fixed on red-hot iron spikes, or torn asunder with glowing tongs, or
sawn in two with saws, or crushed between rocks, or consumed by flames
entering the apertures of their bodies. The European visitor inquires
with amazement how it is that a system so mild, merciful, and tolerant,
should have invented the horrible tortures here exhibited. The
explanation is not difficult, and his astonishment ceases when he is
reminded that Buddhism, recognizing no moral Governor of the Universe,
is compelled to resort to such artifices for the coercion and
intimidation of evil-doers.
In the interior of the building is the shrine, in which is preserved
behind iron bars, the golden Dāgaba or receptacle of one of the Buddha’s
eye-teeth (see p. 500). On each side are images, and when I visited the
shrine, the whole chamber was redolent with the fragrance of masses of
flowers—chiefly jasmine—recently deposited before them as offerings.
Behind the building I found an open quadrangle with cells for the monks,
and a residence for the Head of the monastery. Not far from the entrance
was a spacious library, where I was greeted by a number of youthful
monks, dressed in simple toga-like vestments, but with their right
shoulders left bare. Some were engaged in writing. I therefore asked for
a specimen of their penmanship. Upon which they wrote down for me on
palm leaves, in the Sinhalese character, forty-eight epithets of the
Buddha, such as the following:—God of the gods, Indra of Indras, Brahmā
of Brahmās, the Almighty, Omniscient, Existing in his own Law, Lord of
the Law, Saviour of all, Conqueror, King of doctrine, Ocean of grace,
Treasury, Jewel, Sun, Moon, Stars, Lotus, Ambrosia of the World, the
Five-eyed one, the Bull, Elephant, Lion among men, stronger than the
strongest, mightier than the mightiest, more merciful than the most
merciful, more meritorious than the most meritorious, more beautiful
than the most beautiful, etc.
The temples in Burma are commonly called ‘pagodas,’ a word corrupted
from the Pāli Dāgaba (Sanskṛit Dhātu-garbha), ‘receptacle of the
(sacred) elements’ or relics of the body. They are also called Dagohn.
According to Mr. Scott (‘Burman,’ i. 184), the number of temples in
Burma far exceeds those in Ceylon or Tibet or China. No village so poor
as to be without its ‘neatly kept shrine, with the remains of others
mouldering away around it; no hill so steep as to be without its
glittering gold or snow-white spire rising up to guard the place; no
work of merit so richly paid as the building of a pagoda.’ Some are of
simple construction, others elaborate; but of all the temples the great
Rangoon pagoda is the grandest and most crowded with worshippers and
pilgrims.
The peculiar sacredness and popularity of this wonderful structure (said
to have been founded 588 B.C.), arises from its containing relics of
Gautama and his three predecessors, that is, eight hairs from Gautama’s
head, the staff of Kāṡyapa, the robe of Kanaka-muni, and the
drinking-cup of Kraku-ććhanda (see p. 135 of these Lectures). The
stately pile stands upon a mound—partly natural, partly artificial—cut
into two rectangular terraces one above the other, the upper being 166
feet above the ground, and each side facing one of the cardinal points
of the compass. The ascent is by very dilapidated steps, some of stone,
some of ‘sun-dried bricks, worn almost into a slope by the bare feet of
myriads of worshippers.’ None but Europeans may ascend with covered
feet. The stairs lead to a ‘broad, open flagged space, which runs all
round the pagoda, and is left free for worshippers.’ From the centre of
this springs, from an octagonal plinth, the ‘profusely gilt _solid
brick_ pagoda,’ which has a circumference of 1355 feet, and rises to a
height of about 328, ‘or nearly as high as St. Paul’s cathedral.’ On the
summit is ‘the Tee,’ a gilt umbrella-shaped ornament with many tiers of
rings, on each of which ‘hang multitudes of gold and silver jewelled
bells.’ It was ‘placed there at a cost of not much less than
£50,000[239].’ At the foot of the pagoda are four chapels, having
colossal figures of Buddha at the sides, and their gilded interiors
darkened by the vapour of thousands of burning tapers. ‘Hundreds of
Gautamas,’ large and small, white and black, gilded and plain, sitting,
standing, and reclining, surround the larger images. It is said that the
great pagoda has been thrice covered with gold-leaf.
