“Double shotting may be used with all 32_The artillerist's manual and British soldier's compendium

32 cwt., at distances not exceeding 400 or 500 yards; but the most

efficient practice with two shot is at 300 yards. The 32-pounders of

32 cwt. and 25 cwt. should not, however, be so used beyond 200 and

250 yards.

“With double loadings of round shot and grape, when the shot is put

in first, the projectiles range more together than when the reverse

process is used; such loading requires, however, more elevation to

be given to the gun than when single shot are used, on account of

the grape shot impeding the flight of the round shot. A double load

of grape from the same gun ranges tolerably well together for 300

yards. With a double load of case shot, even with half a degree more

elevation than when a single load is used, a great many balls will

not range above 100 yards to the first graze; within this extent they

lose much of their velocity, and few reach an object at 200 yards.

A 32-pounder gun of 56, or of 50 cwt., double shotted with charges

of 6 lb., requires at 400 yards 1½ degree of elevation; at 300 yards

1 degree; and at 200 yards half a degree; and, in general, half a

degree must be added, with any double loading, to the elevation

required with single shot.

“For round, and grape, at 400 yards, there is required 1½ degree of

elevation; and at 200 yards half a degree. These projectiles range

well together at a target, but they should not be used at a greater

distance than 150 yards on account of their dispersion, and the

differences of their striking velocities, and penetrating forces.

“With a single load of grape at 400 yards, the elevation required is

1 degree, a full charge of powder being used. With a double load of

grape at 400 yards, and the reduced charge, the elevation required is

3½ degrees; at that distance, however, double grape scatters so much

as to make very bad practice.”

_The effects of wads._

“Experience has proved that different degrees of ramming, or

different dimensions of wads, make no sensible alteration in the

velocities of the ball as determined by the vibrations of the

suspended gun. Stout firm junk wads, so tight as with difficulty to

be rammed into the gun, have been used; sometimes they were placed

between the powder and ball, sometimes over both, but no difference

was discovered in the velocity of the ball. Different degrees of

ramming were also tried without wads. The charge was sometimes set

home without being compressed; sometimes rammed with different

numbers of strokes, or pushed up with various degrees of force; but

the velocity of the ball remained the same. With great windage, the

vibrations of the pendulum were much reduced, although tight wads

under the shot were used; so that wads do not prevent the escape

of the inflamed powder by the windage, nor under any circumstances

occasion any sensible difference in the velocity of the ball.[30]

“From experiments made on board the ‘Excellent,’ in 1847, it was

found that a grummet wad is more efficient than one of junk, in

preventing the cartridge from shifting its place in the bore when the

guns were run out with a strong jerk.

“With respect to small arms, it is found that wads of different kinds

have different effects upon the projectile, by modifying the action

of the charge; and from experiments which have been made in the

United States with a musket pendulum, the following results have been

obtained: With a charge equal to 77 grains, a musket ball, wrapped in

cartridge paper, and the paper crumpled into a wad, the velocity of

the ball was 1342 feet; and when two felt wads, cut from a hat, were

placed on the powder, with one on the ball, the velocity was 1482

feet. With a charge equal to 140 grains, two felt wads being placed

on the powder, and one on the ball, the velocity was 1525 feet; when

cartridge paper was used, crumpled into a wad, the velocity was 1575

feet; and when one wad of pasteboard was placed over the powder, with

another on the ball, it was 1599 feet. These results seem to indicate

that wads made of the stiffest materials are the most advantageous.”

_Penetration of Shot._

“Experiments were made in 1848 on board H.M.S. ‘Excellent,’ by firing

both solid and hollow shot against the ‘Prince George’ hulk, which

was moored at the distance of 1200 yards. The guns were laid at small

angles of elevation, generally between two and three degrees; and

the following is a brief statement of some of the most remarkable

effects which were produced, the depth penetrated being expressed by

the sum of the distances in solid wood which the shot passed through,

or deeply furrowed. Several 18-pr. shot, with charges of 6 lb. of

powder, penetrated to depths varying from 21 to 33 inches, according

to the state of the wood, and there stuck. With charges of 8 lb.,

the 32-pr. shot penetrated to depths varying from 22 to 48 inches. A

68-pr. shot (solid), with a charge of 10 lb. of powder, made a total

penetration of 46 inches. Many hollow shot were fired with remarkable

effects from 68-pr. guns, making penetrations which varied from

25 to 56 inches. One of these, with a charge of 8 lb., penetrated

the side of the hulk, passing through 28 inches of good wood, tore

out the iron hook, which holds the port-hinge, and fractured the

after-side of the port, driving the splinters about the deck. It rent

away the end of a beam, grazed the deck, passing through two planks,

and cutting down a stanchion 8 inches square, making several large

splinters; it then struck against the opposite side of the ship,

whence it rebounded against that which it entered.

“At 800 yards, with heavy guns, a charge of one quarter of the weight

of shot may always be used; at 500 yards, the charge may be reduced

to one-sixth; and within 400 yards, two shot at once may be used with

advantage.

“Hollow shot from a 68-pounder carronade, with a charge of 5 lb. 8

oz., penetrated to depths varying from 28 to 31 inches.

“In order to ascertain if shot reflected from water would damage a

ship, shots from a 32-pounder gun, with a charge of 10 lb. and a

depression equal to 7 degrees, were fired, and the following are some

of the effects produced:—

“At the distance of 16 yards, the shot struck the water at 4 feet

from the ship’s side; and in one experiment it lodged in the

cut-water; in another, it indented the ship’s side; and in both

cases it struck at 18 inches below the water-line. At the distance

of 36 yards, with a depression of 5 degrees, the shot struck the

water at distances from the ship’s side varying from 2 to 15 feet;

and, ricocheting, entered the ship at distances above the water-line

varying from 2 inches to 3 feet. In consequence of the loss of

force which the balls sustained by striking the water, it has been

inferred, that if a shot be fired with such a depression as a ship’s

gun will bear, it will not penetrate into water more than 2 feet;

and, consequently, it will be impossible to injure a ship materially

by firing at her under water.

“From experiments made at Metz, in 1834, it appears that masses of

cast iron, above one yard square and thirteen inches thick, do not

resist the shock of balls fired against them with even moderate

velocities, having been fractured not only at the point of contact,

but also at points considerably distant from thence. It was found,

also, that the side of a traversing gun carriage of iron was

broken by an 8-pounder ball, having a velocity of 492 feet; which

proves that carriages of this nature would, if struck, be rendered

unserviceable: and that a collision, which, with a wooden carriage,

would have damaged only an accessory part, without requiring its

being replaced, would, with a cast-iron carriage, have a more fatal

effect. Not only is the object struck destroyed, but the fragments

scattered in different directions are highly dangerous.

“During the year 1850, various experiments were made on board the

‘Excellent,’ at Portsmouth, in order to ascertain the effects which

might be produced on iron vessels by shot, both solid and hollow,

with various charges of powder; for which purpose a double target, ⅝

of an inch thick, consisting of iron ribs and plates, resembling the

opposite sides of a strongly-built iron steamer, was constructed, at

the distance of about 450 yards from the ship. The general effect

was, that the target was always pierced by the shot, and that

numerous splinters were detached from it in every direction, which

could not fail to be most destructive to the crew of a vessel of this

description; the shot was, besides, almost always split in pieces by

the shock. One 32-pounder shot broke into thirty-four fragments. Some

experiments were made with grape-shot, fired from a 32-pounder, with

charges of 3 lb. and 6 lb., when the shot passed through a plate,

making a clean hole 3 inches in diameter, and knocking out some

rivets. The effects produced by 6-inch shells were not greater than

those produced by shot. Two of these being filled with powder, and

having the fuze holes plugged up, broke on passing through the plate;

the powder, however, did not explode, but was seen to go away in a

cloud like dust.

“From the above-mentioned experiments, it may be concluded, that the

splinters detached from the side of an iron ship, and the fragments

of the shot themselves, would as effectually clear her quarters

as the explosions of shells; in either case the effect would be

more serious than any that could be produced by like means on a

ship constructed of timber, incendiary effects excepted. With both

raking, and diagonal firing, the effect is described as being most

formidable; the holes, which were very irregular, were in all cases

larger than the shot.

“In 1838, experiments were made at Gavre with two solid balls fired

at once against a butt of oak timber, in order to determine the

different penetrations of the shot, and the distances between their

centres at different distances from the piece. Three different

natures of ordnance were used: a long 30-pounder gun, a cannon

obusier of 30, and a 30-pounder carronade. One ball was in contact

with the charge, and the other in contact with the former. From these

experiments it was evident that the ball which was in contact with

the charge had the least velocity, and the least penetrating power.

It is further remarkable that, at distances beyond 200 yards, the

vertical dispersion greatly exceeds the horizontal dispersion.”

_Excentric spherical shot._

“Experiments with these projectiles were carried on at Metz in 1841;

the following were the effects observed:—When the centre of gravity

was above the centre of the figure, the ranges were the longest,

and when below, the shortest; when to the right, or left hand, the

deviations were also to the right, or left. The mean range of a

12-pounder brass gun, which, with the usual shot, was 1640 yards,

was, with the shot whose centres of gravity and of figure were not

coincident, the centre of gravity being upwards, equal to 2140 yards,

being an increase of 500 yards.

“When the centre of gravity is not coincident with that of figure,

the projectile is made to revolve, _ab initio_, on the former centre,

thus occasioning a compound motion in the flight of the projectile.

When the centre of gravity is below the axis of the bore, the front

must turn from below upwards, and a rotation in this direction

continuing, the range will be diminished. In like manner, when the

centre of gravity is placed on the right, or left hand of the axis

of the bore, the shot will turn on a vertical axis, and produce

deviations to the right, or left hand respectively. Experiments were

carried on at Portsmouth, and at Shoebury Ness, in the year 1850, to

ascertain whether the deviations of excentric projectiles were so

regular as to admit of being allowed for in pointing the gun; and

whether any result might appear to disprove the maxim, that spherical

and homogeneous projectiles are the truest in their flight.

+-----------+--------+-------+------------+----------+-----------+

+-----------+--------+-------+------------+----------+-----------+

| | lb. | Deg. | | Yards. | Yards. |

| AT PORTSMOUTH. |

| |{ 8 | 2⅛ |{Common Shot| 1200 | 2 to 6 |

| |{ | |{Excentric | 1450 | 2 to 7 |

| |{ | | | | |

| 32 Pr. |{ 10 | 2½ |{Common | 1654 | 2 |

| |{ | |{Excentric | 2108 | 6 to 27 |

| |{ | | | | |

| |{ 12 | 12 |{Common | 3100 | 10 to 58 |

| | | |{Excentric | 3710 | 10 to 150 |

| | | | | | |

| |{ 10 | 2½ |{Common | 1035 | 2 to 3 |

| |{ | |{Excentric | 1181 | 2 to 7 |

| |{ | | | | |

| 8 inch |{ 10 | 5 |{Common | 1750 | 2 to 4 |

| |{ | |{Excentric | 1980 | 9 to 21 |

| |{ | | | | |

| |{ 10 | 10 |{Common | 2800 | 2 to 25 |

| | | |{Excentric | 3230 | 6 to 54 |

| | | | | | |

| AT SHOEBURY NESS. |

| |{ 8 | 2½ |{Common | 1296 | 8⅖ |

| |{ | |{Excentric | 1750 | 16 |

| |{ | | | | |

| 32 Pr. |{ 10 | 2½ |{Common | 1404 | 6¼ |

| |{ | |{Excentric | 1776 | ⅓ to 5⅔ |

| |{ | | | | |

| |{ 10 | 12 |{Common | 3068 | 68 |

| | | |{Excentric | 3498 | 186 |

| | | | | | |

| |{ 10 | 5 |{Common | 1820 | 16⅖ |

| 8 inch. |{ | |{Excentric | 2207 | 19⅓ |

| |{ | | | | |

| |{ 10 | 10 |{Common | 2703 | 35 |

| | | |{Excentric | 2339 | 141 |

+-----------+--------+-------+------------+----------+-----------+

“The preceding table presents, in an abstracted form, the results

of the experiments at Portsmouth, and Shoebury Ness. It will be

observed that the ordnance used were 32-pounders, and 8-inch guns;

from both of which natures were fired the ordinary solid shot, and

also shot rendered excentric by the removal of certain quantities of

metal. Thus, in the Portsmouth experiments, 1 lb. of metal was taken

from each 32 lb. shot, and 3 lb. from each 68 lb. shot; in those at

Shoebury Ness, 1 lb. or 2 lb. were taken from the 32 lb. shot, and 4

lb. from the 68 lb. shot.

“On analyzing the experiments, both at Portsmouth, and Shoebury

Ness, it appears that the flight of the ordinary solid shot was the

most true, the lateral deflections being frequently but one-half,

sometimes one-third, or one-fourth only of the deflections of the

excentric shot; that these last deflections were always in the

direction in which the centres of gravity of the shot were placed in

the gun; and that the increases, or diminutions of range caused by

the vertical deviations were produced respectively, as the centres of

gravity of the shot were placed upwards, or downwards. It appears,

also, that the lateral deviations, though in general constant in

direction, were very variable in amount. The results above stated

prove decisively the correctness of the deductions from theory, and

of the practical maxim, that errors in sphericity and homogeneity

in a shot are causes of its deviation from a correct path; and it

follows that spherical and homogeneous projectiles, being the most

simple, and quite indifferent to the position in which they are

placed in the gun and rolled home, as well as to that in which they

pass through the atmosphere, are decidedly to be preferred to the

others.

“The results of these very curious, and instructive experiments

fully explain the extraordinary anomalies, as they have hitherto

been considered, in length of range, and in the lateral deviations:

these have been attributed to changes in the state of the air, or

the direction of the wind, to differences in the strength of the

gunpowder, and to inequalities in the degrees of windage. All these

causes are, no doubt, productive of errors in practice; but it is now

clear that those errors are chiefly occasioned by the excentricity,

and non-homogeneity of the shot, and the accidental positions of the

centre of gravity of the projectile with respect to the axis of the

bore.

“The whole of these experiments furnish decisive proof of the

necessity of paying the most scrupulous attention to the figure, and

homogeneity of solid shot, and the concentricity of shells; and they

exhibit the remarkable fact, that a very considerable increase of

range may be obtained without an increase in the charge, or elevation

of the gun.”

_Resistance of iron plates, oak plank, &c., against musketry,

canister, grape shot, hollow, and solid shot._

“From experiments in November, 1849, the following results were

obtained:—

“_Marine percussion musket_—Charge, 4½ drams; distance, 40 yards.

“Iron plates, ⅛ inch } All passed through.

Oak plank, 1 ” }

Iron plates, 2/8 ” } 4 in 6 passed through.

Oak plank, 2 ” }

Iron plates, ⅜ ” } Both musket proof.

Oak plank, 3 ” }

_Canister_—Charge, 6 lb.; distance, 100 yards.

Iron plates, ⅜ inch } Passed through.

Oak plank, 3 ” }

Iron plates, 4/8 ” } Canister proof.

Oak plank, 4 ” }

_Grape_—Charge, 6 lb.; distance, 200 yards.

Iron plates, 4/8 inch }

” ⅝ ” } All passed through.

” 6/8 ” }

Oak plank, 4 inch } All passed through.

” 5 ” }

” 6 ” Generally passed through.

