the clashing
of cymbals vies with the laundry sticks in breaking the otherwise
profound stillness of night, and in travelling through the country, the
_mu-tang_ or sorceress is constantly to be seen going through various
musical and dancing performances in the midst of a crowd in front of a
house where there is sickness.
I have referred to these things in earlier chapters, but the subject
is such an important one, and the influence on Korean life of the
belief in dæmons is so strong and injurious, that I feel justified in
laying before my readers at some length such details of _Dæmonism_ as
have hitherto been ascertained. There is an unwillingness to speak to
foreigners on this topic, and inquirers may have been purposely misled,
but enough has been gained to make it likely that further inquiry will
be productive of very valuable results.[52] The superstitions already
mentioned, however trivial in themselves, point to that which underlies
all religion, the belief in something outside ourselves which is higher
or more powerful than ourselves.
It is indeed asserted by many of the so-called educated class that
the only cult in Korea is ancestor worship, and they profess to
ridicule the rags, cairns, shrines, and the other paraphernalia of
dæmon-worship, as the superstition of women and coolies, and it is
probable that in Seoul, at least, few men of the upper class are
believers, or patronize the rites otherwise than as unmeaning customs
which it would be impolitic to discontinue, but it is safe to say
that from the Palace to the hovel all women, and a majority of men,
go through the forms which, influencing Buddhism, and possibly being
modified by it, have existed in Korea for more than fifteen centuries.
Without claiming any degree of scientific accuracy for the term
_Shamanism_, as applied to this cult in Korea, it is more convenient
to use it, the word dæmon having come to bear a popular meaning which
prohibits its use where good spirits as well as bad are indicated.
So far as I know, _Shamanism_ exists only in Asia, and flourishes
specially among the tribes north of the Amur, the Samoyedes, Ostiaks,
etc., as well as among hill tribes on the southwestern frontier of
China. The term _Shaman_ may be applied to all persons, male or
female, whose profession it is to have direct dealings with dæmons,
and to possess the power of securing their good-will and averting
their malignant influences by various magical rites, charms, and
incantations, to cure diseases by exorcisms, to predict future events,
and to interpret dreams.
Korean _Shamanism_ or Dæmonism differs from that of northern Asia in
its mildness, possibly the result of early Buddhist influence. It
is the cult of dæmons not necessarily evil, but usually the enemies
of man, and addicted to revenge and caprice. Though the _Shamans_
are neither an order, nor linked by a common organization, they are
practically recognized as a priesthood, in so far as it is through
their offices that the dæmons are approached and propitiated on behalf
of the people. It is supposed that the _Shaman_ or wizard was one of
the figures in the dawn of Korean history, and that Dæmonism in its
early stage was marked by human sacrifices. _Shamans_ in the train of
royalty, and as a part of the social organization of the Peninsula,
figure in very early Korean story, and they appear to have been the
chief, if not the only, “religious” instructors.
One class among the _Shamans_ is incorporated into one of those guilds
which are the Trades Unions of Korea, and the Government has imposed
registration on another class.[53] There are now two principal classes
of _Shamans_, the _Pan-su_ and the _mu-tang_. The _Pan-su_ are blind
sorcerers, and those parents are fortunate who have a blind son, for he
is certain to be able to make a good living and support them in their
old age. The _Pan-su_ were formerly persons of much distinction in the
kingdom, but their social position has been lowered during the present
dynasty, though in the present reign their influence in the Palace,
and specially with the late Queen, has wrought much evil. The chief
officials of the _Pan-su_ Guild in Seoul hold the official titles of
_Cham-pan_[54] and _Seung-ji_ from the Government, which gives prestige
to the whole body. In order to guard their professional interests, the
_Pan-su_ have local guilds, and in the various sections “Clubhouses”
built out of their own funds. The central office of the _Pan-su_ guild
in Seoul was built and maintained by Government, and the two chief
officials of the guild hold, or held, _quasi_-official rank.
It appears that admission into the fraternity is only granted to an
applicant on his giving proof of proficiency in the knowledge of a
cumbrous body of orally transmitted _Shaman_ tradition, wisdom and
custom, much of it believed by the people to be 4,000 years old, and
embracing scraps of superstition from the darkest arcana of Buddhism,
as well as fragments of Confucianism. The neophyte has to learn of
“the existence, nature, and power of dæmons, their relations with man,
the efficacy of exorcism through a magic ritual, and the genuine and
certain character of the results of divination.” He must meditate on
“the customs, habits, and weaknesses of every class in Korean society
in order to deal knowingly with his clients. A slight acquaintance
with Confucianism must enable him to give a flavor of learning to
his speech, and he must be well drilled in the methods of exorcisms,
incantations, magic spells, divination, and the manufacture of charms
and amulets.”