There is a still higher pagoda (332 feet high) at Pegu, and the most
ancient of all is at Arakan.
Passing to Northern Buddhist countries, we find that the temples are
generally simple, and not to be compared with the grand pagodas of
Burma.
For example, at Tassiding in Sikkim, Sir Richard Temple (Journal, ii.
204) found that the two principal temples were chapel-like structures
with ‘overshadowing umbrella-shaped roofs, thatched with split bamboos.’
The walls were of rough stone, the upper half being painted red. The
interiors, which were dimly lighted, had two stories, the walls being
covered with coloured frescoes illustrating the punishments in the
various hells, ‘some of which would be suitable for illustrations of
Dante’s Inferno.’ The ends opposite to the entrance were filled with
images. In other parts of the chapels were praying-machines, and on
shelves the remnants of a library of sacred Buddhist manuscripts. Sir
Richard attended a religious service in one of these chapels, which
consisted of a series of chants and invocations to a female demon called
Tanma, represented by a hideous lay figure dressed in robes. According
to tradition, it was the malevolent action of the twelve Tanmas in
bringing pestilences on the Tibetans, that led them to send for
Padma-sambhava, who introduced the debased Buddhism subsequently
prevalent in Tibet (Note by Capt. R. C. Temple).
According to Dr. Schlagintweit (p. 189) and Koeppen the generality of
temples in Mongolia and Tibet consist of one large square or rectangular
room, with an entrance-hall or vestibule, which in Mongolia looks to the
south and in Tibet to the east. ‘The inside surface is whitewashed or
covered with a kind of plaster,’ and decorated with paintings
representing episodes taken from the life of the Buddhas, or with
pictures of gods and goddesses of terrible aspect. Generally images of
the four great kings are placed here as guardians of the sanctuary (p.
206 of this volume). Sometimes there are side chambers, which may be
compared to transepts, and give the building the form of a cross. These
chambers often have shelves for the sacred books, wrapped in silk. In
the corners are tables for images of the deities, religious dresses,
musical instruments, etc. Other articles required for the daily service
are hung up on wooden pegs along the walls. Benches for the Lāmas are
placed in the hall of the temple.
The altar at the further extremity rises in steps made of wood,
beautifully carved and richly ornamented. Upon these are arranged images
of the Buddhas and Bodhi-sattvas, and especially the chief idol
representing Gautama Buddha in some of his forms and attitudes. Here
also are vessels for offerings, bells, Dorjes (p. 323), and other
utensils used in religious worship. Among the latter may be seen the
mirror (Melong, see p. 463) used in the ceremony described at p. 335.
There is also a vase with peacock’s feathers, and a sacred book is never
wanting.
The vessels for offerings are of brass, and like tea-cups. They are
usually filled with barley, butter, and perfumes, and in summer with
flowers. Near at hand is a Chorten (p. 380) containing relics, and
having a niche with the image of a Buddha or Bodhi-sattva, to whom the
temple may perhaps be dedicated.
Finally, in the entrance-vestibule, at both sides of the door, as well
as in the interior, stand rows of large and small prayer-cylinders,
which are perpetually kept revolving by the attendant Lāmas.
Of course the temples at the great centres of Tibetan Buddhism in and
near Lhāssa, Tashi Lunpo, and other important places, are far more
imposing. Indeed, for magnificence, few religious edifices in any part
of the world can compare with them.
The great temple (called _Cho Khang_) in the monastery of _Lā brang_ at
Lhāssa is a kind of centre of the Lāmistic Church. It is the first and
oldest temple, and, as before stated (p. 440), the St. Peter’s of
Lāmism[240].
The facade of this vast structure looks to the east, and in front of it
is a square place, with a kind of obelisk or monolith, commemorating the
victory of the Tibetans over the Chinese in the ninth century, as well
as more recent treaties of peace and friendship between the two
countries. The main building is three stories high. Before the entrance
stands a lofty flag-pole, forty feet high[241], and not far off is a
poplar, said to have sprung ‘from the consecrated hair of Buddha.’ The
portico of the temple consists of a colonnade of six thick wooden
columns. The walls of the portico are covered with rude paintings,
representing scenes in the biography of Gautama Buddha. In the middle
are folding doors adorned with bronze carvings in relief. Through these
is the entrance into the front hall, over which is the first story. In
the wall opposite to the entrance is a second door, on each side of
which stand two colossal statues of the four great kings (see pp. 23,
51, 53, 54 of this volume).