“Experiments were made in June, 1850, against two sections of the

‘Simoom,’ ⅝ inch thick, placed 35 feet apart; the guns, and charges

were those used in all steam vessels. The result made evident that

two, or three shot, or sometimes even a single one, striking near the

water-line of an iron vessel, must endanger the ship. Another most

serious evil is, that the shot breaks, on striking, into innumerable

pieces, which pass into the ship with such force, as to range

afterwards to a distance of 400 or 500 yards; and that the effect on

men at their quarters would be more destructive than canister shot,

supposing them to pass through a ship’s side; as when the plates are

only ⅜ inch thick.

“Experiments were made in July, 1850, against an iron section similar

to the ‘Simoom;’ it was filled in and made solid with 5½ inch oak

timber between the iron ribs, and 4½ inch oak planking above the

water-ways, which were 1 foot thick, and with 3 inch fir above the

portsills; these were strongly secured to the iron plates by bolts.

The results were as follows:—The holes made by the shot were not so

irregular as on the former occasion, but as clear and open; all parts

of the shot passed right through the iron and timber, and then split,

and spread abroad with considerable velocity. With low charges, the

shot did not split into so many pieces as before. With high charges,

the splinters from the shot were as numerous and as severe as before,

with the addition, in this, and the former case, of the evil to which

other vessels are subject—that of the splinters torn from the timbers.

“In August, 1850, an iron section similar to the ‘Simoom’ was

prepared with a covering of fir plank on the outside, of the

thickness of 2, 3, and 4 inches, in different parts. The result of

this experiment was similar to the last, when the wood was on the

inside; with the exception of the splinters from the wood. The holes

made by the shot were regular, of the full size of the shot, and

open; every shot split on passing through—those between the ribs into

a few pieces only, those that struck on the ribs into a great number;

in both cases, when combined with the splinters of the iron side, the

effect must prove highly destructive.

“A comparison as to the effect of shot on iron, and timber, was made

by firing 8-inch hollow shot, and 32-pound solid shot, at a butt

built for experimental shell-firing, with timber having 6-inch plank

on the outside, and 4-inch within; the result was, that the splinters

from the wood were trifling when compared with those from the iron.

“The general result of all the foregoing, and consecutive experiments

for the same purpose, clearly demonstrates that the destructive

effects of the impacts of shot on iron cannot be prevented. If the

iron sides are of the thickness required to give adequate strength

to the ship (⅝, or at least 4/8 of an inch), the shot will be broken

by the impact; if the iron plates be thin enough to let the shot

pass into the ship without breaking, the vessel will be deficient

in strength; the shot will do its work, particularly in oblique or

raking fire, more effectively than its splinters, and, in passing

out, make apertures more difficult to plug or stop, than in passing

in. When a clean hole is made by a shot penetrating an iron plate,

the whole of the disc struck out by the shot is broken into numerous

small pieces, which are driven into the ship with very destructive

effects; and if the plate be so thick (viz., upwards of 4/8 of an

inch) as to cause the shot to break on striking, the fragments will

nevertheless pass into the ship, as in the case of a percussion, or

concussion shell, and so produce a terrific compound effect by the

fragments of both.

“The expedient of combining wood, and iron, either by substituting

timber for the iron ribs, or the reverse, outside planking for the

iron plates—makes the matter worse. The pieces of ribs struck off,

sometimes of great length, pass on with the shot, to produce more

extensive ravages elsewhere.”

NAVAL GUNNERY.

“In firing into masses of timber, or any solid substance, _that

velocity which can but just penetrate_ will occasion the greatest

shake, and tear off the greatest number of and largest splinters;

consequently, in close actions, shot discharged with the full

quantity of powder tear off fewer splinters than balls fired from the

same nature of guns with reduced charges.

“_In naval actions_, shot intended to take effect upon the hull of an

enemy should rather be discharged with a falling than with a rising

side; but such pieces as may be appointed specially to act against

the masts and rigging should be fired, on the contrary, with the

rising motion, the aim being taken low.

“_In all close actions_, the great object should be to strike as

often as possible the enemy’s hull. One or two 24-lb. shot taking

effect just below the water-line, and perhaps perforating both sides

of a small vessel, will in general either force her to surrender, or

send her to the bottom; and such an injury is much more likely to be

occasioned by firing with a falling than with a rising side.

“_To estimate the distance between vessels._[31]

“Measure with a sextant, or quadrant, the angular height of the

enemy’s mast, and by referring _to Table B_, the corresponding

distance may be taken out.

“_In Table A_, the height of the masts to the head of the

maintopgallant rigging, and likewise to the maintopmast crosstrees

above the surface of the water at low water mark, are given for every

rate, and class of vessel.

“The distances in English yards, corresponding to the angles

subtended by the masts, are given in the first column _of Table B_.

“_Table B_ may also be applied to the important purpose of

determining distances, making use of the ship’s own mast as the given

height or side of the triangle, by marking upon it any of the heights

expressed in the table, and placing an observer there when required

to measure the angle A B C (_vide fig._) formed by the mast when most

perpendicular, and the line of sight B C.

[Illustration: (triangle A B C)]

“_The Tangent practice Tables_ C, D, and E will frequently be found

useful in pointing ordnance, when the distance is known; for by

referring to that distance in the column of the table belonging to

the corresponding nature of gun, the part, that should be aimed at,

will be ascertained.”

TABLE A.

Heights above the water of the different parts of French ships of

War, and their masts, according to the following Rates:

+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------+

| | Line of battle Ships. |

| +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

| | 120. | 100. | 90. | 86. | 82. |

| +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

| Of lower deck | 5 3 | 7 10 | 6 7 | 5 8 | 5 8 |

| Middle | 13 1 | | | | |

| Upper | 19 4 | 15 1 | 14 9 | 12 9 | 12 9 |

| Quarter | 25 7 | 21 3 | 19 8 | 19 2 | 19 2 |

| Of poop plank sheer | 35 5 | 29 2 | 29 6 | 25 4 | 25 4 |

| Upper side of mainyard | 79 0 | 77 1 | 76 5 | 71 0 | 66 0 |

| Under side of maintop | 93 6 | 91 10 | 90 2 | 84 0 | 78 0 |

| Upper side of cap to mainmast |109 6 |109 10 |108 3 |101 0 | 94 0 |

| Upper side of maintopsail-yard|148 7 |140 9 |141 0 |139 0 |130 0 |

| ” Crosstrees to maintopmast |158 5 |150 11 |150 11 |148 0 |138 0 |

| ” Cap to maintopmast |166 4 |161 8 |158 9 |156 0 |147 0 |

| Head of topgallant rigging |190 7 |185 4 |185 4 |183 0 |170 0 |

| Truck |219 9 |212 7 |201 9 |205 0 |192 5 |

| Upper side of foreyard | 72 10 | 72 2 | 71 2 | 64 0 | 61 0 |

| Under side of foretop | 86 7 | 84 11 | 83 7 | 77 0 | 72 0 |

| Upper side of cap to foremast |103 0 |101 8 |100 0 | 92 0 | 87 0 |

| ” Foretopsail-yard |136 5 |128 11 |129 7 |128 0 |117 0 |

| ” Crosstrees to foretopmast |145 8 |139 1 |137 9 |136 0 |126 0 |

| ” Cap to foretopmast |153 6 |148 11 |145 0 |144 0 |135 0 |

| Head to topgallant rigging |173 10 |170 3 |169 7 |168 0 |156 0 |

| Truck |200 1 |194 10 |184 8 |188 0 |176 0 |

| Upper side of crossjack-yard | 73 1 | 71 10 | 70 2 | 64 0 | 61 0 |

| Under side of mizentop | 83 4 | 83 7 | 81 4 | 75 0 | 71 0 |

| Upper side of cap to mizenmast| 93 6 | 96 5 | 93 9 | 85 0 | 82 0 |

| ” Mizentopsail-yard |121 4 |116 9 |117 1 |110 0 |107 0 |

| ” Crosstrees to mizentopmast|127 11 |125 11 |122 4 |117 0 |112 0 |

| Head of topgallant rigging |154 2 |150 11 |145 8 |143 0 |136 0 |

| Truck |177 9 |171 7 |158 9 |160 0 |153 0 |

+-------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

+--------------------------------+---------------+----------+-------+

| +-------+-------+----------+-------+

| | 60. | 44. | 24. | 18. |

| +-------+-------+----------+-------+

| Upper | 6 6¾| 6 11 | 5 10 | 4 3 |

| Quarter | 13 9 | 13 4 | 12 0 | |

| Upper side of mainyard | 67 0 | 59 0 | 41 0 | 39 0 |

| Under side of maintop | 79 0 | 70 0 | 49 0 | 47 0 |

| Upper side of cap to mainmast | 95 0 | 84 0 | 59 0 | 56 0 |

| Upper side of maintopsail-yard |131 0 |114 0 | 79 0 | 72 0 |

| ” Crosstrees to maintopmast |139 0 |121 0 | 85 0 | 77 0 |

| ” Cap to maintopmast |148 0 |128 0 | 89 0 | 81 0 |

| Head of topgallant rigging |171 0 |151 0 | 104 0 | 96 0 |

| Truck |187 9 |168 6 | 120 7 |112 0 |

| Upper side of foreyard | 67 0 | 51 0 | 34 0 | 34 0 |

| Under side of foretop | 73 0 | 63 0 | 43 0 | 41 0 |

| Upper side of cap to foremast | 88 0 | 76 0 | 53 0 | 50 0 |

| ” Foretopsail-yard |118 0 |101 0 | 70 0 | 66 0 |

| ” Crosstrees to foretopmast |127 0 |109 0 | 76 0 | 70 0 |

| ” Cap to foretopmast |136 0 |116 0 | 81 0 | 75 0 |

| Head to topgallant rigging |157 0 |136 0 | 95 0 | 89 0 |

| Truck |172 1 |152 0 | 109 6 |103 6 |

| Upper side of crossjack-yard | 62 0 | 52 0 | 32 0 | |

| Under side of mizentop | 72 0 | 62 0 | 39 0 | |

| Upper side of cap to mizenmast | 83 0 | 71 0 | 47 0 | |

| ” Mizentopsail-yard |108 0 | 94 0 | 56 0 | |

| ” Crosstrees to mizentopmast |113 0 | 99 0 | 61 0 | |

| Head of topgallant rigging |137 0 |120 0 | 74 0 | |

| Truck |150 0 |133 6 | 85 0 | |

+--------------------------------+-------+-------+----------+-------+

TABLE B.

Angles subtended by the Mainmasts of French ships of war, between

the water-line and the truck, also between the water-line and the

crosstrees, at distances in yards, and in cables’ length; the eye of

the observer being twenty feet above the water.

+--------------+-----------------------------------------------+

| | LINE OF BATTLE SHIPS. |

| DISTANCES. +---------------+---------------+---------------+

+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

| | |219 9 |158 5 |201 9 |150 11 |192 5 |138 0 |

| | | | | | | | |

| | | of |topmast| of |topmast| of |topmast|

+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

| | | ° ′ | ° ′ | ° ′ | ° ′ | ° ′ | ° ′ |

| 120 | ½ | 32 14 | 24 13 | 29 59 | 23 3 | 28 47 | 21 11 |

| 240 | 1 | 17 7 | 12 29 | 15 46 | 11 50 | 15 4 | 10 54 |

| 360 | 1½ | 11 33 | 8 22 | 10 37 | 7 56 | 10 8 | 7 38 |

| 480 | 2 | 8 42 | 6 17 | 7 59 | 5 57 | 7 38 | 5 29 |

| 600 | 2½ | 6 59 | 5 2 | 6 24 | 4 46 | 6 7 | 4 23 |

| 720 | 3 | 5 49 | 4 12 | 5 20 | 3 59 | 5 6 | 3 39 |

| 840 | 3½ | 4 59 | 3 36 | 4 35 | 3 24 | 4 22 | 3 8 |

| 960 | 4 | 4 22 | 3 9 | 4 1 | 2 59 | 3 49 | 2 44 |

| 1080 | 4½ | 3 53 | 2 48 | 3 34 | 2 42 | 3 24 | 2 26 |

| 1200 | 5 | 3 30 | 2 31 | 3 21 | 2 23 | 3 4 | 2 12 |

| 1320 | 5½ | 3 11 | 2 17 | 2 55 | 2 10 | 2 47 | 2 0 |

| 1440 | 6 | 2 55 | 2 6 | 2 40 | 1 59 | 2 33 | 1 50 |

+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

+--------------+-------------------------------+

| | FRIGATES. |

| DISTANCES. +---------------+---------------+

| | 60 Guns. | 44 Guns. |

+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

| | |187 9 |139 0 |168 6 |121 0 |

| | | | | | |

| | | of |topmast| of |topmast|

+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

| | | ° ′ | ° ′ | ° ′ | ° ′ |

| 120 | ½ | 28 11 | 21 12 | 25 37 | 18 51 |

| 240 | 1 | 14 43 | 10 55 | 13 15 | 9 35 |

| 360 | 1½ | 9 54 | 7 19 | 8 54 | 6 24 |

| 480 | 2 | 7 27 | 5 30 | 6 41 | 4 48 |

| 600 | 2½ | 5 58 | 4 23 | 5 21 | 3 51 |

| 720 | 3 | 4 58 | 3 39 | 4 28 | 3 13 |

| 840 | 3½ | 4 16 | 3 8 | 3 50 | 2 45 |

| 960 | 4 | 3 44 | 2 44 | 3 21 | 2 24 |

| 1080 | 4½ | 3 19 | 2 26 | 2 59 | 2 9 |

| 1200 | 5 | 2 59 | 2 12 | 2 41 | 1 55 |

| 1320 | 5½ | 2 43 | 2 0 | 2 26 | 1 45 |

| 1440 | 6 | 2 29 | 1 50 | 2 14 | 1 36 |

+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

+--------------+---------------+---------------+

| | CORVETTES. | BRIGS. |

| DISTANCES. +---------------+---------------+

| | 24 Guns. | 18 Guns. |

+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

| | |120 7 | 85 0 |112 0 | 77 0 |

| | | | | | |

| | | of |topmast| of |topmast|

+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

| | | ° ′ | ° ′ | ° ′ | ° ′ |

| 120 | ½ | 18 50 | 13 25 | 17 31 | 12 11 |

| 240 | 1 | 9 34 | 6 45 | 8 52 | 6 7 |

| 360 | 1½ | 6 24 | 4 30 | 5 56 | 4 5 |

| 480 | 2 | 4 48 | 3 23 | 4 27 | 3 4 |

| 600 | 2½ | 3 51 | 2 42 | 3 34 | 2 27 |

| 720 | 3 | 3 13 | 2 15 | 2 58 | 2 3 |

| 840 | 3½ | 2 45 | 1 56 | 2 33 | 1 45 |

| 960 | 4 | 2 24 | 1 41 | 2 14 | 1 32 |

| 1080 | 4½ | 2 9 | 1 30 | 1 59 | 1 22 |

| 1200 | 5 | 1 55 | 1 21 | 1 47 | 1 14 |

| 1320 | 5½ | 1 45 | 1 14 | 1 37 | 1 7 |

| 1440 | 6 | 1 36 | 1 8 | 1 29 | 1 1 |

+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

TABLE C.

Tangent practice with 8-inch Guns, weighing 65, and 60 cwt., carrying

a single shot weighing 56 lb., or a shell weighing 56 lb., and

charged with 10 lb. of powder. The line of sight is parallel to the

axis of the bore, and the gun is 5 feet 4 inches above the level of

the water.

