[1] The original small arms, however, are often referred to as hand
cannon.
CANNON-BALL TREE (_Couroupita guianensis_), a native of tropical South
America (French Guiana), which bears large spherical woody fruits,
containing numerous seeds, as in the allied genus _Bertholletia_ (Brazil
nut).
CANNSTATT, or KANNSTATT, a town of Germany in the kingdom of
Wurttemberg, pleasantly situated in a fertile valley on both banks of
the Neckar, 2-1/2 m. from Stuttgart, with which it has been incorporated
since 1904. Pop. (1905) 26,497. It is a railway centre, has two
Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, two bridges across the Neckar,
handsome streets in the modern quarter of the town and fine promenades
and gardens. There is a good deal of business in the town. Railway
plant, automobiles and machinery are manufactured; spinning and weaving
are carried on; and there are chemical works and a brewery here. Fruit
and vines are largely cultivated in the neighbourhood. A large
population is temporarily attracted to Cannstatt by the fame of its
mineral springs, which are valuable for diseases of the throat and
weaknesses of the nervous system. These springs were known to the
Romans. Besides the usual bathing establishments there are several
medical institutions for the treatment of disease. Near the town are the
palaces of Rosenstein and Wilhelma; the latter, built (1842-1851) for
King William of Wurttemberg in the Moorish style, is surrounded by
beautiful gardens. In the neighbourhood also are immense caves in the
limestone where numerous bones of mammoths and other extinct animals
have been found. On the Rotenberg, where formerly stood the ancestral
castle of the house of Wurttemberg, is the mausoleum of King William and
his wife.
Cannstatt (Condistat) is mentioned early in the 8th century as the place
where a great court was held by Charlemagne for the trial of the
rebellious dukes of the Alamanni and the Bavarians. From the emperor
Louis the Bavarian it received the same rights and privileges as were
enjoyed by the town of Esslingen, and until the middle of the 14th
century it was the capital of the county of Wurttemberg. Cannstatt was
the scene of a victory gained by the French over the Austrians on the
21st of July 1796.
See Veiel, _Der Kurort Kannstatt und seine Mineralquellen_ (Cannstatt,
1875).
CANO, ALONZO (1601-1667), Spanish painter, architect and sculptor, was
born at Granada. He has left in Spain a very great number of specimens
of his genius, which display the boldness of his design, the facility of
his pencil, the purity of his flesh-tints and his knowledge of
chiaroscuro. He learned architecture from his father, Miguel Cano,
painting from Pacheco and sculpture from Juan Martinez Montanes. As a
statuary, his most famous works are the Madonna and Child in the church
of Nebrissa, and the colossal figures of San Pedro and San Pablo. As an
architect he indulged in too profuse ornamentation, and gave way too
much to the fancies of his day. Philip IV. made him royal architect and
king's painter, and gave him the church preferment of a canon. His more
important pictures are at Madrid. He was notorious for his ungovernable
temper; and it is said that once he risked his life by committing the
then capital offence of dashing to pieces the statue of a saint, when in
a rage with the purchaser who grudged the price he demanded. His known
passionateness also (according to another story) caused him to be
suspected, and even tortured, for the murder of his wife, though all
other circumstances pointed to his servant as the culprit.
CANO, MELCHIOR (1325-1560), Spanish theologian, born at Tarancon, in New
Castile, joined the Dominican order at an early age at Salamanca, where
in 1546 he succeeded to the theological chair in that university. A man
of deep learning and originality, proud and a victim to the _odium
theologicum_, he could brook no rivalry. The only one who at that time
could compare with him was the gentle Bartolomeo de Caranza, also a
Dominican and afterwards archbishop of Toledo. At the university the
schools were divided between the partisans of the two professors; but
Cano pursued his rival with relentless virulence, and took part in the
condemnation for heresy of his brother-friar. The new society of the
Jesuits, as being the forerunners of Antichrist, also met with his
violent opposition; and he was not grateful to them when, after
attending the council of Trent in 1545, he was sent, by their influence,
in 1552, as bishop of the far-off see of the Canaries. His personal
influence with Philip II. soon procured his recall, and he was made
provincial of his order in Castile. In 1556 he wrote his famous
_Consultatio theologica_, in which he advised the king to resist the
temporal encroachments of the papacy and, as absolute monarch, to defend
his rights by bringing about a radical change in the administration of
ecclesiastical revenues, thus making Spain less dependent on Rome. With
this in his mind Paul IV. styled him "a son of perdition." The
reputation of Cano, however, rests on a posthumous work, _De Locis
theologicis_ (Salamanca, 1562), which stands to-day unrivalled in its
own line. In this, a genuine work of the Renaissance, Cano endeavours to
free dogmatic theology from the vain subtleties of the schools and, by
clearing away the puerilities of the later scholastic theologians, to
bring religion back to first principles; and, by giving rules, method,
co-ordination and system, to build up a scientific treatment of
theology. He died at Toledo on the 30th of September 1560. (E. Tn.)