This second door leads into the interior of the building. On entering,
the visitor finds himself in a vast temple, shaped like a basilica,
divided by rows of columns into three naves and two transepts. The broad
central nave is lighted from above by transparent oil-cloth instead of
glass. This is the only light which finds its way into the temple, as
there are no side windows. On the outside of the two secondary naves is
a row of small chapels, fourteen on one side and fourteen on the other.
The two transepts form the back-ground of the great hall, and are
separated from the naves by a silver lattice-work. Here, at the ordinary
services, are the seats of the inferior monks. From the west transept a
staircase leads to another pillared transept, which forms the vestibule
of the sanctuary. In the middle of the sanctuary, which is square in
form, is the altar for offerings. Beyond the altar, at the west side of
the sanctuary, and therefore in the furthest recess of the whole
building, is a quadrangular niche. In front of this niche on the left is
the throne of the Dalai Lāma, very lofty, richly adorned and furnished
with five cushions, as is customary in the case of Grand Lāmas. On one
side of the Dalai Lāma’s throne is a similar throne for the Panchen
Lāma, and then, in regular order, the thrones of the Khutuktus and other
Avatāra Lāmas. The Khanpos and the whole non-Avatāra monkhood have seats
in the transept.
Opposite to the throne of the Dalai Lāma, on the right of the niche, is
the chair of the Regent, which is less elevated than the thrones of the
Avatāra Lāmas. Behind are the seats of the four ministers, which again
are less elevated than those of the non-Avatāra Lāmas. At the west end
of the niche is the high altar, which rises in numerous steps. On the
upper steps are small images of deified saints, in massive gold or
silver. On the lower ones, as on all Buddhist altars, are lamps,
incense-holders, bowls for offerings, etc. On the highest elevation,
behind silver and golden lattice-work, is the celebrated image of
Gautama Buddha richly gilded. This image is said to have been
constructed in Magadha during the lifetime of the Buddha. Others hold it
to be self-produced; and another tradition ascribes its origin to the
god Viṡva-karma, who, instructed by Indra, constructed it with equal
parts of five metals and five precious stones. Besides this highest
object of worship, the temple contains countless images and pictures of
Buddhas and Bodhi-sattvas (such as Dīpaṃkara, Amitābha, Maitreya, the
eleven-faced Avalokiteṡvara, Mañju-ṡrī, etc.), besides gods and
goddesses[242], and historical personages, such as Tsong Khapa, who have
benefited the Lāmistic church (among them being a statue of Hiouen
Thsang), as well as relics, and gold and silver vessels, which are
exhibited every year at the beginning of the third month.
Mr. Sarat Chandra Dās, who, in his ‘Narrative,’ records his visit to the
great Lhāssa temple, informs us that when he was there, five thousand
oil-burners were lighted in the court of the temple, and those before
the principal image were all of gold. He found some of the subordinate
chapels infested by mice, which are never touched, because supposed to
be metamorphosed monks. He observed some Buddhists from Nepāl chanting
Sanskṛit hymns, and others engaged in circumambulation, while the
muttering of Om Maṇi padme Hūm (p. 372) was incessant.
Mr. Sarat Chandra Dās also describes a visit he paid to the famous
shrine of _Ramoćhe_, before adverted to (see p. 441). I give his
description in an abbreviated form:—
Our equipment was as usual a bundle of incense-sticks, clarified
butter, and a few scarves. Our road turned westward by the side of a
long Mandong (see p. 380). I left it to my right-hand side, seeing
that to have kept it on my left would have been heretical. A few
hundred paces brought us to the gate of the famous temple of Ramoćhe,
erected by the wife of King Srong Tsan Gampo, the first Chinese
princess who introduced Buddhism into Tibet. It is a lofty edifice,
flat-roofed, and three stories high, surrounded by a stone wall, with
a high and wide porch. About thirty monks were solemnly seated to
perform a religious service, on two sides of a row of pillars which
supported the roof. The image brought by the Nepālese princess, lay
midway between the pillars. It was grand-looking; and, though its face
was gilded, its antiquity was manifest. In the northern lobby of the
temple was a vast collection of ancient relics, such as shields,
spears, drums, arrows, sabres, long knives, trumpets, etc. In a room
to the left of the entrance, enclosed by iron lattice-work, were a few
images considered especially sacred. We were also shown a brass
mirror, called Melong, said to be possessed of wonderful properties.
