The campanili hitherto described are all attached to churches, but there
are others belonging to civic buildings some of which are of great
importance. The campanile of the town hall of Siena rises to an enormous
height, being 285 ft., and only 22 ft. wide; it is built in brick and
crowned with a battlemented parapet carried on machicolation corbels,
16 ft. high, all in stone, and a belfry storey above set back behind the
face of the tower. The campanile of the Palazzo Vecchio at Florence is
similarly crowned, but it does not descend to the ground, being balanced
in the centre of the main wall of the town hall. A third example is the
fine campanile of the Palazzo-del-Signore at Verona, fig. 4, the lower
portion built in alternate courses of brick and stone and above entirely
in brick, rising to a height of nearly 250 ft., and pierced with putlog
holes only. The belfry window on each face is divided into three lights
with coupled shafts. An octagonal tower of two storeys rises above the
corbelled eaves.
In the campanili of the Renaissance in Italy the same general
proportions of the tower are adhered to, and the style lent itself
easily to its decoration; in Venice the lofty blind arcades were adhered
to, as in the campanile of the church of S. Giorgio dei Greci. In that
of S. Giorgio Maggiore, however, Palladio returned to the simple
brickwork of Verona, crowned with a belfry storey in stone, with angle
pilasters and columns of the Corinthian order in antis, and central
turret with spire above. In Genoa there are many examples; the quoins
are either decorated with rusticated masonry or attenuated pilasters,
with or without horizontal string-courses, always crowned with a belfry
storey in stone and classic cornices, which on account of their greater
projection present a fine effect. (R. P. S.)
CAMPANULA (Bell-flower), in botany, a genus of plants containing about
230 species, found in the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere,
chiefly in the Mediterranean region. The name is taken from the
bell-shaped flower. The plants are perennial, rarely annual or biennial,
herbs with spikes or racemes of white, blue or lilac flowers. Several
are native in Britain; _Campanula rotundifolia_ is the harebell (q.v.)
or Scotch bluebell, a common plant on pastures and heaths,--the delicate
slender stem bears one or a few drooping bell-shaped flowers; _C.
Rapunculus_, rampion or ramps, is a larger plant with a panicle of
broadly campanulate red-purple or blue flowers, and occurs on gravelly
roadsides and hedgebanks, but is rare. It is cultivated, but not
extensively, for its fleshy roots, which are used, either boiled or raw,
as salad. Many of the species are grown in gardens for their elegant
flowers; the dwarf forms are excellent for pot culture, rockeries or
fronts of borders. _C. Medium_, Canterbury bell, with large blue, purple
and white flowers, is a favourite and handsome biennial, of which there
are numerous varieties. _C. persicifolia_, a perennial with more open
flowers, is also a well-known border plant, with numerous forms,
including white and blue-flowered and single and double. _C. glomerata_,
which has sessile flowers crowded in heads on the stems and branches,
found native in Britain in chalky and dry pastures, is known in numerous
varieties as a border plant. _C. pyramidalis_, with numerous flowers
forming a tall pyramidal inflorescence, is a handsome species. There are
also a number of alpine species suitable for rockeries, such as _C.
alpina, caucasica, caespitosa_ and others. The plants are easily
cultivated. The perennials are propagated by dividing the roots or by
young cuttings in spring, or by seeds.
CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER (1788-1866), American religious leader, was born
near Ballymena, Co. Antrim, Ireland, on the 12th of September 1788, and
was the son of Thomas Campbell (1763-1854), a schoolmaster and clergyman
of the Presbyterian "Seceders." Alexander in 1809, after a year at
Glasgow University, joined his father in Washington, Pennsylvania, where
the elder Campbell had just formed the Christian Association of
Washington, "for the sole purpose of promoting simple evangelical
Christianity." With his father's desire for Church unity the son agreed.