+---------+-------+----------+------------------------------------------+

| | |part aimed+------------------------------------------+

+---------+-------+----------+---------------------+--------------------+

| 0 22 20 | 330 | 11 10 | 1 foot below the | 1½ foot below the |

| 0 35 0 | 435 | 18 7 | 7 inches below the | 5 feet above ditto.|

| 0 47 30 | 535 | 27 6 | 2 feet above the | Twice the height |

| 1 0 0 | 630 | 38 4 | About midway between| Three times ditto. |

| 1 20 0 | 756 | 58 0 | 3 feet below the | Upper side of the |

| 1 40 0 | 879 | 82 0 | Upper side of cap to| 2 ft. below the |

| 2 0 0 | 1000 | 110 0 | 2 feet below the | 1 ft. above the |

| 2 20 0 | 1078 | 137 0 | 1 foot below the | 1 ft. above the |

| 2 40 0 | 1153 | 166 0 | 4 feet below the | 2 feet below the |

| 3 0 0 | 1225 | 198 0 | 6 feet above the | |

| _Tangent practice with 32-pounder Gun, weighing 56 cwt., carrying |

| one solid shot, charge 10 lb. The line of sight parallel to the |

| axis of the bore, and the Gun 5 feet 4 inches above the water._ |

| 0 15 0 | 343 | 9 10 | 3 feet below the | 3 feet above the |

| 0 30 0 | 435 | 16 9 | 4 feet above ditto.| 3 feet above the |

| 0 41 0 | 525 | 24 0 | 1 foot below the |About midway between|

| 0 52 0 | 613 | 33 0 | Midway between the | One-third of |

| 1 0 0 | 700 | 42 0 | About midway between| Midway between the |

| 1 20 0 | 835 | 63 8 | About 2 feet below | The under side of |

| 1 40 0 | 968 | 90 0 | 4 feet below the | 4 feet under the |

| 2 0 0 | 1100 | 120 0 | 3 feet above the | 1 ft. below the |

| 2 20 0 | 1240 | 157 0 | 1 foot above the | 5 feet above the |

| 2 40 0 | 1378 | 198 0 | 5 feet above the | |

+---------+-------+----------+---------------------+--------------------+

_Vide_—Tables of Practice, &c., pages 74, 75, 77, 79.

TABLE D.

Tangent practice with a long 24-Pr. Gun with 1 solid shot and a

charge of 8 lb. of powder, or with a long 18-Pr. charge 6 lb., from

the maindeck of a Frigate of the first class; the height of the Gun

above the surface of the water being 9 ft.

+---------+--------+---------+-----------------------------------------+

+---------+--------+---------+-----------------------------------------+

| 297 | P. B. | .. | At part intended to hit. |

| | | | |

| 402 |} | 14 ft. | At the level of the quarterdeck, |

| |} | | gangway, and forecastle. |

| 508 |} | 22 | At bulwark rail of quarterdeck, gangway,|

| |} | | and forecastle. |

| 614 |} By | 33 | At 4 feet below the centre of mainmast, |

| |} using | | reckoning from the deck to the |

| |} sight | | mainyard; centre of foremast; 20 feet |

| |} para- | | below crossjack-yard. |

| 720 |} llel | 47 | At 13 feet below mainyard; 5 feet below |

| |} to | | foreyard; 6 feet below crossjack-yard.|

| 790 |} bore. | 61 | At under part of mainyard; 3 feet below |

| |} | | foretop; 2 feet below mizentop. |

| 860 |} | 77 | At rail of maintop-bulwark; forecap; 5 |

| |} | | feet over mizencap. |

| 930 |} | .. | Point at part intended to hit. |

| | | | |

| 1000 |} | 35 | At 2 feet below half-way from deck to |

| |} | | mainyard; 2 feet above half-way from |

| |} | | deck to foreyard; centre of mizenmast.|

| 1060 |} | 51 | At 9 feet below mainyard; under part of |

| |} | | foreyard; 1 foot below crossjack-yard.|

| 1120 |} *By | 68 | At 3 feet under maintop; rather better |

| |} using | | than half-way between foretop and |

| |} the | | forecap; half-way between mizentop |

| |} line | | and mizencap. |

| 1180 |} of | 86 | At cap of mainmast; 8 feet over forecap;|

| |} metal.| | 3 feet under half-way from mizencap to|

| |} | | topsail-yard (hoisted). |

| 1240 |} | 106 | At centre-way between maincap and |

| |} | | topmast-crosstrees; 4 feet over |

| |} | | foretopsail-yard (hoisted); cap of |

| |} | | mizentopmast. |

| 1299 |} | 130 | At maintopmast cap; 7 feet under head |

| |} | | of foretopgallant rigging. |

+---------+--------+---------+-----------------------------------------+

With 2 shot the elevation must be nearly double that which, with 1 shot,

and the same charge of powder, produces the same range.

The angles of elevation, corresponding to the ranges, increase, by

quarter degrees, from point blank.

* The reason for transferring the sight to the line-of-metal is,

obviously, to use the dispart elevation for the purpose of getting a

more direct view.

_Vide_ Tables of Practice, &c., pages 74, 75.

TABLE E.

Tangent practice with short 24, and 18-Prs., with 1 solid shot and

a charge of ¼th the shot’s weight, from the maindeck of a 2nd class

Frigate; the height of the Gun above the surface of the water being 7

feet 6 inches.

+--------+--------+---------+-------------------------------------------+

+--------+--------+---------+-------------------------------------------+

| 221 | P. B. | ft. in. | Point at part intended to hit. |

| 312 |} | 11 6 | At 2 feet below the level of the |

| |} | | quarterdeck, gangway, and forecastle. |

| 403 |} | 18 6 | At bulwark rail of quarterdeck, gangway, |

| |} | | and forecastle. |

| 494 |} | 26 6 | At 6 feet over the upper part of hammocks |

| |} By | | stowed in quarterdeck, gangway, &c. |

| 582 |} sight | 37 6 | At 2 feet under centre of mainmast, |

| |} para- | | reckoning from top of hammocks to |

| |} llel | | mainyard: 2 feet over corresponding |

| |} to | | mark in foremast. |

| 644 |} axis | 50 | At 8 feet under mainyard; 1 foot under |

| |} of | | foreyard; crossjack-yard. |

| 706 |} bore. | 62 | At 2 feet under half-way from mainyard to |

| |} | | maintop; 1 foot under foretop; mizentop.|

| 768 |} | 78 | At half-way from maintop to maincap; 2 |

| |} | | feet over forecap; 7 feet over mizencap.|

| 832 |} | 94 | At 10 feet over maincap or one-third up |

| 907 | . . | . . | Point at part intended to hit. |

| 982 |} | 20 6 | At upper part of the hammocks stowed in |

| |} | | quarterdeck, forecastle, nettings, &c. |

| 1057 |} | 35 6 | At 4 feet under centre of mainmast, |

| |} | | reckoning from top of hammocks to |

| |} | | mainyard; centre of foremast. |

| 1133 |} *By | 51 | At 7 feet under mainyard; foreyard; |

| |} the | | crossjack-yard. |

| 1177 |} line | 69 | At 1 foot under maintop; centre between |

| |} of | | foretop and forecap; 2 feet under |

| |} metal.| | mizencap. |

| 1221 |} | 87 | At 3 feet over maincap; 1 foot under |

| |} | | centre between maincap and topsail-yards|

| |} | | (hoisted up); 4 feet under centre of |

| |} | | mizentop-sail. |

| 1265 |} | 106 |At 8 feet under maintopsail-yard (hoisted);|

| |} | | 3 feet under foretopmast crosstrees; 1 |

| |} | | foot over mizentopmast cap. |

| 1308 |} | 127 | At 1 foot under maintopmast cap; 9 feet |

+--------+--------+---------+-------------------------------------------+

With 2 shot the elevation must be nearly double that which, with 1 shot,

and the same charge of powder, produces the same range.

The angles of elevation, corresponding to the ranges, increase, by

quarter degrees, from point blank.

* The reason for transferring the sight to the line-of-metal is,

obviously, to use the dispart elevation for getting a more direct view.

_Vide_ Tables of Practice, &c., pages 74, 75.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE EXERCISE, AND SERVICE OF GREAT GUNS, AND SHELLS

ON BOARD HER MAJESTY’S SHIPS.

POSITIONS. (_Vide Plate._)

Before loading. Loading. Training.

_Gun Numbers._

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

_Auxiliaries._

7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, &c.

_Handspike-men._

9, 10.

_Rear-men._

12, The right rear-man. 13, The left rear-man, or the two highest

numbers.

_Words of command._

“Prime.”—“Point.”—“Elevate.”—“Ready.”—“Fire.”—“Stop the

vent.”—“Sponge.”—“Load.”—“Run out.”

_Number of Men allowed to the following Broadside guns._

----------------+---------+---------+-------+----------------

Nature of Gun. | Weight. | Length. |Number | Carriage.

| | |of men.|

----------------+---------+---------+-------+----------------

| cwt. | Feet. | |

8-inch. | 65 | 9 | 14 |} These guns

{| 56 | 9½ | 13 |} are

{| 50 | 9 | 12 |} mounted on

32 Pounder. {| 45 | 8½ | 11 |} common

{| 42 | 8 | 10 |} carriages.

{| 32 | 6½ | 9 | } Mounted on

{| 25 | 6 | 8 | } Hardy’s

32 Pr. Carronade| 17 | 4 | 7 | } carriages.

----------------+---------+---------+-------+----------------

[Illustration: POSITIONS.

_Before Loading._ _Loading._ _Training._

Stationary Powderman Stationary Powderman Stationary Powderman

Extra Powderman

_J. W. Lowry, sc._]

EXERCISE WITH 13 MEN, _to a Lower deck gun_.

No.

1. The Captain;—commands, attends the breeching, bed, and quoin,

primes, points, fires, and stops the vent.

2. The second Captain;—assists No. 1, casts loose, hauls up the port,

runs out, attends the apron, and port tackle-fall, and cocks the lock.

3. Takes out the tompeon, bears out the port, loads, rams home, runs

out, and trains.

4. Takes out the tompeon, bears out the port, worms, sponges, rams

home, runs out, and trains.

5. Casts loose, hauls up the port, gives shot and wad to No. 3, runs

out, trains, and spans the breeching.

7, and 8. Cast loose, run out, and train.

9, and 10. Cast loose, run out, and attend handspikes.

11. Casts loose, runs out, and trains.

12. Casts loose, and attends train tackle.

13. Casts loose, runs out, trains, and fires with a hammer, or match.

_Note._—The duties of No. 2 for upper, or main deck guns will be the

same as that for lower deck guns, omitting the words “haul up the

port,” and “attends port tackle-fall.” The duties likewise of Nos. 3,

and 4 will be the same, substituting the words “takes off the upper

half-port,” “lets down the lower one,” or “takes out the port” (as

the case may be) for “bears out the port.” The duties also of Nos. 5,

and 6 will be the same, omitting the words “hauls up the port.”

Handspike-men with 5, 6, or 7 men Nos. 5, and 6

” ” 8 or 9 men ” 7, and 8

” ” 10 or 11 men ” 7, and 8

and assistant handspike-men ” 9, and 2

Handspike-men with all Nos. above 11 ” 9, and 10

and assistant handspike-men ” 11, and 2

With light guns it may be advantageous, in some cases, to double man

the handspikes.

The left rear-man will always fire with a hammer, or match; and

the right rear-man will attend the train tackle, except when he is

handspikeman (when No. 2 will attend it), and in lower deck exercise

(when the left rear-man will attend it).

At the word “_Man both sides_,” each watch will repair to its

respective side, the odd numbers standing to the left of the left

guns; even numbers to the right of the right guns.

“MAN BOTH SIDES.”

_Left guns._—No. 3 remains 3; 5 becomes 4; 7—6; 9—5; 11—2; 13—7;

1 remains 1.

_Right guns._—No. 4 remains 4; 6 becomes 3; 8—6; 10—5; 12—2; 2—1.

_Note._—The left guns are odd starboard, and even port. The right

guns are even starboard, and odd port. The odd numbered guns’ crews

are taken from the starboard watch; the even numbered from the port

watch.

Guns’ crews always man, and powder boys always supply adjacent guns,

when clearing for action, or when fighting both sides.

_Note._—With a crew of 11 men, and upwards, and both sides manned,

No. 2 is _always_ to attend the train tackle.

When casualties occur at the guns, those holding the highest numbers,

or those _last_ placed, will be the first to move to fill up the

vacancies, excepting that where both captains are removed, the

officer will name the most fitting person to become No. 1, filling up

the vacancy as above. For instance; if there should be 13 men at the

gun, and Nos. 3, 6, and 9, are ordered to “fall out,” Nos. 5, and 7,

move up, becoming Nos. 3, and 5; No. 11, moves up, and becomes No. 7;

No. 13,—No. 9; No. 8 moves up, and becomes No. 6; No. 10,—No. 8; and

No. 12,—No. 10.[32]

EXERCISE WITH 7 MEN, _to a 32-pounder carronade_.

No.

1. The Captain; commands, attends the breeching, primes, points,

fires, and stops the vent.

2. The second Captain; assists No. 1, casts loose, runs out,

attends the apron, and elevating screw, cocks the lock, and attends

train-tackle.

3. Takes out the tompeon, takes off the upper half-port, lets down

the lower one, loads, rams home, runs out, and trains.

4. Takes out the tompeon, takes off the upper half-port, lets down

the lower one, worms, sponges, rams home, runs out, trains, and

attends compressor, when the gun is out.

5. Casts loose, gives shot, and wad to No. 3, runs out, trains, and

spans the breeching.

6. Casts loose, gives sponge, rammer, and worm to No. 4, runs out,

trains, spans the breeching, and attends compressor, when the gun is

in.

7. Casts loose, runs out, trains, and fires with a hammer, or match.

_Note._—Handspikes are used with all guns, and sometimes with

carronades.

The duties with 9 men at the 32 cwt., and 8 men at the 25 cwt. guns

are the same as with the 32-pounder carronade, except that No. 8

attends the compressor, instead of No. 6.

ARRANGEMENT FOR FIGHTING BOTH SIDES.

When ordered to quarters, each watch will take its respective side;

when the crew will assume the Nos. to which the several duties,

prescribed for working the guns, are assigned.

In the event of being attacked on both sides, at the same time, the

following distribution is to be made, where 6 men, and upwards,

besides the powderman, can be allowed to each gun, and its opposite,

viz.:—

FIGHTING BOTH SIDES.

+---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+

+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

| 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 |

| ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ |

| ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖6 | ‖┃‖6 | 5‖┃‖6 | 5‖┃‖6 | 5‖┃‖6 | 5‖┃‖6 |

| ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ |

| ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖2 | ‖┃‖2 |

| 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |

| | | | | | | | |

| man. | man. | man. | man. | man. | man. | man. | man. |

| | | | | | | | |

| 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |

| ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | 2‖┃‖ | 2‖┃‖ | 2‖┃‖7 |

| ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ |

| ‖┃‖ | 6‖┃‖ | 6‖┃‖ | 6‖┃‖5 | 6‖┃‖5 | 6‖┃‖5 | 6‖┃‖5 | 6‖┃‖5 |

| ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ |

| 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃ 3| 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃ 3 |

+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

+---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+

The guns are to be worked in pairs, commencing from forward; Nos. 1,

and 2 guns on each side will be pairs, and so on, up to the highest

even numbered gun on the deck; but the aftermost (if it should be an

odd numbered gun) must be worked by its own crew passing from side to

side, as necessary. When exercising, until the crews are perfect, and

steady, the orders should be given by the officer, who is in charge

of the quarters, and the left guns should be fired first. But when

the men are perfect, the guns, which are first ready, should be first

fired, and the exercise should be conducted by the captains of the

guns, having reference to the movements of the other gun of their

pairs, in order to approximate the exercise, as nearly as possible,

to action with an enemy. All shot practice at targets, with both

sides manned, is to be conducted on this plan.