The history of the shrine, according to the same traveller, is this:—The
princess being thoroughly versed in astrology, found that there was a
spot close to the new-built city of Lhāssa which was connected with the
lower regions of torment. On that plot of ground she erected the shrine
of Ramoćhe, on the chief altar of which she placed the famous statue of
Buddha, brought from China. In this way she hoped to intercept the
passage (_gati_) of wicked people to a life in one of the hells (see p.
121). Whoever, at the time of death, was brought to this sanctuary,
could only be born again in the worlds of either men or gods.
Finally we come to the temple at the second great Metropolis of
Buddhism:—
Mr. Bogle (Markham’s Tibet, p. 100) describes the temple in the
monastery at Tashi Lunpo as simply a long room or gallery containing
thirteen gigantic figures made of copper gilt, all in a sedent attitude,
with their legs folded under them. He found them all draped, with
jewelled crowns and necklaces of coral, pearls, and other stones. The
thrones on which they sat were also of copper gilt, and adorned with
turquoises and cornelians. Behind them were a variety of conch-shells,
set in silver, ostrich-eggs, cocoa-nuts, and other articles. At each end
of the gallery was a large collection of books deposited in
pigeon-holes. Mr. Bogle was present when the Tashi Lāma himself entered
the temple, and, as he passed along, sprinkled rice upon the images.
This was a kind of consecration-ceremony.
As an instance of the tolerant character of Buddhism and its readiness
to accommodate itself to the indigenous creeds of the countries into
which it was introduced, we may note, in conclusion, that in Japan may
be seen Buddhist and Shinto temples side by side or even occasionally
combined in one building. Buddhism in fact adopted Shintoism in Japan
just as it adopted Shamanism in Tibet. It took the deities and demi-gods
of Shintoism and turned them into Bodhi-sattvas[243].
The subject of Monasteries and Temples naturally leads us to that of
images and image-worship; but this and the whole subject of ‘Sacred
Objects’ must be reserved for the next two Lectures.
LECTURE XVI.
_Images and Idols._
On several occasions during my travels through all parts of India, I
asked intelligent Paṇḍits how they could reconcile the gross idolatry
and fetish-worship which meet the eye at almost every step throughout
the length and breadth of their land, with the doctrine repeatedly
declared to be the only true creed of Brāhmanism—the doctrine that
nothing really exists but the one eternal, omnipresent Spirit of the
Universe (named Brahman or Brahmă)[244].
The answer I generally received to this inquiry was, that spiritual
worship was at first the only form of religion dominant in India, till
the Buddhists set the example of worshipping material objects and images
(pratimā-pūjā).
Of course it is impossible to say what amount of truth there may be in
this accusation. It seems probable that material impersonations of the
forces of nature existed before the Buddha’s time. Yet there is no
evidence of the prevalence of actual idolatry at the time when the
Ṛig-veda was composed. Nor is there any very clear allusion to it in
Manu. Nor have any images of Hindū gods been found which are so ancient
as some Buddhist images. At the same time nothing is said about
image-worship in the Buddhist Piṭakas. The statement that the Buddha
himself sanctioned idolatry is wholly legendary (see p. 177). Nor is
there any proof that carved images of his person were common in India
till several centuries after his death.
The Bharhut sculptures of about the second century B.C.—though
representing many scenes connected with the Buddha (see pp. 408,
523)—exhibit no representations of the Buddha himself. Nor are there any
on the Sānchī gateway of still later date.
The only objects of reverence in the Bharhut sculptures, according to
Sir A. Cunningham, are Bodhi-trees, Wheels, the Tri-ratna symbol,
Stūpas, and foot-prints (see pp. 521-522 of these Lectures). The
bas-reliefs on the railing at the Buddha-Gayā Temple, which is of a
little earlier date, agree in making the Tree, Wheel, Tri-ratna, and
Stūpa the great objects of reverence. On the other hand, in the edicts
of king Aṡoka veneration for the Bodhi-tree alone is enjoined. Among the
historical scenes represented in the Bharhut sculptures, are the
processions of the kings Ajāta-ṡatru and Prasenajit on their visits to
the Buddha; ‘the former on his elephant, the latter in his chariot,
exactly as they are described in the Buddhist chronicles.’ There are
also bas-reliefs which seem to represent Rāma, during his exile, besides
images of other gods, Yakshas and Nāgas, but no figure of Buddha himself
is to be seen anywhere.