He began to preach in 1810, refusing any salary; in 1811 he settled in
what is now Bethany, West Virginia, and was licensed by the Brush Run
Church, as the Christian Association was now called. In 1812, urging
baptism by immersion upon his followers by his own example, he took his
father's place as leader of the Disciples of Christ (q.v., popularly
called Christians, Campbellites and Reformers). He seemed momentarily to
approach the doctrinal position of the Baptists, but by his statement,
"I will be baptized only into the primitive Christian faith," by his
iconoclastic preaching and his editorial conduct of _The Christian
Baptist_ (1823-1830), and by the tone of his able debates with
Paedobaptists, he soon incurred the disfavour of the Redstone
Association of Baptist churches in western Pennsylvania, and in 1823 his
followers transferred their membership to the Mahoning Association of
Baptist churches in eastern Ohio, only to break absolutely with the
Baptists in 1830. Campbell, who in 1829 had been elected to the
Constitutional Convention of Virginia by his anti-slavery neighbours,
now established _The Millennial Harbinger_ (1830-1865), in which, on
Biblical grounds, he opposed emancipation, but which he used principally
to preach the imminent Second Coming, which he actually set for 1866, in
which year he died, on the 4th of March, at Bethany, West Virginia,
having been for twenty-five years president of Bethany College. He
travelled, lectured, and preached throughout the United States and in
England and Scotland; debated with many Presbyterian champions, with
Bishop Purcell of Cincinnati and with Robert Owen; and edited a revision
of the New Testament.
See Thomas W. Grafton's _Alexander Campbell, Leader of the Great
Reformation of the Nineteenth Century_ (St Louis, 1897).
CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA (Mrs PATRICK CAMPBELL) (1865- ), English
actress, was born in London, her maiden name being Tanner, and in 1884
married Captain Patrick Campbell (d. 1900). After having appeared on the
provincial stage she first became prominent at the Adelphi theatre,
London, in 1892, and next year created the chief part in Pinero's
_Second Mrs Tanqueray_ at the St James's, her remarkable impersonation
at once putting her in the first rank of English actresses. For some
years she displayed her striking dramatic talent in London, playing
notably with Mr Forbes Robertson in Davidson's _For the Crown_, and in
_Macbeth_; and her _Magda_ (Royalty, 1900) could hold its own with
either Bernhardt or Duse. In later years she paid successful visits to
America, but in England played chiefly on provincial tours.
CAMPBELL, GEORGE (1719-1796), Scottish theologian, was born at Aberdeen
on the 25th of December 1719. His father, the Rev. Colin Campbell, one
of the ministers of Aberdeen, the son of George Campbell of Westhall,
who claimed to belong to the Argyll branch of the family, died in 1728,
leaving a widow and six children in somewhat straitened circumstances.
George, the youngest son, was destined for the legal profession, and
after attending the grammar school of Aberdeen and the arts classes at
Marischal College, he was sent to Edinburgh to serve as an apprentice to
a writer to the Signet. While at Edinburgh he attended the theological
lectures, and when the term of his apprenticeship expired, he was
enrolled as a regular student in the Aberdeen divinity hall. After a
distinguished career he was, in 1746, licensed to preach by the
presbytery of Aberdeen. From 1748 to 1757 he was minister of Banchory
Ternan, a parish on the Dee, some 20 m. from Aberdeen. He then
transferred to Aberdeen, which was at the time a centre of considerable
intellectual activity. Thomas Reid was professor of philosophy at King's
College; John Gregory (1724-1773), Reid's predecessor, held the chair of
medicine; Alexander Gerard (1728-1795) was professor of divinity at
Marischal College; and in 1760 James Beattie (1735-1803) became
professor of moral philosophy in the same college. These men, with
others of less note, formed themselves in 1758 into a society for the
discussions of questions in philosophy. Reid was its first secretary,
and Campbell one of its founders. It lasted till about 1773, and during
this period numerous papers were read, particularly those by Reid and
Campbell, which were afterwards expanded and published.