CANOE (from Carib. _canaoa_, the West Indian name found in use by
Columbus; the Fr. _canot_, boat, and Ger. _Kahn_, are derived from the
Lat. _canna_, reed, vessel), a sort of general term for a boat sharp at
both ends, originally designed for propulsion by one or more paddles
(not oars) held without a fixed fulcrum, the paddler facing the bow. As
the historical native name for certain types of boat used by savages, it
is applied in such cases to those which, like other boats, are open
within from end to end, and the modern "Canadian canoe" preserves this
sense; but a more specific usage of the name is for such craft as differ
essentially from open boats by being covered in with a deck, except for
a "well" where the paddler sits. Modern developments are the cruising
canoe, combining the use of paddle and sails, and the racing canoe,
equipped with sails only.
The primitive canoes were light frames of wood over which skins (as in
the Eskimo canoe) or the bark of trees (as in the North American
lndians' birch-bark canoe) were tightly stretched. The modern painted
canvas canoe, built on Indian lines, was a natural development of this
idea. The Indian also used, and the African still uses, the "dug-out,"
made from a tree hollowed by fire after the manner of Robinson Crusoe.
Many of these are of considerable size and carrying capacity; one in the
New York Natural History Museum from Queen Charlotte's Island is 63 ft.
long, 8 ft. 3 in. wide, and 5 ft. deep, cut from a single log. The "war
canoe" of paddling races is its modern successor. In the islands of the
Pacific primitive canoes are wonderfully handled by the natives, who
make long sea voyages in them, often stiffening them by attaching
another hull (see CATAMARAN).
In the earlier part of the 19th century, what was known as a "canoe" in
England was the short covered-in craft, with a "well" for the paddler to
sit in, which was popularly used for short river practice; and this type
still survives. But the sport of canoeing in any real sense dates from
1865, when John MacGregor (q.v.) designed the canoe "Rob Roy" for long
journeys by water, using both double-bladed paddle and sails, yet light
enough (about 70 lb) to be carried over land. The general type of this
canoe is built of oak with a cedar deck; the length is from 12 ft. to
15 ft., the beam from 26 in. to 30 in., the depth 10 in. to 16 in. The
paddle is 7 ft. long and 6 in. wide in the blade, the canoeist sits low
in a cockpit, and in paddling dips the blades first on one side and then
the other. The rig is generally yawl.
In 1866 the Royal Canoe Club was formed in England, and the prince of
Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) became commodore. Its headquarters are at
Kingston-on-Thames and it is still the leading organization. There is
also the British Canoe Association, devoted to cruising. After the
English canoes were seen in Paris at the Exhibition of 1867, others like
them were built in France. Branches and clubs were formed also at the
English universities, and in Liverpool, Hull, Edinburgh and Glasgow. The
New York Canoe Club was founded in 1871. One member of the Royal Canoe
Club crossed the English Channel in his canoe, another the Irish Channel
from Scotland to Ireland, and many rivers were explored in inaccessible
parts, like the Jordan, the Kishon, and the Abana and the Pharpar at
Damascus, as well as the Lake Menzaleh in the Delta of the Nile, and the
Lake of Galilee and Waters of Merom in Syria.
W. Baden Powell modified the type of the "Rob Roy" in the "Nautilus,"
intended only for sailing. From this time the two kinds of pleasure
canoe--paddling and sailing--parted company, and developed each on its
own lines; the sailing canoe soon (1882) had a deck seat and tiller, a
smaller and smaller cockpit, and a larger and larger sail area, with the
consequent necessary air and water-tight bulkheads in the hull. Paul
Butler of Lowell, Mass., added (1886) the sliding outrigger seat,
allowing the canoeist to slide out to windward. The final stage is the
racing machine pure and simple, seen in the exciting contests at the
annual August meets of the American Canoe Association on the St Lawrence
river, or at the more frequent race days of its constituent divisions,
associated as Canadian (47 clubs), Atlantic (32 clubs), Central (26
clubs) and Western.
The paddling canoe, propelled by single-bladed paddles, is also
represented in single, tandem and crew ("war canoe") races, and this
form of the sport remains more of the amateur type. The "Canadian," a
clinker or carvel built mahogany or cedar or bass-wood canoe, or the
painted canvas, bark or compressed paper canoe, all on the general lines
of the Indian birch bark, are as common on American rivers as the punt
is on the Thames, and are similarly used.
See MacGregor, _A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe_ (1866), _The
Rob Roy on the Baltic_, &c.; W. Baden Powell, _Canoe Travelling_
(1871); W.L. Alden, _Canoe and the Flying Proa_ (New York, 1878); J.D.