_Words of command for_ FIGHTING BOTH SIDES.

“Man both sides.”—“Prime.”—“Point.”—“Muzzle to the right.”—“Muzzle

to the left.”—“Elevate.”—“Ready.”—(_Left guns._)—“Fire.”—“Sponge,

and load.”—(_Right guns._)—“Fire.”—“Sponge, and load.”—(_Left

guns._)—“Run out.”—“Fire.”—“Sponge, and load.”—(_Right guns._)—“Run

out.”—“Fire.”—“Cease firing.”

When ordered to “cease firing,” the guns are to be loaded, and run

out.[33]

EXERCISE FOR THE 10-INCH, OR OTHER REVOLVING GUN, _with a crew of 17

men_.

The crew are assembled as in the established Gun exercise; then—

Gun.—Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

Auxiliaries.—Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17.

Traversing tackle-men.—Nos. 7, 8.

Handspike-men.—Nos. 9, 10. Assistant handspike-men.—Nos. 11, 12.

Compressor men, Nos. 13, 14.

Rear-men.—No. 16, the right rear-man. No. 17, the left rear-man.

No. 1. The Captain. No. 4. Sponger.

” 2. Second Captain. ” 5. Assistant loader.

” 3. Loader. ” 6. Assistant sponger.

_Words of command._

“Traverse.”[34]—“Prime.”—“Point.”—“Elevate.”—“Ready.”—“Fire.”—“Stop

the vent.”—“Sponge.”—“Load.”—“Run out.”

_Exercise with 17 men._

No.

1. The Captain; commands, attends the breeching, bed, and quoin,

primes, points, fires, and stops the vent.

2. Second Captain; assists No. 1, casts loose, runs out, attends

the apron, cocks the lock, and attends rear bolt.

3. Takes out the tompeon, loads, rams home, runs out, attends

fighting bolt, shackles, and unshackles breeching, if necessary.

4. Takes out the tompeon, worms, sponges, rams home, runs out,

attends stop-handspike, shackles, and unshackles breeching, if

necessary.

5. Casts loose, runs out, traverses, and spans the breeching.

6. Casts loose, gives sponge, rammer, and worm to No. 4, runs out,

traverses, and spans the breeching.

7, and 8. Cast loose, run out, attend traversing tackles, and shift

side tackles.

9, 10, 11, and 12. Cast loose, run out, and attend handspikes.

13, and 14. Cast loose, run out, traverse, and attend compressors.

15. Casts loose, runs out, and traverses.

16. Casts loose, traverses, shifts traversing-tackle, brings up

shot, or shell, attends stop-handspike, and train-tackle.

17. Casts loose, traverses, shifts traversing-tackle, brings up

shot, or shell, fires with a hammer, or match, and attends train

tackle.

N.B. These numbers will be reduced for lighter guns, as may be

necessary, when Nos. 11, and 12, will attend compressors, and the

rear-men will do the duties of No. 16, and 17. When slide-guns are

fitted with Ferguson’s Compressor, No. 6 is to attend to it.

On coming to the gun, one, or other of these orders will follow;

viz.,—“Action on the rear bolt,” or “Action on the fighting bolt

required.”

No. 2, attends the rear, No. 3, the fighting bolt, No. 1 gives the

word “Right, or left traverse;” and when bearing on the object, or

when on the fighting bolt required “Well:” the gun is then to be

wormed, sponged, loaded, and run out, without further orders.

MORTAR EXERCISE.

Mortars—13-inch Land service—Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

” 10-inch ” ” ” 1, - 3, 4, 5, 6.

” 8-inch ” ” ” 1, - 3, 4, - 6.

_Words of command._

“Point.”—“Run the mortar up.”—“Cross lift the mortar to the

right.”—“Cross lift the mortar to the left.”—“Muzzle to the

right.”—“Muzzle to the left.”—“Down.”—“Load.”—“Prime.”—“Fire.”

_13-inch Land service Mortar._

_Duties._—No. 1. Commands, points, and serves the vent.

2. Serves ammunition.

3. Loads, assists to put in the shell, runs up, and trains.

4. Sponges, wipes the bottom of the shell, uncaps the fuse, puts in

shell, runs up, trains, and attends sheepskin.

5. Assists to bring up shell, runs up, trains, and fires.

6. Brings up shell, guides it into the mortar, runs up, trains, and

primes.

_10-inch Land service Mortar._

_Duties._—No. 1. Commands, points, and serves the vent.

3. Serves ammunition, loads, assists to put in shell, runs up, and

trains.

4. Sponges, wipes the bottom of the shell, uncaps the fuze, puts in

shell, runs up, trains, and attends sheepskin.

5. Assists to bring up shell, runs up, trains, and fires.

6. Brings up shell, runs up, trains, and primes.

_8-inch Land service Mortar._

_Duties._—No. 1. Commands, primes, points, and serves the vent.

3. Serves ammunition, loads, runs up, and trains.

4. Sponges, wipes the bottom of the shell, uncaps the fuze, puts in

shell, runs up, trains, and attends sheepskin.

6. Brings up shell, and fires.

TO DISMOUNT A 13-INCH LAND SERVICE MORTAR, with any number of men,

not less than 14.

_Duties._—No. 1. Commands.

2. Assists No. 1, and lashes handspikes.

3, and 4. Unlash the quoin, and place handspikes in the mortar.

5, and 6. Bring up a drag-rope each, and place the loop ends over

the handspikes.

All the Nos. man the dragropes, except Nos. 3, and 4, who attend with

their handspikes, and raise the mortar perpendicular; then Nos. 3,

and 4 steady the mortar, place the dragropes round the body of the

mortar, and take out the handspikes and quoin; Nos. 5, 6, 7, and

8 unscrew, and take out the cap-squares. All the numbers man the

dragropes, except Nos. 3 and 4, and throw the mortar to the rear. If

it does not fall on its face, Nos. 3, and 4 place their handspikes

under the trunnions (Nos. 5, and 6 the bight of the dragropes under

the trunnions) and raise the mortar on its face; then Nos. 3, and 4

place their handspikes on the trunnions; Nos. 5, and 6 place the loop

ends round the handspikes, and trunnions; even Nos. go to the front,

and odd Nos. to the rear, and turn the mortar round. Nos. 5, and 6

place their dragropes over the opposite bolts of the mortar bed; Nos.

3, and 4 assist with their handspikes. All the Nos., at right angles

to each other, turn the mortar bed round, and run it close up to the

mortar.

TO MOUNT THE MORTAR.

Nos. 3, and 4 place their handspikes under the trunnions, and on the

top steps of the mortar bed; Nos. 5, and 6 place their dragropes

round the trunnions, and throw the mortar into the trunnion boxes:

the mortar is raised perpendicular, as before. All the Nos. will do

what they have undone; even Nos. go to the front, odd Nos. to the

rear, and ease the mortar down.

N.B. The cap-squares are not to be shifted over till the mortar is

raised perpendicular.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR LANDING SEAMEN, AND MARINES, WITH FIELD PIECES.

_For Exercise, or Service on shore_.

1. The boats should be formed in divisions, according to the

seniority of the Captains of their respective ships, numbering from

No. 1, on the right. The seamen, and marines should be told off in

companies previous to leaving their ships, and on landing they will

form immediately in the same order.

2. Each division of boats should have a distinguishing flag. Launches

will carry two scaling ladders, intrenching tools, &c.; barges, and

pinnaces, one ladder each.

3. The boats will always land a boat’s length apart. Before leaving

the ships, two boat keepers for each boat, and an officer in charge

of each division of boats are to be told off, and are on no account

to leave them.

A fast-pulling boat with medical officers will attend in rear of the

line.

4. Should the distance from the point of landing be considerable,

the boats of each division, in tow of each other, commencing with

the lightest boats, will pull in,—the leading boat of each division

abreast, leaving space for the whole to form line abreast when

ordered.

The boats will be dressed in line, as well as circumstances will

admit. The officer in command will commence firing from the gun-boats

when he thinks fit, but no shells, Shrapnell shells, or musketry are

to be fired without orders.

5. When the commanding officer perceives the beach to be cleared (or

when he considers it proper) he will order the boats to advance; they

will pull in immediately, and land their crews, and field pieces,

the latter will be formed on the flanks of their own division, or in

batteries, according to orders; the scaling ladders in the rear until

required for service.

6. The launches’ crews may be employed in throwing up a breast-work,

and placing their guns in it, to cover their re-embarkation, should

it become necessary.

7. Should the boats be employed for the disembarkation of troops,

the same arrangement as to the divisions of boats should remain. It

will then be desirable that every boat should carry a flag similar to

that of the commanding officer of its division, and, when in large

numbers, the boats should also be painted according to the colours of

the flags, that the troops may readily know their own boats.

On these occasions, the launches, barges, and pinnaces will form a

front line, so as to clear the beach; the light boats will tow troop

boats, paddle box boats, &c., and be ready to succour any boats that

may be damaged by the enemy’s fire.

The orders, as to the firing of musketry, should be strictly

enjoined, as before, with the seamen, and marines. It would be better

that no musket should be loaded, and no knapsacks taken.

Proportion of Charges, Spare powder, &c., for a 51 Gun, screw, steam

Frigate; and 50 Gun Frigate.

KEY:

A = Number.

B = Proportion for each Gun.

C = Total number of Cartridges.

D = Number in each case.

E = Number of cases.

+----------------------------------------------------------------------+

| 51 Gun, screw, steam Frigate. |

+-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+

| of | A | Charge.| B | C | D | E | Spare powder. |

+-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+

| 68 Pr. | 1 | Distant| 120 | 120 | 6 | 20 | 20 rounds per gun, |

| 95 cwt. | | 16 lb.| | | | | full charges, as |

| | | Full | 60 | 60 | 11 | 7 | spare; amounting |

| | | 10 lb.| | | | | to 200 lb. |

| | | | | | | | |

| 8 in. Gun | 12 | Reduced| 20 | 240 | 15 | 16 | 20 rounds per gun, |

| 65 cwt. | | 5 lb. | | | | | reduced charges, |

| | | Full | 40 | 480 | 14 | 34½ | as spare; |

| | | 8 lb. | | | | | amounting to |

| | | Distant| 20 | 240 | 11 | 22 | 1200 lb. |

| | | 10 lb.| | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| 32 Pr. | 18 | Reduced| 40 | 720 | 19 | 38 | 20 rounds per gun, |

| 58 cwt. | | 6 lb. | | | | | reduced charges, |

| | | Full | 20 | 360 | 14 | 26 | as spare; |

| | | 8 lb. | | | | | amounting to |

| | | Distant| 20 | 360 | 11 | 33 | 2160 lb. |

| | | 10 lb.| | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| 32 Pr. | 20 | Reduced| 30 | 600 | 22 | 27½ | 20 rounds per gun, |

| 45 cwt. | | 5 lb. | | | | | reduced charges, |

| | | Full | 50 | 1000| 16 | 62½ | as spare; |

| | | 7 lb. | | | | | amounting |

| 24 Pr. | | | | | | | |

| Howitzer | 2 | 2½ lb. | 174 | 348 | 20* | 17† | |

| 12½ cwt. | | | | | | +--------------------+

| 12 Pr. | | | | | | | bursters, (10 oz., |

| Howitzer | 2 | 1¼ lb. | 174 | 348 | 40* | 9‡ | 6 oz., 5½ oz., and |

| 6 cwt. | | | | | | | 4½ oz.,) and two |

+-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+

Remarks. This spare powder would amount to 5560 pounds, and would be

packed in 15 pound bags, 8 in a case, and would stow in 47 cases.

* In a half-case.

† Half-cases, and a quarter-case.

‡ Half-cases.

+----------------------------------------------------------------------+

| 50 Gun Frigate. |

+-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+

| of | A | Charge.| B | C | D | E | Spare powder. |

+-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+

| 8 in. Gun | 8 | Reduced| 20 | 160 | 15 | 11 | 20 rounds per gun, |

| 65 cwt. | | 5 lb. | | | | | reduced charges, |

| | | Full | 40 | 320 | 14 | 23 | as spare; |

| | | 8 lb. | | | | | amounting to |

| | | Distant| 20 | 160 | 11 | 15 | 800 lb. |

| | | 10 lb.| | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| 32 Pr. | 22 | Reduced| 40 | 880 | 19 | 46 | 20 rounds per gun, |

| 56 cwt. | | 6 lb. | | | | | reduced charges, |

| | | Full | 20 | 440 | 14 | 32 | as spare; |

| | | 8 lb. | | | | | amounting to |

| | | Distant| 20 | 440 | 11 | 40 | 2640 lb. |

| | | 10 lb.| | | | | |

| | | | | | | | |

| 32 Pr. | 20 | Reduced| 30 | 600 | 22 | 27½| 20 rounds per gun, |

| 45 cwt. | | 5 lb. | | | | | reduced charges, |

| | | Full | 50 | 1000| 16 | 62½| as spare; |

| | | 7 lb. | | | | | amounting to |

| | | | | | | | 2000 lb. |

| 24 Pr. | | | | | | +--------------------+

| Howitzer | 2 | 2½ lb. | 174 | 348 | 20* | 17† |2 half-cases of |

| 12½ cwt. | | | | | | | bursters, (10 oz.,|

| 12 Pr. | | | | | | | 4½ oz.,) and 2 |

| Howitzer | 2 | 1¼ lb. | 174 | 348 | 40* | 9‡ | half-cases of |

| 6 cwt. | | | | | | | fuses. |

+-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+

* In a half-case.

† Half-cases, and a quarter-case.

‡ Half-cases.

ON NAVAL BOMBARDMENTS.[35]

“The attack of fortresses, and powerful land batteries with a

naval force only, must ever be a hazardous, and perhaps desperate

undertaking. But if skilfully combined with a military force

sufficiently strong to make good its landing, to invest the place,

or the batteries on the land side, to take the defences in reverse,

and so open the way to the attack by sea, the object of the attack

will in general be successful. But this mode of proceeding can only

be applied when the place to be attacked occupies a position, insular

or otherwise, of such extent as to admit of being attacked by land as

well as by sea. When the place, fortress, or arsenal to be attacked

is covered and protected by isolated points of defence, mutually

protecting each other, and when no previous military operation can

be made, those points or outposts should be attacked in detail,

and successively reduced; after which the fleet may arrive at, and

attack the main position. This must evidently be a protracted and

difficult process, even with such means: with ships alone, it cannot

be effected without severe loss, and damages: and it should always

be remembered that many of the attacking ships would be severely

injured, probably disabled, in the attempt, whilst the enemy’s fleet

would remain untouched, and in reserve. It would, therefore, follow

that the attacking fleet must be exposed to a very disadvantageous

action with the enemy, in the event of the latter subsequently

leaving his place of shelter.