Yet it is undeniable that in the early centuries of our era, images of
Gautama Buddha and other Buddhas and Bodhi-sattvas had become common
among the Buddhists in every part of India.
[Illustration: REMAINS OF A COLOSSAL STATUE OF BUDDHA, PROBABLY ONCE IN
THE ARGUMENTATIVE OR TEACHING ATTITUDE.]
Found in the ruins close to the south side of the Buddha-Gayā temple,
the date (S. 64 = A.D. 142) being inscribed on the pedestal. (see p. 481)
One of the oldest statues of the Buddha that has yet been brought to
light is the colossal image (now in the Calcutta Museum) dug up in the
ruins outside the ancient temple at Buddha-Gayā (p. 390), the date
inscribed on which corresponds to about A.D. 142. The engraving
(opposite) is from a photograph of this statue, belonging to Sir A.
Cunningham[245]. The thick lips are certainly remarkable. The attitude
was probably the ‘argumentative’ or ‘teaching’ (described at p. 481).
Another colossal statue of about the same date was found by Sir A.
Cunningham at Ṡrāvastī (see p. 408).
It was indeed by a strange irony of fate that the man who denied any god
or any being higher than himself, and told his followers to look to
themselves alone for salvation, should have been not only deified and
worshipped, but represented by more images than any other being ever
idolized in any part of the world. In fact images, statues, statuettes,
carvings in bas-relief, paintings, and representations of him in all
attitudes are absolutely innumerable. In caves, monasteries, and
temples, on Dāgabas, votive Stūpas, monuments and rocks, they are
multiplied infinitely and in endless variety, and not only are isolated
images manufactured out of all kinds of materials, but rows on rows are
sculptured in relief, and the greater the number the greater religious
merit accrues to the sculptor, and—if they are dedicated at sacred
places—to the dedicator also.
And not only images of the Buddha, but representations of every object
that could possibly be connected with him, became multiplied to an
indefinite extent.
The gradual growth of what may be called objective Buddhism, and the
steps which led to every kind of extravagance in the idolatrous use of
images, may be described in the following manner:—
It was only natural that the disciples of an ideally perfect man, who
had taught them that in passing away at death he would become absolutely
extinct, should have devised some method of perpetuating his memory and
stimulating a desire to conform to his example. Their first method was
to preserve the relics of his burnt body, and to honour every object
associated with his earthly career. Then, in process of time, they began
to worship not only his relics but the receptacles under which they were
buried, and around these they placed sculptures commemorative of his
life and teaching. Thence they passed on to the carving or moulding of
small statuettes of his person in wood, stone, metal, terra-cotta, or
clay, and on these they often inscribed the well-known Buddhistic
formulæ mentioned before (see p. 104). Eventually, too, painting was
pressed into the service, and frescoes on walls became common. Indeed in
some temples paintings take the place of images, as objects of
adoration.
It seems likely that the use of images and paintings was at first
confined to the brotherhood, and it is alleged that they were only
honoured and not worshipped. But the more the circle of uncultured and
unthinking Buddhists became enlarged, the more did visible
representations of the founder of Buddhism become needed, and the more
they became multiplied.
Nor was this all. The reaction from the original simplicity of Buddhism
led to a complete repudiation of its anti-theistic doctrines. It adopted
polytheistic superstitions even more rapidly and thoroughly than
Brāhmanism did. People were not satisfied with representations of the
founder of Buddhism. They craved for other visible and tangible objects
of adoration—for the images of other Buddhas and Bodhi-sattvas—of gods
many and lords many—insomuch that a Buddhist Pantheon was gradually
created which became peopled with a more motley crowd of occupants than
that of Brāhmanism and Hindūism.