In 1759 Campbell was made principal of Marischal College. In 1763 he
published his celebrated _Dissertation on Miracles_, in which he seeks
to show, in opposition to Hume, that miracles are capable of proof by
testimony, and that the miracles of Christianity are sufficiently
attested. There is no contradiction, he argues, as Hume said there was,
between what we know by testimony and the evidence upon which a law of
nature is based; they are of a different description indeed, but we can
without inconsistency believe that both are true. The _Dissertation_ is
not a complete treatise upon miracles, but with all deductions it was
and still is a valuable contribution to theological literature. In 1771
Campbell was elected professor of theology at Marischal College, and
resigned his city charge, although he still preached as minister of
Greyfriars, a duty then attached to the chair. His _Philosophy of
Rhetoric_, planned at Banchory Ternan years before, appeared in 1776,
and at once took a high place among books on the subject. In 1778 his
last and in some respects his greatest work appeared, _A New Translation
of the Gospels_. The critical and explanatory notes which accompanied it
gave the book a high value.
In 1795 he was compelled by increasing weakness to resign the offices he
held in Marischal College, and on his retirement he received a pension
of L300 from the king. He died on the 31st of March 1796.
His _Lectures on Ecclesiastical History_ were published after his
death with a biographical notice by G.S. Keith; there is a uniform
edition of his works in 6 vols.
CAMPBELL, JOHN (1708-1775), Scottish author, was born at Edinburgh on
the 8th of March 1708. Being designed for the legal profession, he was
sent to Windsor, and apprenticed to an attorney; but his tastes soon led
him to abandon the study of law and to devote himself entirely to
literature. In 1736 he published the _Military History of Prince Eugene
and the Duke of Marlborough_, and soon after contributed several
important articles to the _Ancient Universal History_. In 1742 and 1744
appeared the _Lives of the British Admirals_, in 4 vols., a popular work
which has been continued by other authors. Besides contributing to the
_Biographia Britannica_ and Dodsley's _Preceptor_, he published a work
on _The Present State of Europe_, onsisting of a series of papers which
had appeared in the _Museum_. He also wrote the histories of the
Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish, French, Swedish, Danish and Ostend
settlements in the East Indies, and the histories of Spain, Portugal,
Algarve, Navarre and France, from the time of Clovis till 1656, for the
_Modern Universal History_. At the request of Lord Bute, he published a
vindication of the peace of Paris concluded in 1763, embodying in it a
descriptive and historical account of the New Sugar Islands in the West
Indies. By the king he was appointed agent for the provinces of Georgia
in 1755. His last and most elaborate work, _Political Survey of
Britain_, 2 vols. 4to, was published in 1744, and greatly increased the
author's reputation. Campbell died on the 28th of December 1775. He
received the honorary degree of LL.D. from the university of Glasgow in
1745.
CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL, BARON (1779-1861), lord chancellor of England,
the second son of the Rev. George Campbell, D.D., was born on the 17th
of September 1779 at Cupar, Fife, where his father was for fifty years
parish minister. For a few years Campbell studied at the United College,
St Andrews. In 1800 he was entered as a student at Lincoln's Inn, and,
after a short connexion with the _Morning Chronicle_, was called to the
bar in 1806, and at once began to report cases decided at _nisi prius_
(i.e. on jury trial). Of these _Reports_ he published altogether four
volumes, with learned notes; they extend from Michaelmas 1807 to Hilary
1816. Campbell also devoted himself a good deal to criminal business,
but in spite of his unceasing industry he failed to attract much
attention behind the bar; he had changed his circuit from the home to
the Oxford, but briefs came in slowly, and it was not till 1827 that he
obtained a silk gown and found himself in that "front rank" who are
permitted to have political aspirations. He unsuccessfully contested the
borough of Stafford in 1826, but was elected for it in 1830 and again in
1831. In the House he showed an extraordinary, sometimes an excessive
zeal for public business, speaking on all subjects with practical sense,
but on none with eloquence or spirit. His main object, however, like
that of Brougham, was the amelioration of the law, more by the abolition
of cumbrous technicalities than by the assertion of new and striking
principles.