“When the fortress, or arsenal to be attacked is situated on a

coast which may be approached from the open sea in any direction,

steam-ships may avoid the danger of a direct attack, end-on, or

oblique, by approaching the place on either, or perhaps on both

sides; and, having gained the proper proximity, clear of raking, or

diagonal fire, range quickly up in parallel order, to attack the

place in line, or lines; as in steam warfare, ship against ship, or

fleet against fleet, direct advances upon the broadside batteries

of ships, may, upon the same principle be avoided, and the enemy

attacked in parallel order, by ranging up to him, and forced to fight

if the attacking ships are superior in speed.

“But when the fortress, arsenal, or place to be attacked is only

approachable by a narrow and intricate channel, through which ships

can only pass singly, or nearly so, there can be no manœuvering for

position. There is no way of avoiding being met by direct, then

oblique, and ultimately raking fire from the batteries that defend

the channel, and steam can only perform its office of propulsion

into or through those intricacies under these disadvantageous,

and hazardous circumstances. Steam-ships might, indeed, run past

advanced, or covering batteries at full speed, without being much

damaged; but it would be extremely perilous to leave such forts

unsilenced in their rear, and, unless the daring enterprise should

succeed, like Nelson’s, at Copenhagen, to produce a cessation of

hostilities, the fleet, or at least any disabled ships, could never

get out again.

“However successful a naval attack of a fortress, or arsenal may be,

the work of destruction can never be effectually accomplished by

ships. The sea defences may be silenced, guns dismounted, parapets

ruined, magazines blown up by mortar shells, and habitations

devastated by the cruel process of bombardment; but no substantial

demolition of the defences, or material destruction of public

works and property, can be effected, unless the partial and rather

temporary than permanent damages inflicted by the attacks of ships

be followed up and completed, by having actual possession of the

captured place for a sufficient time to ruin it entirely. No naval

operation, however skilfully planned, and gallantly executed, can, in

this way, reap the fruits of its own victory.

“In the desultory operations of small active steamers employed to

shell, with their pivot guns, open towns, roadsteads, harbours, and

slender buildings, magazines, stores, &c., &c., or to shell bodies

of troops on shore, the attacking vessels should never anchor, but

having given their end-on fire, go off at speed to reload, and

prepare to take up the fire in turn with others, whenever they regain

a favourable position for a good effect. To hit a steamer running

with speed across a line of fire is no easy matter (Arts. 331, 341);

and when in the end-on position, she presents but a small target to

hit at a long range.”

PART IX.

BATTERIES, AND FORTIFICATION.

BATTERIES.

_A battery_, in respect to its profile, may be either elevated, half

sunken, or sunken; and it is usually reveted with gabions, fascines,

sand-bags, &c.

_An elevated battery_ has its whole parapet raised above the natural

surface of the ground, and, to procure the mass of earth required, a

ditch is usually dug directly in front of the parapet.

_A half-sunken battery_ has its interior space, or terreplein, sunk

some inches below the natural surface, and its parapet is composed

of the earth thus obtained, and of that taken from a narrow ditch in

front.

_A sunken battery_ has the whole of the earth taken from the interior

space to form the parapet; and it must therefore be lowered from 2

feet to 3 feet 6 inches, according to the height of the gun carriages

to be used.

_The half-sunken battery_ is constructed the quickest, as the diggers

can work both in front and rear, at the same time. In a sunken

battery, the diggers are as much crowded as in an elevated one,

but, since the mass of parapet to be raised is smaller, it may be

completed in much less time.

_Casemates, or vaulted batteries_, are made bomb-proof, and the

embrazures are cut through the revetment.

_Barbet batteries_ have no embrazures, the guns being placed on

traversing platforms to enable them to fire over the parapet.

_A direct fire_ from a battery is when the line of fire is

perpendicular to the parapet, and an _oblique fire_ when it is

oblique. The direct fire being preferable, the battery should be

placed parallel to the object against which the fire is to be

directed.

_The line of fire_ is an imaginary line drawn through the centre of

an embrazure, in the direction of the object against which a battery

is constructed.

_Embrazures_ are openings cut through parapets, flanks of bastions,

&c., for guns to fire through.

_The neck of the embrazure_ is the inward, or narrowest part of it.

_The mouth of the embrazure_ is the outward, or widest part of it.

_The sole of the embrazure_ is the bottom, or space, between the

cheeks or sides.

_The sill_ is the front of the sole.

_The genouillere_ is that part of the parapet which is immediately

beneath the embrazures.

_The merlon_ is the portion of the parapet contained between two

embrazures.

_The following dimensions are requisite to be proof,_

_Against musketry._—3 feet when of earth.

6 inches ” stone.

12 inches ” fir.

5 inches ” oak.

9 inches ” brick.

_Against cannon._—4 feet, when of wood, or brick.

6 feet against 6-pounders, when of earth.

9 ” 9-pounders, ditto.

14 ” 12-pounders, ditto.

18 ” 18 & 24-pounders, ditto.

_Note._—A 6-pounder shot, with a charge of one pound, will penetrate

a _mass of ice_ to the depth of 4½ feet, at the distance of

twenty-one yards.

GENERAL DIMENSIONS OF AN ELEVATED GUN BATTERY,

_reveted with fascines_.

ft. in.

Space from the centre of one embrazure to that of the next,

without traverses 18 0

Ditto, with traverses 22 0

Slope of the interior revetment, per foot (one-fourth

its height) — 3

Fall of the superior slope, ditto (one-twelfth,

ditto) — 1

Interior width of embrazures, measured on the sill 2 0

Exterior ditto, measured on the sole, at 12 feet from the sill 7 0

Slope of the cheeks of embrazures at the neck, per foot,

(one-sixth of their height) — 2

Ditto, at the mouth, per foot (one-fourth their height) — 3

Distance from the centre of an embrazure to the foot of the

slope of an adjoining traverse 7 6

Distance from the centre of an embrazure to the foot of the

slope of an adjoining epaulment 5 0

Height of the sill about 3 0

DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING A BATTERY.

Batteries at sieges are generally traced in the dusk of the evening.

_Detail of men, and tools required:_

_Tracers.—1 non-commissioned officer, and 2 privates._

_Tools.—1 ground-square. 1 measuring tape._

_1 white tracing-line. 2 ten-feet rods. 1 bundle of pickets. 1

mallet._

_Directions._—The tracing-pickets, and mallet, are carried in

a sand-bag, and a few long pickets are necessary to mark the

embrazures. A line should be stretched about 40 feet in the direction

of the object against which the battery is to be erected; this

will show _the line of fire_. By means of a ground-square, a line

may be laid down at right angles to the former, touching the first

placed picket. This will be the interior base line. Another line must

be placed parallel to this, at a distance equal to the sum of the

breadth of the base of the parapet, breadth of the berm (if any),

and breadth of the slope of the ditch (viz., about 27 feet), which

line will represent the reverse slope of the ditch. A picket is then

driven in on the interior base line, where it is intended to have one

extremity of the battery, and as many long pickets (18 feet apart),

measuring from this end, as there are guns, which will mark the

centre of the embrazures. Then one more picket, 18 feet distant from

the last, will show the other extremity. For the embrazures, drive

in a picket at the distance of one foot on each side of the centre

of the embrazures, for the width of the neck. Set off, and drive in

pickets 3 feet 6 inches on each side of, and perpendicular to the

line of fire, for the width of the mouth.

WORKING PARTY; TOOLS; AND MATERIALS REQUIRED

_for each gun; mortar; traverse; or epaulment; in an elevated fascine

battery_.

_2 sappers, with 6 assistants_, to revet the work.

_12 infantry_, to excavate the ditch, and form the parapet.

_9 pickaxes, 15 shovels, or spades, 14 fascines, 18 feet long, 1

bundle of 50 pickets to 6 fascines, 3 mauls, 3 rammers, 1 saw_ to

every two guns, _1 hatchet_ per gun, _1 bill-hook, 1 field-service

level, 1 six-feet rod, 1 bundle of matches_ to every three guns, _1

lantern_, do., 1 lb. _of candles_, do., _1 bundle of gads_ to each

gun, _1 tape of 50 feet in length_ per battery.

A battery will seldom be completed in less than 24 hours, when

executed by inexperienced workmen; but by those inured to hard

labour, and with proper reliefs, in about 10 hours. In light soil,

that can be easily dug without the aid of a pickaxe, a man can, in

8 hours, load from 19 to 20 cubic yards of earth on barrows. If a

pickaxe be required, 2 men will do the same quantity of work. A man

can wheel 20 cubic yards of earth per day to a distance of 30 yards

on level ground, or 20 yards on a ramp. Twenty cubic yards of earth

will fill 500 wheelbarrows. When near the surface, in soil requiring

but little the use of the pickaxe, an excavation of 6 cubic yards in

a day of 8 hours would be a fair task for a soldier, who in general

is little accustomed to working with the pickaxe and shovel.

SHELTER FROM AN ENEMY’S FIRE.[36]

The following method of sheltering the workmen from the enemy’s fire

was used with great success during the construction of the batteries.

It was towards the end of the siege that Lieutenant Néandre received

orders to construct a battery 130 paces from the counterscarp,

the covered way being strongly occupied by the enemy. Foreseeing

the difficulties that would occur, Lieutenant Néandre provided 120

common platform planks, and, when the gabions were in their places,

arranged the planks outside them, in such a manner as to present an

inclined plane, (one end of the plank being supported on the gabion,

and the other end resting on the ground towards the enemy): the

gabions were then half filled with earth, and the pickets driven in.

At this moment the enemy threw some fire balls, and fired a few shot,

all of which went over. Soon after, the workmen were assailed with

a well-sustained fire of musketry; but, on the balls striking the

epaulment, they ricocheted and passed over the workmen, so that not a

single man was hit. The battery was finished in a few hours, when the

planks were drawn in, and used for the platforms.

A portable framework might be rapidly made, and used instead of the

gabions, to obtain immediate cover from musketry fire; and, for

sapping, the framework, with the planks fixed thereon, might be

readily moved on trucks, as a substitute for the present sap roller.

EPAULMENTS.

Batteries at sieges are generally secured on one flank at least, by a

parapet called an epaulment, forming an obtuse angle with that of the

battery. Their use is to secure the reverse of the terreplein from

any flanking fire, and they are not in general made so thick as the

parapet, being seldom subject to a direct fire.

ELEVATED SAND-BAG BATTERIES.

The base of the interior slope of a battery reveted with sand-bags is

rather broader than that of one reveted with fascines, being about

one-third the height of the parapet. _Bushel sand-bags_ are now the

only kind in use, and _when filled are of the following dimensions_:

Length 20 inches, breadth 10 inches, depth 5 inches.

Number required per gun,—for the interior revetment 262

Ditto Ditto for the cheeks 360

---

Total 622

_Sand-bags_ are laid _header_, and _stretcher_, as in masonry; the

ends which are tied being always hid. As the sand-bags near the neck

of the embrazure would be destroyed after a few hours’ firing, and

constantly require repairing, gabions, or casks should be substituted

for them.

_Howitzer batteries_ are similar to those for guns, except that the

interior openings of the embrazures are 2 feet 6 inches, and the

soles are raised, towards the front, about 10°, in order to cover the

gunners as much as possible.

_Mortar batteries_ are constructed with the same dimensions as gun

batteries (the parapet being generally 8 feet high, and from 18 to

22 feet thick), but, as they have not embrazures, the ditch of

elevated batteries is made two feet deeper to obtain the requisite

quantity of earth. A preference would in general be given to the

sunken, or half-sunken profile for a mortar battery, on account of

its requiring less time for its construction, and it being of no

consequence whether the platforms are sunken, or otherwise. Mortars

are placed at the distance of 15 feet from centre to centre of each

other, where no traverses intervene; and the parapet has the same

profile as a gun, or howitzer battery.

When fired at 45° they are placed 12 feet from the revetment.

Ditto 30° ditto 13 ditto

Ditto 20° ditto 21 ditto

Ditto 15° ditto 30 ditto

Ditto 10° ditto 40 ditto

HALF-SUNKEN BATTERIES.

The sill is about half its total height above the natural surface of

the ground; the most convenient depth to which the terreplein may be

sunk is 2 feet. The height of a sill for a travelling carriage will

be 18 inches, and for a garrison carriage one foot above the natural

level. The profile of the parapet is the same as in an elevated

battery.

Number of sand-bags required for reveting one merlon 180

Ditto ditto for cheeks of embrazures 360

---

Total 540

In forming the epaulment of a half-sunken battery, the earth is taken

from a ditch in front, six feet wide, and about five feet deep.

SUNKEN GUN BATTERIES.

The soles of the embrazures are on a level with the natural ground,

therefore the terreplein is sunk a sufficient depth for the solid,

and, the merlons are formed of the excavated earth. The height of the

solid depends on the nature of gun carriage to be used. The first

operation is to trace out the embrazures. The profile is the same as

in the elevated battery. Should there be traverses, all the earth

excavated from the interior will be required; if not, the overplus

may be scattered in the rear.

RICOCHET BATTERIES.

_Ricochet firing_ is the art of projecting shot, or shell, with a

certain velocity, and in such a direction as to ensure its striking

the ground at any spot that may be required; afterwards making

several grazes upon the earth, and destroying, or striking all that

may oppose its progress. The piece of ordnance is loaded with a

diminished charge of powder, and the elevation is from 3° to 10°,

which causes the shot to bound or hop along the ground. The smaller

the angle under which the shot is made to ricochet, the longer it

will preserve its force, and have effect, as it will sink in the same

proportion so much less into the ground on which it bounds. In the

ricochet of a fortress, or field work, the elevation should seldom

exceed 10° to throw the shot over the crest of the parapet; but in

the field, the objects to be fired at being principally infantry, and

cavalry, the guns need seldom be elevated above 3°; as, under greater

angles, the shot would be apt to bound too high, thereby defeating

its intended purpose.

_Ricochet batteries_ should, if possible, be at a distance of 400

yards, or not exceeding 600 yards; as, from the uncertainty of the

fire at a greater distance, at least two-thirds of the ammunition

might be expended without producing any good effect.

_The best elevation to enfilade a work_ being from 6° to 9° measured

above the parapet, the charge should be regulated accordingly, which

varies from one-half, to one-tenth the service charge.

_Ricochet firing_ is very efficacious in dismounting the guns on the

faces, or flanks of bastions, &c., the batteries for this purpose

being erected on the prolongation of these works, and as nearly as

possible perpendicular thereto, by which their whole length will be

exposed to the effects of plunging, and destructive ricochet fire.

_Vide Tables of Ricochet practice_, pages 73, 79, 80.

FASCINES.

_Fascines_ are bundles of wood of various lengths, according to the

purposes to which they are to be applied.

_Fascines_ for a revetment should be strong, and well bound. When

small brushwood is used, _they are made 6 feet long, and 7 inches in

diameter_, and are firmly bound with four or five withes, or gads.

_The gads_ are made of tough twigs, first twisted until the fibres

separate, the smaller end is then turned round, so as to form a loop,

or noose. To make a fascine 6 feet long, the workmen set up three

fascine horses on the same level, and in a right line.