Furthermore, it was only natural that the manufacture of the whole array
of divinities and semi-divinities, of saints and sages, should have been
committed to the monks. They alone possessed this privilege. They alone,
too, had the power of consecrating each image by the repetition of
mystical texts and formularies. And when images and idols were thus
consecrated, they were believed to be animated with the spirit, and to
possess all the attributes of the beings they represented.
In fact, the development of every phase of idolatrous superstition
reached a point of extravagance unparalleled in any other religious
system of the world. The monks of Buddhism vied with each other in the
‘pious fraud’ with which they constructed their idols. They so
manipulated them that they appeared to give out light or to flash
supernatural glances from their crystal eyes. Or they made them deliver
oracular utterances, or they furnished them with movable limbs, so that
a head would unexpectedly nod, or a hand be raised to bless the
worshipper. Then they clothed them with costly vestments, and adorned
them with ornaments and jewels, and treated them in every way as if they
were living energizing personalities.
It ought, however, to be noted here, that in some temples images of the
Buddhas and Bodhi-sattvas were said to exist which were not manufactured
or consecrated by monks. They were believed to have been self-produced,
or to have been created supernaturally out of nothing, or to have
emerged in a miraculous manner out of vacuity. The child-like faith of
uncultured and imaginative races in the virtue supposed to be inherent
in such images was perhaps not surprising. The power of working all
kinds of miracles was gradually ascribed to them; sicknesses were said
to be healed by them, rain to be produced, and the course of nature
itself to be subject to their direction and control.
The two Chinese pilgrims Fā-hien and Hiouen Thsang are never tired of
describing the wonders supposed to have been wrought by the statues and
idols they saw during their travels, especially by the marvellous
sandal-wood statue mentioned before (see p. 408).
The following tradition in regard to this image, narrated by Fā-hien
(Legge, 56, 57), is especially interesting as showing that the general
belief among all classes of Buddhists in his time was, that Gautama
Buddha himself was the first to sanction the making of visible
representations of himself:—
When Buddha went up to the Trayastriṉṡa heaven and preached the law
for the benefit of his mother for ninety days, Prasenajit longing to
see him, caused an image to be carved in Goṡīrsha sandal-wood, and put
in the place where he usually sat. When Buddha, on his return, entered
the Vihāra, this image immediately left its place, and came forth to
meet him. Buddha then said to it: ‘Return to your seat. After I have
attained Pari-nirvāṇa you shall serve as a pattern to the four classes
(paths, see p. 132) of my disciples.’ Thereupon the image returned to
its seat. This was the very first of all the images of Buddha, and
that which men subsequently copied.
In Hiouen Thsang’s narrative, which is of much later date (see p. 413),
we find the following account of this celebrated sandal-wood image
(Beal, ii. 322):—
At the town of Pimā (Pi-mo) there is a figure of Buddha in a standing
position made of sandal-wood. The figure is about twenty feet high. It
works many miracles, and reflects constantly a bright light. Those who
have any disease, according to the part affected, cover the
corresponding place on the statue with gold-leaf, and forthwith they
are healed. People who address prayers to it, with a sincere heart,
mostly obtain their wishes. This is what the natives say: ‘This image
in old days, when Buddha was alive, was made by Udayana, King of
Kauṡāmbī (see p. 412 of these Lectures). When Buddha left the world,
it mounted of its own accord into the air, and came to the north of
this kingdom to the town of Ho-lo-lo-kia (Urgha?).’
With regard to the form and character of the countless images now
scattered everywhere, they vary according to country and period (see p.
485). It should be observed, however, that Buddhism, when it began to
encourage idolatry, did not make it hideous by giving monstrous shapes
to its idols. In this respect early Buddhism contrasted very favourably
with Hindūism. Nor did the Buddhists of India, as of other countries,
adopt the practice of endowing their idols with extra heads and arms to
symbolize power, or of inventing grotesque combinations of the human
figure with the shapes of elephants, birds, serpents, and other animals.
They seemed rather to have tried in the first instance to neutralize the
tendency to extravagant symbolism common among all Eastern peoples, by
delineating their great teacher as an ideal man, simply and naturally
formed, according to the Buddhist ideal of perfection with symmetrical
limbs, and a dignified, calm, passionless, and majestic bearing. What
can be a greater contrast than the four-armed elephant-headed
village-god of India,—Gaṇeṡa, son of Ṡiva[246]—and the purely human
figure of the Buddha as shown in his statues!