Thus his name is associated with the Fines and Recoveries Abolition Act
1833; the Inheritance Act 1833; the Dower Act 1833; the Real Property
Limitation Act 1833; the Wills Act 1837; one of the Copyhold Tenure Acts
1841; and the Judgments Act 1838. All these measures were important and
were carefully drawn; but their merits cannot be explained in a
biographical notice. The second was called for by the preference which
the common law gave to a distant collateral over the brother of the
half-blood of the first purchaser; the fourth conferred an indefeasible
title on adverse possession for twenty years (a term shortened by Lord
Cairns in 1875 to twelve years); the fifth reduced the number of
witnesses required by law to attest wills, and removed the vexatious
distinction which existed in this respect between freeholds and
copyholds; the last freed an innocent debtor from imprisonment only
before final judgment (or on what was termed _mesne_ process), but the
principle stated by Campbell that only fraudulent debtors should be
imprisoned was ultimately given effect to for England and Wales in
1869.[1] In one of his most cherished objects, however, that of Land
Registration (q.v.), which formed the theme of his maiden speech in
parliament, Campbell was doomed to disappointment. His most important
appearance as member for Stafford was in defence of Lord John Russell's
first Reform Bill (1831). In a temperate and learned speech, based on
Fox's declaration against constitution-mongering, he supported both the
enfranchising and the disfranchising clauses, and easily disposed of the
cries of "corporation robbery," "nabob representation," "opening for
young men of talent," &c. The following year (1832) found Campbell
solicitor-general, a knight and member for Dudley, which he represented
till 1834. In that year he became attorney-general and was returned by
Edinburgh, for which he sat till 1841.[2]
His political creed declared upon the hustings there was that of a
moderate Whig. He maintained the connexion of church and state, and
opposed triennial parliaments and the ballot. In parliament he continued
to lend the most effective help to the Liberal party. His speech in 1835
in support of the motion for inquiry into the Irish Church temporalities
with a view to their partial appropriation for national purposes (for
disestablishment was not then dreamed of as possible) contains much
terse argument, and no doubt contributed to the fall of Peel and the
formation of the Melbourne cabinet. The next year Campbell had a fierce
encounter with Lord Stanley in the debate which followed the motion of
T. Spring Rice (afterwards Lord Monteagle) on the repair and maintenance
of parochial churches and chapels. The legal point in the dispute (which
Campbell afterwards made the subject of a separate pamphlet) was whether
the church-wardens of the parish, in the absence of the vestry, had any
means of enforcing a rate except the antiquated interdict or
ecclesiastical censure. It was not on legal technicalities, however, but
on the broad principle of religious equality, that Campbell supported
the abolition of church rates, in which he included the Edinburgh
annuity-tax.
In the same year he spoke for Lord Melbourne, in the action (thought by
some to be a political conspiracy[3]) which the Hon. G.C. Norton brought
against the Whig premier for criminal conversation with his wife. At
this time also he exerted himself for the reform of justice in the
ecclesiastical courts, for the uniformity of the law of marriage (which
he held should be a purely civil contract) and for giving prisoners
charged with felony the benefit of counsel. His defence of _The Times_
newspaper, which had accused Sir John Conroy, equerry to the duchess of
Kent, of misappropriation of money (1838), is chiefly remarkable for the
Confession--"I despair of any definition of libel which shall exclude no
publications which ought to be suppressed, and include none which ought
to be permitted." His own definition of blasphemous libel was enforced
in the prosecution which, as attorney-general, he raised against the
bookseller H. Hetherington, and which he justified on the singular
ground that "the vast bulk of the population believe that morality
depends entirely on revelation; and if a doubt could be raised among
them that the ten commandments were given by God from Mount Sinai, men
would think they were at liberty to steal, and women would consider
themselves absolved from the restraints of chastity." But his most
distinguished effort at the bar was undoubtedly the speech for the House
of Commons in the famous case of _Stockdale v. Hansard_, 1837, 7 C. and
P. 731. The Commons had ordered to be printed, among other papers, a
report of the inspectors of prisons on Newgate, which stated that an
obscene book, published by Stockdale, was given to the prisoners to
read. Stockdale sued the Commons' publisher, and was met by the plea of
parliamentary privilege, to which, however, the judges did not give
effect, on the ground that they were entitled to define the privileges
of the Commons, and that publication of papers was not essential to the
functions of parliament. The matter was settled by an act of 1840.