(_A fascine horse_ is formed with two pickets, each 5 feet long,

driven about 1 foot obliquely into the ground, so as to cross each

other at right angles 2 feet above the surface of the earth; and they

are fastened together at their point of meeting, with cord, three or

four-thread spun yarn, or gads.) The brushwood, stripped of all its

leaves and smaller branches, and which should be from half to one

inch in diameter, and 5 or 6 feet long, is then laid on the fascine

horses, the thick ends being placed alternately at each end. The

large stuff must be used to form the exterior, and the smaller twigs

the interior of the fascine. Before binding the fascine, it must be

compressed with a _fascine choaker_, which consists of a cord, or

chain, equal in length to one and a half times the circumference

of the fascine, fastened at one end to a lever 5 feet long and 2½

inches in diameter, with a loop at the other end, into which, after

passing the chain round the fascine near the part to be bound, a

lever, similar to the one already described, is inserted, and the

brushwood is squeezed tightly together until the gad is tied. The

fascine must be compressed in a similar manner before each gad is

fastened. _The weight of the fascine_ is about 33 lb. _Three men can

make a 6 feet fascine in twenty minutes._ Two of the workmen place

the brushwood, while the third prepares the gads. If large brushwood

can be procured, the fascines should be 18 feet long, the strength of

the revetment being materially increased by diminishing the number

of joints. _When the fascines are 18 feet long_, they are made nine

inches in diameter, and the gads are placed 18 inches apart, the

fascine horses being one yard apart. _This fascine weighs_ about 2

cwt. _Four men can make an 18 feet fascine in two hours_, or, if the

wood be cut and brought to them, they can make four fascines in that

time. _They require 3 bill-hooks, 1 saw, 1 fascine choaker (each

lever about 6 feet long), and 6 fascine horses._ Three men prepare

the brushwood, and lay it on the horses, while the fourth makes the

gads.

The revetment is formed in proportion as the parapet is raised,

the first fascine being half buried in the banquette, with three

pickets driven vertically through it, each picket being from 3 to

4 feet long, and from 1¼ to 1½ inches in diameter at the thickest

end. The second row of fascines is then laid a little in front of

the first, so as to form the required slope, and three pickets

are driven through each fascine; the extreme pickets through the

fascine previously laid in the direction of the slope, the other

perpendicular to the slope.

_The joints of the different rows of fascines_ should be so broken,

that no two adjoining joints may be in the same line, and the ends

of the fascines at the angles should alternately be flush with, and

be inserted in the parapet; care being taken to lay the fascines so

that the ties of the gads may be concealed in the parapets. Six rows

of large fascines are sufficient to form the revetment of a parapet,

the upper row being covered with a layer of sods, the grass upwards.

When fascines of seven inches in diameter are used, eight rows are

required.

GABIONS.

_Gabions_ are cylindrical baskets open at both ends, and are very

commonly used to revet parapets. For the interior of parapets they

should be _3 feet in height, and diameter_. _The common gabions are 2

feet in diameter, and 2 feet 9 inches high._

_To make them._—A directing circle consisting of two hoops, kept

apart by bits of wood, to which both the hoops are secured with

packthread, is first made. The diameter of the hoops must be such

as to permit of the pickets for the gabion being driven between the

exterior of the one, and the interior of the other. The directing

circle is then laid on a level piece of ground, and from seven to

twelve pickets are driven at equal distances apart, between the

hoops; the number of pickets depending on the size of the rods, or

brushwood with which the basket-work is to be made. The circle is

then raised, and fastened to the middle of the pickets, and the web

is made above it, two or three rods being used at the same time; the

workman twisting them round each other while he interlaces them with

the pickets, striking down the web from time to time with a stick.

The _randing_, or _basket-work_, is continued to near the top of the

pickets, where it is secured with four gads, each one passed round

one of the pickets and four or five of the rods, which should be from

8 to 10 feet long, and not more than half an inch in diameter. The

gabion is then pulled up, the finished end is placed on the ground,

and the directing circle being removed, the remainder of the web is

completed and secured as before described.

_Two men can make a gabion_ in three quarters of an hour, using about

80 rods for each gabion.

In forming the revetment, the gabions are placed touching each other

with a slope of one quarter the height; the first row is surmounted

with two rows of fascines side by side, and a second row of gabions

rests on them.

SOD, OR TURF.

A revetment is sometimes made with sods of unequal sizes, called

_headers_, and _stretchers_.

_The headers are 1 foot 6 inches long, 1 foot wide, and about 4½

inches thick._

_The stretchers are 1 foot wide, and long, and about 4½ inches thick._

Sometimes the sods are first cut all of the same dimensions—viz.,

1½ foot long and 1 foot wide; this sod is then cut diagonally,

across, so as to form two, and they are then all laid as headers.

This saves nearly half the turf, and labour. The sods should be cut

from good meadow land, previously mown, and watered; but the sods

should not be laid or built when wet, because they would shrink in

dry weather, and all the joints would open. The sod-work is laid with

the grass downwards, either alternately headers, and stretchers, or

two stretchers to one header; care being taken that the joints of no

two rows fall immediately over one another, which is termed breaking

joint. If the layers of sods are laid perpendicular to the slope,

they will answer better than if laid horizontally. Each sod should

have two or three pegs driven through it, to secure it to the work

beneath. When the revetment is completed, the whole should be cut off

smooth to the proper slope; a pair of hedge-clippers, or a cutting

knife, will answer well for this purpose.

_One man can lay 19 square yards of sod-work in eight hours_, when

the sods are brought to the spot, and require no previous trimming.

PLATFORMS.

To facilitate the working of a gun, it must be placed on a platform

of stone, or timber and plank: but, as a temporary measure, when

required to fire only in one direction, timbers to take the wheels

will suffice. The usual inclination given to platforms, from the rear

to the front, is half an inch per foot. Platforms on barbettes should

be perfectly level, and their dimensions must depend on the extent of

the lateral range which may be required.

_In laying a gun platform_, the first thing to be done is to fix

the _hurter_, which may be a piece of timber 7 or 8 feet long,

and 7 inches square, or a strong fascine 9 feet in length may be

advantageously used. The hurter is intended to take the wheels, or

trucks of the carriage when the gun is run out, and to prevent their

damaging the interior slope of the parapet. The position of the

hurter necessarily depends therefore on the steepness of the interior

slope. The hurter should be placed perpendicular to the axis, or

central line of the embrazure. Three, four, or five sleepers of from

6 to 8 inches square, are then laid, their upper surface on a level

with the bottom of the hurter, and they are covered with two-inch

planks, nailed down when three sleepers are used; but if there be

four or five sleepers, the planks may be confined by two _ribbands_

(which are pieces of wood of the same length, but weaker scantling

than the sleepers) and the platform racked down with _rack lashings_

at the proper intervals.

_A rack lashing_ consists of a piece of 2-inch rope about 9 feet

long, which is fastened to a stick 15 inches long, 2 inches wide at

the head, with a hole in it to receive the lashing, and tapering to

a blunt point: it is passed round the timber, and sleeper beneath,

then twice round itself. The end of the stick is then put into

the loose gromet so formed, and twisted round until the whole is

firmly secured, when the stick is turned flat on the upper piece of

scantling.

The gun, and mortar platforms for sieges are now made rectangular:

the dimensions of the former are 15 feet long by 10 feet 6 inches

broad; those of a mortar platform are 7 feet 6 inches long by 6 feet

6 inches broad. Mortar platforms are laid exactly horizontal, the

front part being placed 5 feet within the foot of the interior slope

of the parapet.

_Madras platforms_ consist of two stout planks about 12 feet long;

they are supported on two sleepers, having a transom in front. The

planks are secured with a moveable bolt, or pivot to the front

transom, slide freely on the sleepers, and are connected together

in rear by two cross pieces parallel to the rear sleeper, one in

front, and the other in rear of it. To the centre of these two cross

pieces is bolted another 12-feet plank, called the trail-piece, of a

width equal to the distance between the cheeks of a siege-carriage,

which is supported on a sleeper in the rear. When the gun is to be

traversed, the whole platform is moved on the sleepers on the pivots

in front. These platforms are chiefly intended for a direct fire. Two

wedges are required for this platform to form inclined planes for the

wheels, in running the gun on, or off the platform. Each wedge is of

elm, 3 inches thick, 2½ feet long, and 1 foot wide, with a block to

give the requisite height, the block being 12 inches long, 4 thick,

and 7 in extreme height.

_Alderson’s platform._

The platform invented by Colonel Alderson, R.E., is 15 feet long, by

9 feet wide; and is composed of 46 similar pieces of timber (baulks)

each measuring 9 feet × 5 inches × 3½ inches. Of these, ten are

used as sleepers, and the remainder as planking. The weight of the

platform (when 15 feet long and 9 feet wide) for guns is 15 cwt. 2

qrs. 14 lb. By addition of the small beams, this platform may easily

be extended from 15 to 18 feet.

_Dimensions, and weight of Platforms, for Guns, &c._

+--------------------------+----+--------+--------+--------+-----------+

+--------------------------+----+--------+--------+--------+-----------+

| Sleepers | 5 | 15 | 5 | 5 | 4 2 1 |

| Planks | 20 | 10 6 | 9 | 2 | 7 3 22 |

| Ribbands | 2 | 15 | 4 | 4 | 1 0 18 |

| Rack-sticks, and lashings| | | | | 10 |

| | | | | |-----------|

| _Total weight_ | | | | | 13 2 23 |

| | | | | |-----------|

| Sleepers | 7 | 7 6 | 6 | 6 | 3 3 7 |

| Planks | 10 | 6 6 | 9 | 3 | 5 1 22 |

| Ribbands | 2 | 7 6 | 4 | 4 | 2 10 |

| Rack-sticks | 10 | 1 3 | | | 15 |

| | | | | |-----------|

| _Total weight_ | | | | | 9 3 26 |

| | | | | |-----------|

| Sleepers | 7 | 7 6 | 6 | 6 | 3 3 7 |

| Planks | 8 | 6 6 | 11¼ | 4 | 4 2 18 |

| Ribbands | 2 | 7 6 | 4 | 4 | 2 10 |

| Rack-sticks | 8 | | | | 12 |

| | | | | |-----------|

| _Total weight_ | | | | | 9 0 19 |

| | | | | |-----------|

| Side-pieces | 2 | 12 6 | 1 0 | 4 | 3 0 18 |

| Trail-piece | 1 | 12 | 1 4 | 4 | 1 1 3 |

| Fore transom | 1 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 2 19 |

| Hind transoms | 2 | 6 6 | 9 | 3 | 2 20 |

| Sleepers | 3 | 9 | 6 | 6 | 2 0 16 |

| Wedges | 2 | | | | 2 7 |

| | | | | | |

| Long bolts, ⅞in. diameter| 2 | 11½ | | | 6 |

| Short bolts, ditto | 6 | 7½ | | | 11 |

| | | | | |-----------|

| _Total weight_ | | | | | 8 2 16 |

+--------------------------+----+--------+--------+--------+-----------+

GUN, AND HOWITZER PLATFORM.

_For carrying this platform_, two men are required for each sleeper;

one man for each plank, and ribband. The non-commissioned officer

carries the rack-sticks.

_A platform may be laid down_ in an hour by expert men, and may be

dismantled in three minutes.

MORTAR PLATFORM.

_Detailed as above._ One non-commissioned officer, and seventeen men

carry the platform. _Time required for laying down, and dismantling_,

similar to the above.

MADRAS PLATFORM.

_In an elevated battery, the platform may be laid down_ by expert men

in half an hour, _and may be dismantled_ in three minutes.

BREACH.

_The best place for making a breach_, in ravelins, bastions, &c., is

about thirty yards from their salient angles. The batteries should

commence by marking out by their fire the extent of the breach

intended to be made, first by striking out a horizontal line as near

the bottom of the revetment as possible, and afterwards two others

perpendicular to, and at the extremities of this line. Should the

breach be required to be extensive, it will be necessary to form

intermediate lines. Then, by continuing to deepen these two or more

cuts, and occasionally firing salvoes at the part to be brought down,

the wall will give way in a mass. The guns must, however, at first

fire low, and gradually advance upwards until the breach is effected;

and when the wall has given way, the firing should be continued until

the slope of the breach is made practicable.

TO BURST OPEN GATES OF FORTRESSES, ETC.

A leathern bag, containing about 50 lb. of powder, should be hooked

upon the gate, as near the centre as possible (or be laid on the

ground, close to the bottom of the gate, and tamped with sods, &c.),

and be fired by means of a piece of portfire, or match, passed

through a hole in the bottom of the bag.

FORTIFICATION.

_Offensive fortification_ is the art of conducting a siege.

_Defensive fortification_ comprehends military architecture, and is

the art of securing, or protecting a place by works, to resist a

siege.

_Natural fortification_ consists of obstacles, such as marshes,

mountain passes, &c., which are found in some countries, and should

be taken advantage of to impede the approaches of an enemy.

_Artificial fortification_ comprises those works which are

constructed to defend a place.

_Permanent fortification_ is the art of putting towns, &c., into such

a state as at all times to be prepared to resist the attack of an

enemy.

_Field fortification_ is the method of fortifying a camp, or

position, buildings, &c., and it includes the construction of

redoubts, entrenchments, &c. Works of this nature are considered as

temporary.

_Irregular fortification_ is the art of fortifying a place of an

irregular figure, situated where the country does not admit of giving

to the several works their due proportion according to rule.

_A Command_ is the vertical elevation of one work above another, or

above the country.

_A Command in front_ is when an eminence is directly facing the work

which it commands.

_A Command in the rear_, or reverse, is when any eminence is directly

behind the work which it commands.

_A Command by enfilade_ is when an eminence is situated in the

prolongation of any line of a work, and a considerable part of it may

be seen from thence; this line will be subject to enfilade, and such

a command is the most dangerous.

_The Rampart_ (A T R) is an elevation of earth, obtained from the

excavation of the ditch; and is that part of the fortification

which is situated between the ditch, and the town, consisting of an

interior slope, terreplein, banquette, parapet, and exterior slope or

escarp.—(_Vide Plate._)

_The Interior slope_ (A) is the inclination of earth nearest to the

town.

_The Terreplein_ (T) is the upper part of the rampart, which remains

after having constructed the parapet.

_The Parapet_ (R) is a mass of earth elevated on the terreplein of

the rampart, on the side towards the country; being from 18 to 22

feet thick, and from 6 to 8 feet high. The top is formed with a

slight declivity towards the country, which is called the _superior

slope_.

_The Banquette_ is an elevation of earth, or step, on which the

soldiers stand to fire over the parapet.

_The Revetment_ is the masonry which retains the earth of the rampart

on its exterior side. It is about 5 feet thick at the top, and its

slope is one-fifth, or one-sixth its height.

_The Berm_ is a space, or path, sometimes left between the exterior

slope of the rampart, and the ditch. It serves as a communication

round the works, and prevents the earth falling into the ditch.

_The Tablette_ is a flat coping-stone, on the exterior of the top of

the escarp of whole revetment.

_The Cordon_ is a semicircular projection of stone, whose diameter is

about one foot, placed at the top of the slope of the revetment of

the escarp.

_The Escarp_ (a) is the exterior slope, or wall of the rampart.

_The Counterscarp_ (b) is the wall, or slope of the ditch, opposite

to the escarp.

_The Faces_ of a work (p q) are those parts which form a salient

angle, projecting towards the country.

_The Flank_ (q G) is the part of a work so disposed as to defend

another; joining the face of a bastion to the curtain, &c.

_The Bastion_ (M L) is a work composed of two faces, and two flanks.