The services of sorcerers or geomancers are invariably called for in
connection with the choice of sites for houses and graves, in certain
contracts, and on the occasion of unusual calamities, sickness,
births, marriages, and the purchase of land. The chief functions of
the _Shaman_ are, the influencing of dæmons by ritual and magical
rites, propitiating them by offerings, exorcisms, and the procuring of
oracles. In their methods, dancing, gesticulations, a real or feigned
ecstasy, and a drum play an important part. The fees of the _Shaman_
are high, and it is believed that at the lowest computation, Dæmonism
costs Korea two million five hundred thousand dollars annually! In
order to obtain favors or avert calamities, it is necessary to employ
the _Shamans_ as mediators, and it is their fees, and not the cost of
the offerings which press so heavily on the people.
Among the reasons which render the _Shaman_ a necessity are these. In
Korean belief, earth, air, and sea, are peopled by dæmons. They haunt
every umbrageous tree, shady ravine, crystal spring, and mountain
crest. On green hill slopes, in peaceful agricultural valleys, in
grassy dells, on wooded up-lands, by lake and stream, by road and
river, in north, south, east, and west they abound, making malignant
sport out of human destinies. They are on every roof, ceiling,
fireplace, _kang_ and beam. They fill the chimney, the shed, the
living room, the kitchen--they are on every shelf and jar. In thousands
they waylay the traveller as he leaves his home, beside him, behind
him, dancing in front of him, whirring over his head, crying out upon
him from earth, air, and water. They are numbered by _thousands of
billions_, and it has been well said that their ubiquity is an unholy
travesty of the Divine Omnipresence.[55] This belief, and it seems
to be the only one he has, keeps the Korean in a perpetual state of
nervous apprehension, it surrounds him with indefinite terrors, and it
may truly be said of him that he “passes the time of his sojourning
here in fear.” Every Korean home is subject to dæmons, here, there, and
everywhere. They touch the Korean at every point in life, making his
well-being depend on a continual series of acts of propitiation, and
they avenge every omission with merciless severity, keeping him under
this yoke of bondage from birth to death.
The phrase “dæmon-worship” as applied to Korean _Shamanism_ is
somewhat misleading. These legions of spirits which in Korean belief
peopled the world, are of two classes, the first alone answering to
our conception of dæmons. These are the self-existent spirits, unseen
enemies of man, whose designs are always malignant or malicious, and
spirits of departed persons, who, having died in poverty and manifold
distresses, are unclothed, hungry, and shivering vagrants, bringing
untold calamities on those who neglect to supply their wants. It is
true, however, that about 80 per cent. of the legions of spirits are
malignant. The second class consists also of self-existent spirits,
whose natures are partly kindly, and of departed spirits of prosperous
and good people, but even these are easily offended and act with
extraordinary capriciousness. These, however, by due intercessions and
offerings, may be induced to assist man in obtaining his desires, and
may aid him to escape from the afflictive power of the evil dæmons.
The comfort and prosperity of every individual depend on his ability to
win and keep the favor of the latter class.
Koreans attribute every ill by which they are afflicted to dæmoniacal
influence. Bad luck in any transaction, official malevolence, illness,
whether sudden or prolonged, pecuniary misfortune, and loss of power or
position are due to the malignity of dæmons. It is over such evils that
the _Pan-su_ is supposed to have power, and to be able to terminate
them by magical rites, he being possessed by a powerful dæmon, whose
strength he is able to wield.
As an example of the _modus operandi_, exorcism in sickness which is
believed to be the work of an unclean dæmon may be taken. The _Pan-su_
arrives at the house, and boldly undertakes the expulsion of the foul
spirit, the process being divided into four stages.[56]
1. By a few throws from the tortoise divining box, the sorcerer
discovers the dæmon’s nature and character, after which he seeks for an
auspicious hour and makes arrangements for the next stage.
2. Gaining control of the dæmon follows. The _Pan-su_ equips himself
with a wand of oak or pine a foot and half long, and a bystander is
asked to hold this in an upright position on an ironing stone. Magic
formulas are recited till the rod begins to shake and even dance on
the stone, this activity being believed to be the result of the dæmon
having entered the wand. At this stage a talk takes place to test the
accuracy of the divination of the dæmon’s name and nature, and of
the cause of the affliction. The _Pan-su_ manages the questions so
dexterously that a simple yes is indicated by motion in the wand, while
no is expressed by quiescence. At this stage the dæmon is given the
choice of quietly disappearing; after which, if he is obstinate, the
_Pan-su_ proceeds to dislodge him.
3. The third stage involves the aid of certain familiars of the
_Pan-su_. A special wand, made of an eastern branch of a peach tree,
which has much repute in expelling dæmons, is taken, and is held on
a table in a vertical position by an assistant. The _Pan-su_ recites
a farther part of his magic ritual, its power being shown by acute
movements in the wand in spite of attempts to keep it steady. A parley
takes place with the _Chang-gun_, the spirit who has been summoned
to find out his objects. He promises to catch the _Chang-kun_, the
malignant dæmon, and after preparations and offerings have been made
he is asked to search for him. The man who holds the wand is violently
dragged by a supernatural power out of the house to the place where the
_Chang-kun_ is. Then the _Chang-gun_ is supposed to seize him, and the
wand-holder is dragged back to the house.