In 1840 Campbell conducted the prosecution against John Frost, one of
the three Chartist leaders who attacked the town of Newport, all of whom
were found guilty of high treason. We may also mention, as matter of
historical interest, the case before the high steward and the House of
Lords which arose out of the duel fought on Wimbledon Common between the
earl of Cardigan and Captain Harvey Tuckett. The law of course was clear
that the "punctilio which swordsmen falsely do call honour" was no
excuse for wilful murder. To the astonishment of everybody, Lord
Cardigan escaped from a capital charge of felony because the full name
of his antagonist (Harvey Garnett Phipps Tuckett) was not legally
proved. It is difficult to suppose that such a blunder was not
preconcerted. Campbell himself made the extraordinary declaration that
to engage in a duel which could not be declined without infamy (i.e.
social disgrace) was "an act free from moral turpitude," although the
law properly held it to be wilful murder. Next year, as the Melbourne
administration was near its close, Plunkett, the venerable chancellor of
Ireland, was forced by discreditable pressure to resign, and the Whig
attorney-general, who had never practised in equity, became chancellor
of Ireland, and was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron
Campbell of St Andrews, in the county of Fife. His wife, Mary Elizabeth
Campbell, the eldest daughter of the first Baron Abinger by one of the
Campbells of Kilmorey, Argyllshire, whom he had married in 1821, had in
1836 been created Baroness Stratheden in recognition of the withdrawal
of his claim to the mastership of the rolls. The post of chancellor
Campbell held for only sixteen days, and then resigned it to his
successor Sir Edward Sugden (Lord St Leonards). The circumstances of his
appointment and the erroneous belief that he was receiving a pension of
L4000 per annum for his few days' court work brought Campbell much
unmerited obloquy.[4] It was during the period 1841-1849, when he had no
legal duty, except the self-imposed one of occasionally hearing Scottish
appeals in the House of Lords, that the unlucky dream of literary fame
troubled Lord Campbell's leisure.[5]
Following in the path struck out by Miss Strickland in her _Lives of the
Queens of England_, and by Lord Brougham's _Lives of Eminent Statesmen_,
he at last produced, in 1849, _The Lives of the Lord Chancellors and
Keepers of the Great Seal of England, from the earliest times till the
reign of King George IV._, 7 vols. 8vo. The conception of this work is
magnificent; its execution wretched. Intended to evolve a history of
jurisprudence from the truthful portraits of England's greatest lawyers,
it merely exhibits the ill-digested results of desultory learning,
without a trace of scientific symmetry or literary taste, without a
spark of that divine imaginative sympathy which alone can give flesh and
spirit to the dead bones of the past, and without which the present
becomes an unintelligible maze of mean and selfish ideas. A charming
style, a vivid fancy, exhaustive research, were not to be expected from
a hard-worked barrister; but he must certainly be held responsible for
the frequent plagiarisms, the still more frequent inaccuracies of
detail, the colossal vanity which obtrudes on almost every page, the
hasty insinuations against the memory of the great departed who were to
him as giants, and the petty sneers which he condescends to print
against his own contemporaries, with whom he was living from day to day
on terms of apparently sincere friendship.
These faults are painfully apparent in the lives of Hardwicke, Eldon,
Lyndhurst and Brougham, and they have been pointed out by the
biographers of Eldon and by Lord St Leonards.[6] And yet the book is an
invaluable repertory of facts, and must endure until it is superseded by
something better. It was followed by the _Lives of the Chief Justices of
England, from the Norman Conquest till the death of Lord Mansfield_,
8vo, 2 vols., a book of similar construction but inferior merit.