Nevertheless it must be admitted that in process of time the
representations of Gautama Buddha developed certain peculiar varieties
of form as well as differences in attitude. These differences, indeed,
constitute a highly interesting topic of inquiry, and perhaps deserve
more attention than they have hitherto received in any treatise with
which I am acquainted.
Without going minutely into every point, we may begin by noting a few
general characteristics common to all the Buddha’s images.
In the first place, they all represent Gautama as clothed—not naked. In
this respect they present a pleasant contrast to the images of Jaina
saints; for, as already pointed out, Gautama discountenanced all
extremes of bodily mortification, and disapproved the practice of going
about nude, according to the custom of Hindū devotees. In the
Dharma-pada it is said, ‘Not nakedness, not matted hair, not dirt, not
fasting, nor lying on the ground, nor smearing with ashes, nor sitting
motionless can purify a mortal who has not overcome desires.’
Gautama’s robe was drawn gracefully over his shoulders like a toga, but
probably the right shoulder was always left bare on formal occasions.
The Piṭakas give no clear information as to this point. In Indian
statues the robe is sometimes represented as fitting so closely to the
body that the figure seems garmentless[247]; its presence being merely
denoted by a line running diagonally over the left shoulder across the
breast, and under the right arm. This line frequently looks so like a
cord that some have mistaken it for the thread to which, as a Kshatriya,
Buddha was entitled[248]. In some ancient images no trace of the line is
left, but they are not really nude. Most Indian images have the right
shoulder bare (even in the case of nuns). Of course in colder climates
both shoulders are covered. Even in Southern countries some have both
shoulders covered, or the right partially so.
In contradistinction to the clothed images of the Buddha, all the
representations of his great opponent and rival Deva-datta (see pp. 52,
405) make the latter unclothed, like a Jaina ascetic, or only partially
clothed up to the waist. Deva-datta is also represented as shorter in
stature than the Buddha.
Other characteristics generally to be observed in the earlier images of
Gautama Buddha are:—the impassive tranquil features, typical of complete
conquest over the passions, and of perfect repose; the absence of all
decoration and ornament; the long pendulous ears, which occasionally
reach to the shoulders[249]; the circle or small globe or lotus[250], or
auspicious mark of some kind, on the palm or palms of the supinated
hands (as well as often on the soles of the feet), and the short knobby
hair, often carved so as to resemble a close-fitting curly wig.
It must not be forgotten that Gautama signalized his renunciation of the
world by cutting off his hair with a sword, and the resulting stumps are
said to have turned into permanent knobs or short curls[251].
In images brought from Burma and Siam a curious horn-like protuberance
on the crown of the head—either tapering to a point, or rounded off at
the extremity—is noticeable. Often, too, sculptures found in India show
the rounded form of this excrescence.
Some think that it represents an ascetic’s mass of hair coiled up in a
top-knot on the crown of the head, as in images of the god Ṡiva. Others
regard it as the rough outline of what ought to be an Ushṇīsha or
peculiar crown-like head-dress, such as may be seen in many later images
of the Buddha. Some legends declare that the Buddha was born with this
Ushṇīsha, which was indicative of his future supremacy.
Others, again, maintain that this protuberance (sometimes lengthened out
so as to be as high as the head itself) was a peculiar growth of the
skull, and one of the marks of a supreme Buddha indicative of
supernatural intelligence; just as in other images (especially those
brought from Ceylon) five flames—in shape like the fingers of a hand—are
represented issuing from the crown of the head (see p. 453), to typify
the Buddha’s diffusion of light and knowledge throughout the world.
It is said that this outgrowth of the Buddha’s skull has been preserved
as a sacred relic in a town of Afghānistān near Jalālābād.
In many representations of the Buddha, a Nimbus or aureola of glory
encircles the head (see p. 478), and in some images rays of light are
represented as emerging from his whole body. An image with a halo of
this kind surrounding the entire figure was seen by me in a temple near
Kandy in Ceylon (see p. 453).
In Nepāl many images represent Buddha holding his alms-bowl, but these
are not common in other places.