4. A bottle with a wide mouth is put on the floor, and alongside it a
piece of paper inscribed with the name of the unclean daemon, which
has been obtained by divination and parley. The paper being touched
with the magic wand jumps into the bottle, which is hastily corked and
buried on the hillside or at the crossroads.
This singular form of exorcism has a long and unintelligible ritual, in
the cases of those who can afford to pay for it, occupying some days,
and at greater or lesser length is repeated daily by the _Shamans_
throughout Korea. It is usually succeeded by a form known as the Ritual
Pacification, which takes a whole night. This is for the purpose of
restoring order among the household dæmons, who have been much upset by
the previous proceedings, cleaning the house, and committing it and its
inmates to the protection of the most powerful members of the Korean
dæmoniacal hierarchy.
The instruments of exorcism used by the _Pan-su_ are offerings to be
made at various stages of the process, a drum, cymbals, a bell, a
divination box, and a wand or wands.
The _Shamans_ claim to have derived many of their very numerous
spells and formulas from Buddhists, who on their side assert that
dæmon-worship was practised in Korea long before the introduction of
Buddhism, and a relic of this worship is pointed out in the custom
which prevails in the Korean magistracies of offering to guardian
spirits on stone altars on the hills, pigs, or occasionally sheep,
before sowing time and after harvest, as well as in case of drought,
or other general calamity. This sacrifice is offered by the local
magistrate in the king’s name, and though identical in form with that
offered to _Hananim_ (the Lord of Heaven), is altogether distinct from
it. Most of the formulæ recited by the _Shamans_ have the reputation
of being unsafe for ordinary people to use, but in consideration
of the possibility of a great emergency, one is provided, which is
pronounced absolutely safe. This consists of fifty-six characters which
must be recited forwards, backwards, and sideways, and is called “The
twenty-eight stars formula.”[57]
Divination is the second function of the _Pan-su_, and consists in a
forecast of the future by means of rituals, known only to himself,
associated with the use of certain paraphernalia. This is used also
for finding out the result of a venture, or the cause of an existing
trouble, and for casting a man’s horoscope, _i.e._ “The four columns
of a man’s future,” these being the hour, day, month, and year of
his birth, or rather their four combinations. This horoscope is the
crowning function of divination. In these “four columns” the secret
of a man’s life is hidden, and their relations must govern him in
all his actions. When a horoscope contains an arrow, which denotes
ill-luck, the _Pan-su_ corrects the misfortune by formulæ used with a
bow of peach, with which during the recital he shoots arrows made of a
certain reed into a “non-prohibited” quarter. One of the great duties
of divination is to cast the horoscope of a bride and bridegroom for
an auspicious day for the wedding, for an unlucky one would introduce
dæmons to the ruin of the new household.
The great strongholds of divination are the “Frog-Boxes” and dice
boxes, manufactured for this purpose. The frog box is made like
a tortoise, having movable lips, and contains three _cash_, over
which the _Pan-su_ repeats a very ancient invocation, which has been
translated thus: “Will all you people grant to reveal the symbols.”
The coins are thrown three times, and the three falls present him
with the combinations of characters, out of which he manufactures his
oracle. The second implement of divination is a bamboo or brass tube
closed at both ends, but with a small hole in one to allow of the exit
of small bamboo splinters of which it contains eight. The same thing
is to be seen on innumerable altars in China. Each splinter has from
one to eight notches on it, and stands for a symbol of certain signs
on that divining table 3,000 years old, called the _Ho-pai_, which is
implicitly believed in by the Chinese. Two of these splinters give two
sets of characters, eight being connected with each symbol. When the
_Pan-su_ has obtained these he is ready to evolve his oracle.
Great reliance is placed on the charms which the _Pan-su_ make and
sell. Probably there are few adults or children who do not wear these
as amulets. They are generally made in the form of insects, or consist
of Chinese characters. They are written on specially prepared yellow
paper in red ink, and are regarded as being efficacious against illness
and other calamities. Amulets are made of the wood of trees struck by
lightning, which is supposed to possess magical qualities.
FOOTNOTES:
[52] I desire again to express my indebtedness to the Rev. G. Heber
Jones, of Chemulpo, for the loan of, and the liberty to use, his very
careful and painstaking notes on the subject of Korean dæmonism, and
also to a paper on _The Exorcism of Spirits in Korea_, by Dr. Landis
of Chemulpo. Apart from the researches of these two Korean scholars,
the results of my own inquiry and observation would scarcely have been
worth publishing.
[53] What is true in Korea to-day may be untrue to-morrow. One month
there was a police raid in Seoul upon the _mu-tang_ or sorceresses,
another the sisterhood was flourishing, and so the pendulum swings.
[54] _Cham-pan_ is a title of officials of a certain rank in Government
Departments in Seoul, and might be rendered Secretary of Department.
_Seung-ji_ probably has the same meaning.
[55] Rev. G. H. Jones.
[56] This detailed account is from notes kindly lent to me by the Rev.
G. H. Jones.
[57] The twenty-eight constellations, or stellar mansions, referred
to in the _Shu King_, one of the Chinese classical books, showing the
close connection between Chinese and Korean superstition.--W. C. H.