Hayward, _Camping out with the British Canoe Association_; C.B. Vaux,
_Canoe Handling_ (New York, 1888); Stephens, _Canoe and Boat Building_
(New York, 1881).
CANON. The Greek word [Greek: kanon] means originally a straight rod or
pole, and metaphorically what serves to keep a thing upright or
straight, a rule. In the New Testament it occurs in Gal. vi. 16, and 2
Cor. x. 13, 15, 16, signifying in the former passage a measure, in the
latter what is measured, a district. The general applications of the
word fall mainly into two groups, in one of which the underlying meaning
is that of rule, in the other that of a list or catalogue, i.e. of books
containing the rule. Of the first, such uses as that of a standard or
rule of conduct or taste, or of a particular form of musical composition
(see below) may be mentioned, but the principal example is of the sum of
the laws regulating the ecclesiastical body (see CANON LAW). In the
second group of uses that of the ecclesiastical dignitary (see below),
that of the list of the names of those persons recognized as saints by
the Church (see CANONIZATION), and that of the authoritative body of
Scriptures (see below) are examples.
_Music._--A canon in part-music is the form taken by the earliest
compositions in harmony, successive or consequent parts having the same
melody, but each beginning at a stated period after its precursor or
antecedent. In many early polyphonic compositions, one or more voices
were imitated note for note by the others, so that the other parts did
not need to be written out at all, but were deduced from the leaders by
a rule or canon. Sir Frederick Bridge has pointed out that in this way
the term "canon" came to supersede the old name of the art-form, _Fuga
ligata_. (See also under FUGUE, CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS and Music.) When the
first part completes its rhythmical sentence before the second enters,
and then continues the melody as an accompaniment to the second, and so
on for the third or fourth, this form of canon in England was styled a
"round" or "catch"; the stricter canon being one in which the succession
of parts did not depend on the ending of the phrase. But outside England
catches and canons were undifferentiated. The "round" derived its name
from the fact that the first part returned to the beginning while the
others continued the melody; the "catch" meant that each later part
caught up the tune. The problem of the canon, as an artistic
composition, is to find one or more points in a melody at which one or
more successive parts may start the same tune harmoniously. Catches were
familiar in English folk music until after the Restoration; different
trades having characteristic melodies of their own. In the time of
Charles II they took a bacchanalian cast, and later became sentimental.
Gradually the form went out as a type of folk music, and now survives
mainly in its historical interest. (H. Ch.)
_The Church Dignitary_.--A canon is a person who possesses a prebend, or
revenue allotted for the performance of divine service in a cathedral or
collegiate church. Though the institute of canons as it at present
exists does not go back beyond the 11th century it has a long history
behind it. The name is derived from the list (_matricula_) of the clergy
belonging to a church, [Greek: kanon] being thus used in the council of
Nicaea (c. 16). In the synod of Laodicea the adjective [Greek:
kanonikos] is found in this sense (c. 15); and during the 6th century
the word _canonicus_ occurs commonly in western Europe in relation to
the clergy belonging to a cathedral or other church. Eusebius of
Vercelli (d. 370) was the first to introduce the system whereby the
cathedral clergy dwelt together, leading a semi-monastic life in common
and according to rule; and St Augustine established a similar manner of
life for the clergy of his cathedral at Hippo. The system spread widely
over Africa, Spain and Gaul; a familiar instance is St Gregory's
injunction to St Augustine that at Canterbury the bishop and his clergy
should live a common life together, similar to the monastic life in
which he had been trained; that these "clerics" at Canterbury were not
monks is shown by the fact that those of them in the lower clerical
grades were free to marry and live at home, without forfeiting their
position or emoluments as members of the body of cathedral clergy (Bede,
_Hist. Eccl._ i. 27). This mode of life for the secular clergy, which
became common in the west, seems never to have taken root in the east.
It came to be called _vita canonica_, canonical life, and it was the
object of various enactments of councils during the 6th, 7th and 8th
centuries. The first serious attempt to legislate for it and reduce it
to rule was made by Chrodegang, bishop of Metz (c. 750), who composed
a rule for the clergy of his cathedral, which was in large measure an
adaptation of the Benedictine Rule to the case of secular clergy living
in common. Chrodegang's Rule was adopted in many churches, both
cathedral and collegiate (i.e. those served by a body of clergy). In 816
the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle (see _Mon. Germ. Concil._ ii. 307) made
further regulations for the canonical life, which became the law in the
Frankish empire for cathedral and collegiate churches. The Rule of
Chrodegang was taken as the basis, but was supplemented and in some
points mitigated and made less monastic in character. There was a common
dormitory and common refectory for all, but each canon was allowed a
dwelling room within the cloister; the use of flesh meat was permitted,
and the clothing was of better quality than that of monks. Each canon
retained the use of his private property and money, but the revenues of
the cathedral or church were treated as a common fund for the
maintenance of the whole establishment. The chief duty of the canons was
the performance of the church services. Thus the canons were not monks,
but secular clergy living in community, without taking the monastic vows
or resigning their private means--a form of life somewhat resembling
that of the fathers of the London or Birmingham Oratory in our day. The
bishop was expected to lead the common life along with his clergy.