Bastions are joined by curtains, and are constructed salient, and

with flanks, in order that the whole escarp may be seen, and that a

reciprocal defence may be obtained.

_Bastions are of various kinds_—viz., full (M), empty (L), also flat,

detached, demi, and tower bastions.

_A Full bastion_ (M) is when the terreplein occupies all the interior

space of the bastion. From the description of this bastion, that of

all the others may be ascertained.

_The Curtain_ (G R H) is that part of the rampart which lies between

two bastions, and joins the flanks thereof.

_A Front of fortification_ consists of two half bastions, and a

curtain.

_The Ditch_ (B) is an excavation from 12 to 24 feet deep, and from

90 to 150 feet broad, surrounding the rampart. The side of the ditch

nearest the place forms the escarp (a); and the opposite part, the

counterscarp (b) is made circular opposite to the salient angles of

the works.

_The Covered way_ (V) is a space of about 30 feet broad, extending

round the counterscarp of the ditch, being covered by a parapet from

7 to 9 feet high, with a banquette.

_The Glacis_ (X) is the superior part of the parapet of the covered

way, forming a gentle slope towards the country, and terminating at

from 120 to 180 feet; it covers the revetment of the body of the

place.

_The Places of arms_ of the covered way are spaces contrived in the

salient, and re-entering angles of it; those (c) in the re-entering

angles flank the branches of it, and contain troops for sallies, and

its defence; and those (P) in the salient angles serve for assembling

the Troops destined for the defence of the covered way.

_The Sally-ports_ are openings cut in the glacis, at the faces of the

re-entering places of arms, and at the branches of the covered way.

They are used in making sallies from the covered way.

_The Traverses_ (n) in the covered way, are parapets which cross the

breadth of it at the salient, and re-entering places of arms, &c.

They cover the troops who are drawn up behind the parapet of the

covered way, from the enfilade fire of the enemy. There are passages

cut in the parapet of the covered way, close to the traverses, in

order to form a communication from one part of the covered way to

another: these passages are about 6 feet wide, and are provided with

gates.

_A Citadel_ is a fortress joined to the works of a place, and is

fortified both towards the town, and country. It should always

be situated on the most commanding ground, serving to keep the

inhabitants in awe, and, should the town be taken, it becomes a

retreat for the garrison.

_The Esplanade_ is a space of even ground, clear of buildings,

situated between the town, and citadel.

_The Body of the place_ (or _Enceinte_) consists of the works next

to, and surrounding the town, in the form of a polygon, whether

regular, or irregular.

_Outworks_ are those works which are constructed beyond the body of

the place, such as tenailles, ravelins, &c.

_The Tenaille_ (D) consists of two faces, and a small curtain. It

is constructed between the flanks of the bastions in front of the

curtain, and has a terreplein, parapet, and banquette.

_The Ravelin_ (P) is constructed opposite the curtain, (in front

of the tenaille,) is composed of two faces, which form a salient

angle towards the country, and of two demi-gorges formed by the

counterscarp.

_A Horn-work_ is composed of two half bastions, and a curtain, with

two long sides directed upon the faces of the bastions, or ravelins,

so as to be defended from them.

_A Crown-work_ is composed of a bastion between two curtains, which

are terminated by half bastions. It is joined to the body of the

place by two long sides.

_Lunettes_, and _Tenaillons_ are works constructed on each side of

ravelins, consisting of two faces.

_A Flèche, or Arrow_, is constructed along the foot of the glacis

before the re-entering, and salient places of arms. It consists of

a parapet, whose faces form a salient angle, and are about 120 feet

long, and it has a communication with the covered way, cut through

the glacis.

_The Caponiere_ (Y) is a work intended to cover a passage across the

ditch. That from the tenaille to the gorge of the ravelin is a road

about 30 feet wide, covered on each side by a parapet 7½ feet high,

its superior slope terminating in a glacis about 60 feet wide.

_A Cunette_ is a small ditch made in the middle of a dry ditch, to

drain off the water from the place, &c.

_A Batardeau_ (e) is a solid piece of masonry, 7 or 8 feet thick,

crossing the whole breadth of the ditch opposite the flanked angles

of the bastions. It retains the water in those parts of the ditch

which require to be inundated.

_A Ramp_ (t) is a road cut in the interior slope of the rampart,

forming a communication from the town, &c., to the terreplein.

_A Cavalier_ is a work constructed upon the terreplein of a

full bastion, being from 8 to 12 feet above the rampart, with

a parapet 6 feet high. Its use is to command some rising ground

within cannon-shot, and to serve as a traverse for preventing the

neighbouring curtains from being enfiladed.

_Parallels, or Places of arms_, thrown up at sieges, are trenches

formed to connect together the several approaches to a besieged place.

_Zig-zags, or Boyeaux of communication_, are trenches made for

the approaches from the parallels to the besieged place. They are

generally 3 feet deep, and have a parapet, and banquette.

_A Redan_ consists of two faces forming a salient angle (which should

not be less than 60°) with parapet, &c.[37]

_A Lunette_ has two faces, similar to the redan, and also two

flanks.[37]

_A Redoubt_ is a square, polygonal, or circular field fort.[37]

_A Star fort_ consists of a succession of salient, and re-entering

angles, formed on the sides of a polygon. These forts are usually

constructed on a triangle (when they have six salient points), or a

square (having eight salient points).[37]

_Têtes de pont, or Bridge heads_, consist of redans, &c., which are

constructed upon the banks of rivers, to protect the passage across

them.[37]

_Lines_ are formed for the entrenchment of armies, and are composed

of a succession of redans, &c., joined by curtains, which should not

be more than 120 yards distant from each other, to afford mutual

protection, and defence.[37]

_An Epaulment_ is an elevation of earth thrown up to cover troops

from a flanking fire.

_Loop-holes_ are oblong holes, from 15 to 18 inches long, 6 inches

wide within, and 2 or 3 without. They are cut through timber, or

masonry, for the services of small arms.

_Palisades_ are stakes of strong wood, 8 or 9 feet long, and 6 inches

thick, fixed about 3 feet in the ground, and 3 or 4 inches asunder.

_Fraises_ are a kind of palisades, placed horizontally, or obliquely

in the exterior slope of ramparts.

_Chevaux de frise_ consist of a piece of timber from 9 to 12 feet

long, and about six inches in diameter, into which staves are

inserted cross-ways, about 9 inches asunder, about 2 inches thick, 6

feet long, and pointed at the end, if not shod with iron. Their use

is to stop up a breach, defend a passage, or form an entrenchment

against cavalry. Chevaux de frise are sometimes made entirely of iron.

_Abattis_ consist of trees with their branches shortened, and

sharpened at the ends; they are used instead of chevaux de frise on

an emergency.

_Hurdles_ are about 3 feet high, and 2 broad, and are used in sieges

to stop up breaches, &c.

_Trous de loup_ are holes dug in the ground in the form of an

inverted cone, about 6 feet deep, and 4½ in diameter at the top,

having a picket fixed in the centre of the bottom, 6 feet long, and

4 or 6 inches square, the point being on a level with the upper

surface of the ground. These pits are used to prevent the approach of

bodies of cavalry.

PERMANENT FORTIFICATION.

_Remarks, and general rules._

The ground plan, and relief of bastioned fortifications are mutually

dependent on each other; and, as a variety of causes occur to

influence both according to the various sites occupied, it is

impossible to give them any fixed arrangement, and dimensions,

applicable under all circumstances. However, under the supposition

that the site to be fortified is a horizontal plane, a great number,

and variety of systems have been proposed at different times; almost

every author, who has treated of fortification, having invented one,

at least, of his own. Notwithstanding this diversity of opinion, as

to the best system, all agree that the following general principles

should not be lost sight of in the construction of fortifications.

1. Salient angles should be as large as possible, and never less

than 60°. The larger they are the smaller will be the space in front

undefended by direct fire. If less than 60°, the salients of earth

are too acute to stand firmly for any length of time; and the angles

of masonry are easily damaged; besides which the space within the

parapets becomes too restricted to admit of a gun being worked near

the angle.

2. Angles of defence should be right angles, or slightly obtuse.

If less than right angles, the fire from the flanking works might

injure the defenders of the works they flank; as troops generally,

and more particularly at night, fire in a direction perpendicular to

the parapet; and if too obtuse the fire might be directed wide of its

object. Besides, embrazures should be cut as direct as possible; as

the more they are oblique, the more they weaken the parapet.

3. The length of the lines of defence shall be such, that the works

defended may be within the effective range of the projectiles used.

4. The works should be so disposed that the assailants may not be

able to obtain cover in any part of the exterior, within range of the

projectiles of the defenders.

5. The escarps of the body of the place should be of such height, or

construction, as to be secure against escalade.

6. The masonry should be sufficiently covered from the view of the

enemy, to prevent his making a practicable breach from a distance.

7. The interior of every work should be completely covered from the

view of an enemy outside it; so that he may not be able to fire

directly into any part of it. Interior works should therefore have

a command over those in front of them, at least equal to the height

which a besieger can give to the parapets of his lodgments, and which

is seldom less than 3 feet.

8. Every opportunity should be seized of so directing the faces of

works that an enemy may not have it in his power to enfilade them by

ricochet fire.

9. In the general construction of fortifications the salients should

be few, and sufficiently prominent to force the besieger to take them

before he can attack the re-entering parts. The object of this is to

reduce the number of points of attack, as, the fewer they are, the

less advantage an assailant derives from his numerical superiority.

10. Permanent fortifications must be considered very incomplete

without a sufficiency of casemated cover for the sick, and wounded,

and for the portion of the garrison off duty. The magazines of

ammunition and provisions, should also be secure from the effects of

shells; and the supply of water ample, and certain.

11. Small enclosed works, in which the defenders must be crowded,

without cover from vertical fire, should never be employed in

permanent fortification. The strength they impart can never make up

for the loss the garrison must suffer by them.

12. Outworks, and detached works should have easy communications with

the main work, to admit of their garrisons receiving reinforcements,

or supplies, when necessary; and to enable them to retreat, when the

works are no longer tenable.

13. Every enclosed defensive work of importance should, if possible,

be provided with a keep, or citadel, or interior retrenchment, to

which the garrison may retire when the main enclosure (or enceinte)

is forced.

14. Outworks, and detached works near the body of the place, should

be so constructed that the enemy, when he has taken them, may not be

able to use them as defensive works.

15. Outworks, and detached works, should always be of sufficient

strength to force the enemy to make _regular_ attacks on them.

Advanced works of a weak construction are likely to do more harm

than good; for the troops of the garrison seeing them taken with

comparative facility, would naturally lose confidence in the strength

of their remaining defences, while that of the assailants would be

increased by early success.

16. All fortifications should be provided with means of egress, and

ingress, to enable the garrison to assume the offensive, whenever

opportunities offer; and to admit reinforcements into the fortress.

17. There are very few fortified places that agree with any published

system, though some resemble one or other of the systems, or consist

of combinations, or modifications of them. The systems which have

been wholly, or partly carried into execution are, of course, the

most interesting, and form valuable subjects of study. A knowledge

of their advantages, and defects, and the best methods of attacking,

and defending them, will enable the military student properly to

appreciate works which have been, or are to be constructed; and the

operations by which fortresses have been, or may be captured.

VAUBAN’S FIRST SYSTEM.[38]

_To describe three Fronts of fortification, on a hexagon._—_Vide

Plate._

With a radius of 360 yards, the length of the exterior side of

the fortification (taken from a scale of equal parts), describe a

semicircle, which divide into three equal parts, and draw lines to

the points of division; thus forming _three exterior sides_. Bisect

each of these by perpendiculars drawn to the centre of the polygon,

on which set off ⅙th of the exterior side, (if a hexagon,)[39]

through which points draw _the Lines of defence_; on these set off

2/7ths of the exterior side, from the angles of the circumference,

for the length of the faces of the bastions; with radius of the

distance between the two faces describe arcs joining the lines of

defence, and draw the cord of these arcs for _the flanks of the

bastions_; a line joining the interior extremities of the flanks will

give the length of _the curtains_.

_Or, to describe one Front of fortification._

For the exterior side, draw a line 360 yards in length, at the ends

of which, lines are to be directed to the centre of the polygon, at

the angle required; (_vide_ PRACTICAL GEOMETRY—_To find the angles

at the centre, and circumference of a regular polygon_,) then

bisect the exterior side, and draw the perpendicular, &c., &c., as

described for the construction on a hexagon.

[Illustration: Vauban’s 1^{st} System.

_J. W. Lowry, sc._]

_Main ditch._

From the salient angles of the bastions, with 38 yards as a radius,

describe arcs, to which draw tangents, directed to the angles of the

shoulders of the bastions.

_The Tenaille._

Draw lines parallel to the lines of defence, at the distance of

16 yards, for the faces of the work; its flanks, and curtain are

constructed parallel to the flanks of the bastions, and curtain, at

the distance of 11 yards.

_The Ravelin._

From the re-entering angle of the counterscarp, make the capital of

the ravelin 80 yards in length, and from its summit draw lines to

points, on the faces of the bastions, 11 yards from the angle of the

shoulder; the junction of these lines, and the counterscarp of the

main ditch will determine the length of the faces of the ravelin. The

gorge is formed by drawing lines 24 yards from the re-entering angle

of the counterscarp to the intersection of the perpendicular, and the

exterior side. From the salient angle of the ravelin, with a radius

of 24 yards, describe an arc, to which draw tangents parallel to the

faces, for the breadth of the ditch.

From the outline of the works draw the following parallels inwards:—

_Rampart._

1. At the distance of 6 yards, for the thickness of the parapet.

2. From which 12 yards, for the breadth of the terreplein.

3. From which 6 yards, for the breadth of the interior slope.

_Tenaille._

Draw lines parallel to the faces, at the distance of 6 yards, for the

parapet.

_Ravelin._

To the faces of the work draw the following parallels:—

1. At the distance of 6 yards, for the parapet.

2. From which 8 yards, for the terreplein.

3. From which 5 yards, for the interior slope.

_Covered way._

Draw lines parallel to the counterscarp, at the distance of 11 yards,

for the breadth of the covered way.

_Salient places of arms._

These are formed by the salients of the branches of the covered way.

_Re-entering places of arms._

Set off 40 yards on each side of the re-entering angle of the

counterscarp for their demi-gorges, from which points draw their

faces at an angle of 100 degrees.

_Glacis._

For its breadth, draw parallels to the branches of the covered way,

and the re-entering places of arms, at the distance of 50 yards.

_Traverses._

Those at the re-entering places of arms are erected perpendicular to

the covered way; those at the salient places of arms are formed on

the prolongation of the faces of the bastions, and ravelins, across

the covered way; all the traverses are 6 yards thick at the top. The

passages, cut out of the glacis, to enable the troops to pass round

the traverses, are 4 yards wide.

_Ramps._

Flank of the empty bastion.—Set off 42 yards, from the angle of the

flank of the interior slope, diagonally along the slope, for the

length of the ramp, to which draw a parallel line 5 yards distant,

for their breadth, which mark by a perpendicular, prolonging it,

and setting off 6 yards for the interior slope; to which point,

from the end of the ramp, draw a line; and also from the same point

draw another line parallel to the side of the ramp, and joining the

interior slope of the face of the bastion.