It must not be supposed that during this period the literary lawyer was
silent in the House of Lords. He spoke frequently. The 3rd volume of the
_Protests of the Lords_, edited by Thorold Rogers (1875), contains no
less than ten protests by Campbell, entered in the years 1842-1845. He
protests against Peel's Income Tax Bill of 1842; against the Aberdeen
Act 1843, as conferring undue power on church courts; against the
perpetuation of diocesan courts for probate and administration; against
Lord Stanley's absurd bill providing compensation for the destruction of
fences to dispossessed Irish tenants; and against the Parliamentary
Proceedings Bill, which proposed that all bills, except money bills,
having reached a certain stage or having passed one House, should be
continued to next session. The last he opposed because the proper remedy
lay in resolutions and orders of the House. He protests in favour of
Lord Monteagle's motion for inquiry into the sliding scale of corn
duties; of Lord Normanby's motion on the queen's speech in 1843, for
inquiry into the state of Ireland (then wholly under military
occupation); of Lord Radnor's bill to define the constitutional powers
of the home secretary, when Sir James Graham opened Mazzini's letters.
In 1844 he records a solitary protest against the judgment of the House
of Lords in _R._ v. _Millis_, 1844, 10 Cla. and Fin. 534, which affirmed
that a man regularly married according to the rites of the Irish
Presbyterian Church, and afterwards regularly married to another woman
by an episcopally ordained clergyman, could not be convicted of bigamy,
because the English law required for the validity of a marriage that it
should be performed by an ordained priest.
On the resignation of Lord Denman in 1850, Campbell was appointed chief
justice of the queen's bench. For this post he was well fitted by his
knowledge of common law, his habitual attention to the pleadings in
court and his power of clear statement. On the other hand, at _nisi
prius_ and on the criminal circuit, he was accused of frequently
attempting unduly to influence juries in their estimate of the
credibility of evidence. It is also certain that he liked to excite
applause in the galleries by some platitude about the "glorious
Revolution" or the "Protestant succession." He assisted in the reforms
of special pleading at Westminster, and had a recognized place with
Brougham and Lyndhurst in legal discussions in the House of Lords. But
he had neither the generous temperament nor the breadth of view which is
required in the composition of even a mediocre statesman. In 1859 he was
made lord chancellor of Great Britain, probably on the understanding
that Bethell should succeed as soon as he could be spared from the House
of Commons. His short tenure of this office calls for no remark. In the
same year he published in the form of a letter to Payne Collier an
amusing and extremely inconclusive essay on Shakespeare's legal
acquirements. One passage will show the conjectural Drocess which runs
through the book: "If Shakespeare was really articled to a Stratford
attorney, in all probability, during the five years of his clerkship, he
visited London several times on his master's business, and he may then
have been introduced to the green-room at Blackfriars by one of his
countrymen connected with that theatre." The only positive piece of
evidence produced is the passage from Thomas Nash's "Epistle to the
Gentlemen of the Two Universities," prefixed to Greene's _Arcadia_,
1859, in which he upbraids somebody (not known to be Shakespeare) with
having left the "trade of Noverint" and busied himself with "whole
Hamlets" and "handfuls of tragical speeches." The knowledge of law shown
in the plays is very much what a universal observer must have picked up.
Lawyers always underestimate the legal knowledge of an intelligent
layman. Campbell died on the 23rd of June 1861. It has been well said of
him in explanation of his success, that he lived eighty years and
preserved his digestion unimpaired. He had a hard head, a splendid
constitution, tireless industry, a generally judicious temper. He was a
learned, though not a scientific lawyer, a faithful political adherent,
thoroughly honest as a judge, dutiful and happy as a husband. But there
was nothing admirable or heroic in his nature. On no great subject did
his principles rise above the commonplace of party, nor had he the
magnanimity which excuses rather than aggravates the faults of others.
His life was the triumph of steady determination unaided by a single
brilliant or attractive quality.
AUTHORITIES.--_Life of Lord Campbell, a Selection from his
Autobiography, Diary and Letters_, ed. by Hon. Mrs Hardcastle (1881);
E. Foss, _The Judges of England_ (1848-1864); W.H. Bennet, _Select
Biographical Sketches from Note-books of a Law Reporter_ (1867); E.
Manson, _Builders of our Law_ (ed. 1904); J.B. Atlay, _The Victorian
Chancellors_, vol. ii. (1908).