The canonical life as regulated by the synod of Aix, subsisted in the
9th and 10th centuries; but the maintenance of this intermediate form
of life was of extreme difficulty. There was a constant tendency to
relax the bonds of the common life, and attempts in various directions
to restore it. In England, by the middle of the 10th century, the
prescriptions of the canonical life seem to have fallen into desuetude,
and in nine cathedrals the canons were replaced by communities of
Benedictines. In the 11th century the Rule of Chrodegang was introduced
into certain of the English cathedrals, and an Anglo-Saxon translation
of it was made under Leofric for his church of Exeter. The turning point
came in 1059, when a reforming synod, held at the Lateran, exhorted the
clergy of all cathedral and collegiate churches to live in community, to
hold all property and money in common, and to "lead the life of the
Apostles" (cf. Acts ii. 44, 45). The clergy of numerous churches
throughout Western Europe (that of the Lateran Basilica among them) set
themselves to carry out these exhortations, and out of this movement
grew the religious order of Canons Regular or Augustinian Canons (q.v.).
The opposite tendency also ran its course and produced the institute of
secular canons. The revenues of the cathedral were divided into two
parts, that of the bishop and that of the clergy; this latter was again
divided among the clergy themselves, so that each member received his
own separate income, and the persons so sharing, whatever their clerical
grade, were the canons of the cathedral church. Naturally all attempt at
leading any kind of common life was frankly abandoned. In England the
final establishment of this order of things was due to St Osmund (1090).
The nature and functions of the institute of secular canons are
described in the article CATHEDRAL.
See Du Cange, _Glossarium_, under "Canonicus"; Amort, _Vetus
Disciplina Canonicorum_ (1747), to be used with caution for the
earlier period; C. du Molinet, _Reflexions historiques et curieuses
sur les antiquites des chanoines tant seculiers que reguliers_ (1674);
Herzog, _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed.), art. "Kapitel"; Wetzer und
Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), art. "Canonica vita" and
"Canonikat." The history of the canonical institute is succinctly
told, and the best literature named, by Max Heimbucher, _Orden und
Kongregationen_, 1896, i. S 55; also by Otto Zockler, _Askese und
Monchtum_, 1897, pp. 422-425. On medieval secular canons a standard
work is Chr. Wordsworth's _Statutes of Lincoln Cathedral_ (1892-1897);
see also an article thereon by Edm. Bishop in _Dublin Review_, July
1898. (E. C. B.)
In the Church of England, the canons of cathedral or collegiate churches
retain their traditional character and functions, though they are now,
of course, permitted to marry. Their duties were defined by the Canons
of 1603, and included that of residence at the cathedrals according to
"their local customs and statutes," and preaching in the cathedral and
in the churches of the diocese, "especially those whence they or their
church receive any yearly rent or profit." A canonry not being legally a
"cure of souls," a canon may hold a benefice in addition to his prebend,
in spite of the acts against pluralities. By the Canons of 1603 he was
subject to discipline if he made his canonry an excuse for neglecting
his cure. By the act of 1840 reforming cathedral chapters the number of
canonries was greatly reduced, while some were made applicable to the
endowment of archdeaconries and professorships. At the same time it was
enacted that a canon must have been six years in priest's orders, except
in the case of canonries annexed to any professorship, headship or other
office in any university. The obligatory period of residence, hitherto
varying in different churches, was also fixed at a uniform period of
three months. The right of presentation to canonries is now vested in
some cases in the crown, in others in the lord chancellor, the
archbishop or in the bishop of the diocese.
Honorary canons are properly canons who have no prebend or other
emoluments from the common fund of the chapter. In the case of old
cathedrals the title is bestowed upon deserving clergymen by the bishop
as a mark of distinction. In new cathedrals, e.g. Manchester or
Birmingham, where no endowment exists for a chapter, the bishop is
empowered to appoint honorary canons, who carry out the ordinary
functions of a cathedral body (see CATHEDRAL).
Minor canons, more properly styled priest-vicars, are appointed by the
dean and chapter. Their function is mainly to sing the service, and they
are selected therefore mainly for their voices and musical
qualifications. They may hold a benefice, if it lies within 6 m. of the
cathedral.
In the Protestant churches of the continent canons as ecclesiastical
officers have ceased to exist. In Prussia and Saxony, however, certain
chapters, secularized at the Reformation, still exist. The canons
(_Domherren_) are, however, laymen with no ecclesiastical character
whatever, and their rich prebends are merely sources of endowment for
the cadets of noble families.