Flanked angle of the empty bastion.—From the angle of the interior

slope set off 16 yards on each side, from which points draw lines 42

yards in length diagonally along the interior slope for the length

of the ramps; to which draw parallels, 4 yards distant, for their

breadth; erect perpendiculars from the points (16 yards from the

angle) until they intersect each other, from which point as a centre,

with radius of the distance between the ramps, describe an arc

joining the head of the ramps of the two faces; concentric to which,

with a radius 6 yards less than the former, describe another arc, to

which draw tangents from the termination of the ramps, representing

their slopes.

Gorge of the full bastion.—From the angle of the interior slope, set

off 16 yards on each side, from which points draw lines 42 yards in

length diagonally along the interior slope; draw parallels to these

at the distance of 5 yards, for the breadth of the ramps; erect

perpendiculars at their head, from the intersection of which as a

centre, with radius of the distance between them, describe an arc,

parallel to which, with radius 6 yards less, describe another arc, to

which draw tangents, completing the interior slope of the ramps.

Ravelin.—From the angle of the interior slope, set off 12 yards

on each side; from these points draw lines 30 yards in length,

diagonally along the interior slope, for the length of the ramps;

to which draw parallels 4 yards distant for their breadth; erect

perpendiculars at the commencement of the ramps, and from their

intersection, as a centre, with radius of the distance from the

ramps, describe an arc joining the two ramps; also from the junction

of the perpendiculars draw lines to the termination of the ramps, for

their slopes.

_Caponniere._

Make the passage of this work 30 feet wide, including the banquette

on each side; the superior slope of each parapet terminates at 20

yards’ distance.

_Bridges, and communications._

These are about 14 feet wide.

_Stairs, or Pas de souris._

These steps of masonry are made at the gorges of the several works,

and at the salient, and re-entering angles of the counterscarp. Those

at the salients are generally 24 feet long, and at the re-entering

angles 30 feet; they are 5 feet wide, and their steps 1 foot distant

from each other.

_Sally-ports._

These passages, cut through the glacis, are about 12 feet wide, and

18 feet long.

[Illustration: Profile of Vauban’s 1^{st} System.

_J. W. Lowry, sc._]

PROFILE, OR SECTION OF VAUBAN’S FIRST SYSTEM.

_Construction._

The interior slope of the rampart has a base of 18 feet, and a

perpendicular height of 17 feet 6 inches.

The terreplein has a breadth of 25½ feet, its height being 18 feet

sloping to 17 feet 6 inches, the height of the interior slope.

The banquette is 3 feet in height, the tread 4 feet wide, and the

slope 5 feet wide.

The parapet is 4 feet 6 inches higher than the banquette, its

interior slope is 18 inches, its thickness 18 feet, and its superior

slope has a declivity of 3 feet; the revetment is 3 feet thick.

The escarp has a perpendicular height of 36 feet, measuring from the

cordon to the bottom of the ditch.

The tablette, or coping-stone, at the top of the revetment, has a

projection of 6 inches square.

The cordon is semicircular, its radius being 6 inches.

The slope of the escarp is 6 feet, the thickness of its revetment at

the top 5 feet, and at the bottom 11 feet.

The counterfort joins the escarp; it is 1 foot lower than the top

of it, 9 feet wide, and it extends to the bottom of the foundation,

which is 3 feet below the bottom of the escarp; the retreat, or

lessening, has a width of 1 foot.

The ditch is 38 yards wide, from the salient angle of the bastion.

The counterscarp is 17 feet 6 inches in perpendicular height, its

slope being 3 feet, and its thickness at top 3 feet, the bottom,

therefore, having a thickness of 6 feet; the foundation is 3 feet;

and the retreat 1 foot.

The terreplein of the covered way is 20½ feet wide, and its slope is

6 inches. The banquette is 3 feet high, its tread 5 feet, and its

slope 6 feet. The parapet is 4 feet 6 inches above the banquette, and

its interior slope is 18 inches. The glacis, which forms the superior

slope of the parapet of the covered way, is 50 yards in breadth.

The counterfort of the counterscarp is 5 feet in thickness, being 1

foot lower than the top of the counterscarp, and extending as low as

the foundation of it.

The counterforts of the escarp, and counterscarp are 15 feet distant

from centre to centre of each other, those of the escarp being at

the end adjoining it 5 feet 6 inches, and at the termination 3 feet

8 inches thick; those of the counterscarp being in thickness at the

larger part 3 feet 6 inches, and at the smaller 2 feet 4 inches.

_Vide Plate._

MODERN SYSTEM.

A Interior slope.

T Terreplein of rampart.

R Parapet of rampart.

A T R Rampart.

a a a a Escarp, or exterior slope of rampart.

M Full bastion.

L Empty bastion.

p q Face of bastion.

q G Flank of bastion.

K o p q G Outline of bastion.

G H Curtain.

t Ramps.

B Ditch.

D Tenaille.

Y Caponniere.

e Batardeau.

F F F Ravelin.

S Redoubt in ravelin.

b Counterscarp.

n Traverses in covered way.

c Re-entering places of arms.

W Redoubt in ditto.

P Salient places of arms.

V Covered way.

X Glacis.

[Illustration: FORTIFICATION.

Modern System.]

FIELD FORTIFICATION.

REMARKS, AND GENERAL RULES.

1. The size of a work depends in general upon the number of men who

are to defend it. If labour is the sole object of attention, the

advantage must necessarily be the greater in proportion as the size

of the work is less; but if the accommodation of the troops is only

to be considered, the advantage depends greatly upon occupying much

ground.

2. The form of the work should be such as to contain the greatest

surface with the least perimeter. By an adherence to this maxim,

we obtain the greatest accommodation for the troops with the least

labour. The form of a field work seldom depends upon choice, but

generally upon the spot where it is to be raised, the purposes for

which it is to be constructed, and the nature of the ground in the

vicinity.

3. The interior of the work ought to be so covered by the parapet,

that the men within, except when on the banquette, may not be seen

from any part without, at the distance of cannon-shot.

4. The circumjacent ground (to as great a distance as possible) ought

to be cleared, that the enemy may not conceal, or shelter himself

against the fire from behind the parapet. The nearer to the work

that the enemy can find cover, the more advantageously he can form

his dispositions; and, as his attacks may consequently be made with

greater vigour, and be more readily supported, the success will be

the more probable.

5. The flanking parts ought to be sufficiently capacious to contain

all the men required for the defence of the flanked portions of the

work.

6. The flanking parts ought to have nearly a direct view of those

flanked; that is, the defence should be nearly at right angles, the

most advantageous angle being 100 degrees.

7. The parts flanked ought to be within musket fire of their flanking

parts.

8. The fire ought to be equally distributed, that every part of the

work may be equally defended.

9. The work ought to be equally strong in all its parts, that it may

everywhere equally resist the assaults of the enemy; and the parapet

should be thick enough to withstand the shot fired against it.

10. The dimensions of the parapet should not only be sufficient to

secure, and cover the troops within the work, but ought also to

be of such a form as to afford a full view of the enemy in his

approach; and at the same time discover, as little as possible, the

men employed for its defence.

_Capacity of Field works._

The perimeter of a work, and the number of men to defend it, should

bear a just proportion to each other, one yard being allowed for each

man, or for each file of men, according to the nature, and object of

the work.

In calculating the area of enclosed field works, 10 square feet may

generally be estimated for each man, and 324 square feet for each

gun, and its stores.

_Content of Field works._

In square redoubts, or works having salient angles, if the areas of

the sections of the parapet, and ditch, are made nearly equal, there

will be too much earth; were the angles of the plan re-entering,

instead of salient, the result would be reversed. Bearing this in

mind, previous to commencing the excavation of the ditch, a correct

calculation must be made to prevent any excess, or deficiency of

earth for the parapet, and banquette.

_Rules._

1. _To find the quantity of earth_ required for the parapet, and

banquette of a field work, &c.

Divide the parapet, and banquette into trapezoids, and triangles;

compute the contents of each separately (_by the rules in_

MENSURATION OF PLANES) and the sum of them will be the superficial

content of a section of the parapet, and banquette. Multiply this by

the length of the periphery of the redoubt, battery, &c., for the

solid content of the parapet, and banquette.

2. _To find, rapidly_, the quantity of earth required for a parapet,

and banquette.

Multiply the height of the crest of the parapet, into the sum of

the bases of the superior, and exterior slopes; which will give the

superficial content, very nearly.

3. _To compute the superficial content of the ditch._

Multiply the depth into the breadth at bottom, to which product add

the areas of the escarp, and counterscarp, for the content required.

4. _To find the breadth of the ditch_, of the usual form.

Divide the area of the section of the parapet by the intended depth

of the ditch, and the quotient will be the mean breadth of the ditch;

to this add half the sum of the bases of the slopes of the escarp,

and counterscarp, for the breadth at top, and deduct the same for the

breadth at bottom.

5. _To find the breadth of the ditch_, having a triangular section.

Divide the area of the section of the parapet by half the given depth

of the ditch, and the quotient will be the required breadth at the

top.

_Construction of Field works._—_Vide Plate._

_Fig. 1. The redan._

Draw a base line, 60 yards, from the centre of which erect a

perpendicular, 40 yards; join the terminations of the base, and

perpendicular, which will form the crest of the parapet of the work.

_Fig. 2. The lunette._

Construct a redan (_vide No. 1_), base 80 yards, perpendicular 50

yards: make the faces of the lunette 45 yards in length, and draw the

flanks to points on the base line, 30 yards, from the perpendicular.

_Fig. 3. The square redoubt._

Construct a square, each side 40 yards (_vide_ PRACTICAL GEOMETRY).

To form additional faces when required, bisect the side of the

square, draw perpendiculars inwards equal to ⅛th of the side, and

join the termination of the perpendiculars, and the sides of the

square, thus forming a double number of faces.

_Fig. 4. The pentagonal redoubt._

Describe a circle, radius 30 yards, and construct a pentagon in the

circle (_vide_ PRACTICAL GEOMETRY), thus forming the crest of the

parapet of the redoubt.

_Fig. 5. The hexagonal redoubt._

Describe a circle, radius 30 yards, and construct a hexagon within it

(_vide_ PRACTICAL GEOMETRY); the sides of which form the crest of the

parapet of the work.

_Fig. 6. The circular redoubt._

Describe a circle, radius 30 yards, which will form the crest of the

parapet of the redoubt.

_Fig. 7. The star fort, with six points._

Construct an equilateral triangle, and divide each side, 75 yards,

into three equal parts, form also an equilateral triangle on the

central portion of each side, 25 yards, and the crest of the parapet

of the fort will be traced.

_Fig. 8. The star fort, with eight points._

Construct a square: divide each side, 60 yards, into three equal

parts, and on the central portion, 20 yards, describe an equilateral

triangle: the periphery of the fort will thus be obtained.

_Fig. 9. The field fort, with bastions, and half bastions._

Construct a square; from the centre of each side, 120 yards, drop a

perpendicular equal to one-eighth of the side, through the extremity

of which, from the angles of the square, draw the lines of defence;

make the faces of the bastions, and half bastions, two-sevenths

of the exterior side, and draw the flanks perpendicular to their

respective lines of defence.

[Illustration: FIELD FORTIFICATION.

_J. W. Lowry, sc._]

_Fig. 10. The bridge head, or tête du pont._

Construct a redan, base 50 yards, perpendicular 30 yards, at an

appropriate distance from the bridge, 50 yards; draw flanks, 20

yards, perpendicular to the faces, and from their termination draw

lines to the river parallel to the capital of the work. To strengthen

the defence of the tête du pont, construct a flèche, faces 20 yards

each, and 10 yards in front of the bridge, 4 yards wide.

In the construction of bridge heads, the foregoing Figures may be

employed when expedient; the simplest form, the redan, being for

light bridges, and the more perfect defence, the bastioned front, or

fronts, for bridges of material consequence.

_Fig. 11, 12, 13. Lines._—_Vide Plate._

_Fig. 11._ Construct a redan, base 40 yards, perpendicular 30 yards;

which join by a curtain 100 yards, to a queue d’aronde.

_Fig. 12._ Side of square, 35 yards, and lines drawn from summit to

points on the curtains 10 yards. To increase the defence of the next

curtain, 100 yards, bisect it by a perpendicular, 15 yards, and draw

the two faces. Lengthen the lines by cremaillères.

_Fig. 13._ Base 100 yards; crochet, base 5 yards; perpendicular 20

yards.

_Lines, continuous_, are formed by a modification of redans,

lunettes, curtains, &c., dependent on the nature of the ground, and

the means of defence.

_Lines, with intervals_, are formed by detached redans, lunettes,

&c., within range of each other; the rear works flanking those in

front.

_Bridges, and passages_ into field works are from 6 feet, to 12 feet

wide, according to the requirements.

_Traverses_ are placed about 9 feet from the slope of the banquette,

their length being so regulated as to exclude from the view of the

enemy the interior of the field work.

The nature, and form of the field work, or lines, required for the

defence of a post, &c., &c., having been determined, the perimeter

may be laid down, in conformity to the construction detailed in

the foregoing figures: after which the requisite dimensions of the

parapet, ditch, &c., (dependent, of course, on the nature of the

enemy’s ordnance) must be taken into consideration, and the quantity

of earthwork computed by the _Rules_, page 245, or by those in

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. The following Table will, however, in many cases

be found useful; and, by a judicious adaptation of it, much time may

be saved in the computation, and construction of field works.

TABLE,

showing the dimensions, in feet; and the superficial content of earth

of banquettes, parapets, and ditches, of field works.

Key:

A = Number.

B = Base of slope.

C = Tread.

D = Height.

E = Base.

F = Superficial content.

G = Berm.

H = Breadth at top.

I = Escarp slope.

J = Counterscarp slope.

K = Depth.

+----+-----------------+----------------------------------------+

| | BANQUETTE. | PARAPET. |

| +---+---+---+-----+---------+---------+---------+----------+

| | | | | +----+----+----+----+----+----+ |

| A | B | C | D | F | D | E | D | E | D | E | F |

+------------+---+-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----------+

| 1 | 6 | 5 | 3 | 24 | 7½ | 1½ | 7½ | 15 | 5½ | 5½ | 120½ |

| 2 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 21 | 7½ | 1½ | 7½ | 15 | 5 | 5 | 113⅞ |

| 3 | 6 | 5 | 3 | 24 | 7½ | 1½ | 7½ | 12 | 5½ | 5½ | 101 |

| 4 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 21 | 7½ | 1½ | 7½ | 12 | 5 | 5 | 98⅜ |

| 5 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 21 | 7½ | 1½ | 7½ | 9 | 5½ | 5½ | 81½ |

| 6 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 21 | 7½ | 1½ | 7½ | 9 | 5½ | 5½ | 81½ |

| 7 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 19½ | 7½ | 1½ | 7½ | 6 | 6 | 6 | 66⅜ |

| 8 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 19½ | 6 | 1 | 6 | 6 | 4½ | 4½ | 44-6/8 |

| 9 | | | | | 8 | 1½ | 8 | 12 | 5½ | 5½ | 102⅛ |

| 10 | | | | | 7½ | 1 | 7½ | 9 | 5½ | 5½ | 78 |

| 11 | | | | | 6 | 1 | 6 | 6 | 4½ | 4½ | 44⅝ |

| 12 | | | | | 6 | 1 | 6 | 3 | 5¼ | 5¼ | 33-15/16 |

| 13 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 18 | 7½ | 1 | 7½ | 4 | 5½ | 5½ | 44¾ |

+----+---+---+---+-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----------+

“Double shotting may be used with all 32-pounder guns above those of