1. Words borrowed (consciously or unconsciously) from the classical
poets, especially Virgil, occurring for the most part also in
contemporary prose. Of these Dräger gives a list of ninety-five
(_Syntax und Stil des Tacitus_, p. 96).
2. Words occurring only, or for the first time, in Tacitus. These are
for the most part new formations or compounds from stems already in
use, especially verbal substantives in -_tor_ and -_sor_, -_tus_ and
-_sus_, -_tura_ and -_mentum_, with new frequentatives.
3. Words used with a meaning (a) not found in earlier prose, but
sometimes borrowed from the poets, e.g. _componere_, "to bury";
_scriptura_, "a writing"; _ferratus_ "armed with a sword"; (b)
peculiar to later writers, e.g. _numerosus_, "numerous"; _famosus_,
"famous"; _decollare_, "to behead"; _imputare_, "to take credit for,"
&c.; (c) restricted to Tacitus himself, e.g. _dispergere_ =
_divolgare_.
Generally speaking, Tacitus likes to use a simple verb instead of a
compound one, after the fashion of the poets, employs a pluperfect for
a perfect, and (like Livy and sometimes Caesar) aims at vividness and
variety by retaining the present and perfect subjunctive in indirect
speech even after historical tenses. Collective words are followed by
a plural far more commonly than in Cicero. The ellipse of a verb is
more frequent. The use of the cases approximates to that of the poets,
and is even more free. The accusative of limitation is common in
Tacitus, though never found in Quintilian. Compound verbs are
frequently followed by the accusative where the dative might have been
expected; and the Virgilian construction of an accusative with middle
and passive verbs is not unusual. The dative of purpose and the dative
with a substantive in place of a genitive are more common with Tacitus
than with any writer. The ablative of separation is used without a
preposition, even with names of countries and with common nouns; the
ablative of place is employed similarly without a preposition; the
ablative of time has sometimes the force of duration; the instrumental
ablative is employed even of persons. A large extension is given to
the use of the quantitative genitive after neuter adjectives and
pronouns, and even adverbs, and to the genitive with active
participles; and the genitive of relation after adjectives is
(probably by a Graecism) very freely employed. In regard to
prepositions, there are special uses of _citra_, _erga_, _iuxta_ and
_tenus_ to be noted, and a frequent tendency to interchange the use of
a preposition with that of a simple case in corresponding clauses. In
subordinate sentences _quod_ is used for "the fact that," and
sometimes approaches the later use of "that"; the infinitive follows
many verbs and adjectives that do not admit of this construction in
classical prose; the accusative and infinitive are used after negative
expressions of doubt, and even in modal and hypothetical clauses.
Like Livy, the writers of this time freely employ the subjunctive of
repeated action with a relative, and extend its use to relative
conjunctions, which he does not. In clauses of comparison and
proportion there is frequently an ellipse of a verb (with _nihil aliud
quam_, _ut_, _tanquam_); _tanquam_, _quasi_ and _velut_ are used to
imply not comparison but alleged reason; _quin_ and _quominus_ are
interchanged at pleasure. _Quamquam_ and _quamvis_ are commonly
followed by the subjunctive, even when denoting facts. The free use of
the genitive and dative of the gerundive to denote purpose is common
in Tacitus, the former being almost limited to him. Livy's practice in
the use of participles is extended even beyond the limits to which he
restricts it. It has been calculated that where Caesar uses five
participial clauses, Livy has sixteen, Tacitus twenty-four.
In his compressed brevity Tacitus may be said to be individual; but in
the poetical colouring of his diction, in the rhetorical cast of his
sentences, and in his love for picturesqueness and variety he is a
true representative of his time.
70. _Suetonius._--The language of Suetonius is of interest as giving a
specimen of silver Latinity almost entirely free from personal
idiosyncrasies; his expressions are regular and straightforward, clear
and business-like; and, while in grammar he does not attain to
classical purity, he is comparatively free from rhetorical affectations.
71. _The African Latinity._--A new era commences with the accession of
Hadrian (117). As the preceding half century had been marked by the
influence of Spanish Latinity (the Senecas, Lucan, Martial, Quintilian),
so in this the African style was paramount. This is the period of
affected archaisms and pedantic learning, combined at times with a
reckless love of innovation and experiment, resulting in the creation of
a large number of new formations and in the adoption of much of the
plebeian dialect. Fronto and Apuleius mark a strong reaction against the
culture of the preceding century, and for evil far more than for good
the chain of literary tradition was broken. The language which had been
unduly refined and elaborated now relapsed into a tasteless and confused
patch-work, without either harmony or brilliance of colouring. In the
case of the former the subject matter is no set-off against the
inferiority of the style. He deliberately attempts to go back to the
obsolete diction of writers like Cato and Ennius. We find compounds like
_altipendulus_, _nudiustertianus_, _tolutiloquentia_, diminutives such
as _matercella_, _anulla_, _passercula_, _studiolum_, forms like
_congarrire_, _disconcinnus_, _pedetemptius_, _desiderantissimus_
(passive), _conticinium_; _gaudeo_, _oboedio_ and _perfungor_ are used
with an accusative, _modestus_ with a genitive. On the other hand he
actually attempts to revive the form _asa_ for _ara_. In Apuleius the
archaic element is only one element in the queer mixture which
constitutes his style, and it probably was not intended to give the tone
to the whole. Poetical and prosaic phrases, Graecisms, solecisms,
jingling assonances, quotations and coinages apparently on the spur of
the moment, all appear in this wonderful medley. There are found such
extraordinary genitives as _sitire beatitudinis_, _cenae pignerarer_,
_incoram omnium_, _foras corporis_, sometimes heaped one upon another as
_fluxos vestium Arsacidas et frugum pauperes Ityraeos et odorum divites
Arabas_. Diminutives are coined with reckless freedom, e.g. _diutule_,
_longule_, _mundule amicta el altiuscule sub ipsas papillas
succinctula_. He confesses himself that he is writing in a language not
familiar to him: _In urbe Latia advena studiorum Quiritium indigenam
sermonem aerumnabili labore, nullo magistro praeeunte, aggressus
excolui_; and the general impression of his style fully bears out his
confession. Melanchthon is hardly too severe when he says that Apuleius
brays like his own ass. The language of Aulus Gellius is much superior
in purity; but still it abounds in rare and archaic words, e.g.
_edulcare_, _recentari_, _aeruscator_, and in meaningless frequentatives
like _solitavisse_. He has some admirable remarks on the pedantry of
those who delighted in obsolete expressions (xi. 7) such as _apluda_,
_flocus_ and _bovinator_; but his practice falls far short of his
theory.
72. _The Lawyers._--The style of the eminent lawyers of this period,
foremost among whom is Gaius, deserves especial notice as showing well
one of the characteristic excellences of the Latin language. It is for
the most part dry and unadorned, and in syntax departs occasionally from
classical usages, but it is clear, terse and exact. Technical terms may
cause difficulty to the ordinary reader, but their meaning is always
precisely defined; new compounds are employed whenever the subject
requires them, but the capacities of the language rise to the demands
made upon it; and the conceptions of jurisprudence have never been more
adequately expressed than by the great Romanist jurists.
(A. S. W.; R. S. C.)
For the subsequent history of the language see ROMANCE LANGUAGES.