With regard to the size of the images, they vary from diminutive
examples, two or three inches long, to colossal statues twelve,
eighteen, twenty, thirty, forty, or even seventy feet high. They are
generally carved in stone or marble, but sometimes in metal, sometimes
in wood, and occasionally moulded in clay.
Much difference of opinion prevails as to the Buddha’s actual stature.
When I asked the opinion of Buddhist teachers in Ceylon, they all agreed
in assigning to the founder of their religion a majestic bodily frame,
not only gifting him with the possession of the thirty-two
distinguishing marks of a perfect man and supreme Buddha (see p. 20),
but with great height and imposing presence. A common idea is that the
eighteen-feet statues represent life-size. According to other legends
the Buddha’s stature reached to twenty cubits. In China, the mythical
history of Buddha gives him a height of only sixteen feet[252]. His arms
are by some said to have been so long, that he was able to touch his
knees with his hands without stooping, and if we are to take the
supposed impress of his foot on Adam’s Peak and in Siam as the measure
of his stature, he must have been the most gigantic giant that ever
lived. Even one of the most enlightened natives of Ceylon, the late Mr.
James d’Alwis—a convert to Christianity—told me, in explanation of the
abnormal size of the eye-tooth at Kandy, that he was convinced that all
human beings were taller in Buddha’s time, and that Gautama was taller
than his fellow-men of those days, and was about eight feet high. It was
his opinion that as sin increases in the world, so men’s stature
decreases. Probably the Buddha was tall, even for the North-west of
India, where the average of a man’s stature is about five feet eight or
nine inches.
[Illustration: SCULPTURE FOUND BY SIR A. CUNNINGHAM AT SĀRNĀTH, NEAR
BENARES,]
Illustrating the four principal events in Gautama Buddha’s life—his
birth from his mother’s side, his attainment of Buddhahood under the
tree, his teaching at Benares, and his passing away in complete
Nirvāṇa. (Date of the sculpture, about 400 A.D.)
As to the attitudes of Gautama’s images, they may be classed under the
three heads of sedent, erect, and recumbent. I use the word ‘sedent’ for
what ought to be called a squatting position, with the legs folded under
the body. Images which represent a figure sitting in European fashion
are rare.
Four principal images represent the four principal events in Buddha’s
life, as shown in the Sārnāth sculpture engraved on the opposite page
(compare p. 387).
The first sedent attitude may be called the ‘Meditative.’ The example
below is described at p. xxx. 15.
[Illustration: ]
This represents the Buddha seated, in meditation, on a raised seat under
the sacred tree, with the two hands supinated, one over the other.
[Illustration: ]
The second sedent attitude may be called the ‘Witness-attitude.’ It is
perhaps the most esteemed of all, and is represented in a good sculpture
delineated below (from Sir A. Cunningham’s photograph, see p. xxx. 17).
This represents Gautama at the moment of achieving Buddhahood after his
long course of meditation, seated on a lion-throne (siṉhāsana) with an
ornamental back, having two lions carved below (compare p. 394). His
legs are folded in the usual Indian fashion, the feet being turned
upwards, while the right hand hangs over the right leg and points to the
earth, and the left hand is supinated on the left foot. He has an
aureola round his head and a mark—perhaps the caste-mark of a
Kshatriya—on his forehead, and an umbrella over the sacred tree. This
attitude is well shown in the Sārnāth sculpture (facing p. 477).
The tradition is that at the moment of his enlightenment Gautama was
taunted by the evil being Māra with being unable to give any proof or
sign of his Buddhahood. Thereupon Gautama pointed, not to heaven as a
Brāhman might have done, but to the earth beneath his feet, calling it
to witness. Then a six-fold earthquake and other miraculous phenomena
followed[253].
At this time, too, the evil being Māra sent his enchanting daughters (p.
34) to seduce the Buddha. This is shown in the engraving facing p. 477.
The incident of calling the earth to witness is thus mentioned by Hiouen
Thsang:—
In the Vihāra, was found a beautiful figure of Buddha in a sitting
position, the right foot uppermost, the left hand resting, the right
hand hanging down. He was sitting facing the east, and as dignified in
appearance as when alive. The signs and marks of a Buddha were
perfectly drawn. The loving expression of his face was like life. Now
it happened that a Ṡramaṇa, who was passing the night in the Vihāra,
had a dream, in which he saw a Brāhman who said:—
‘I am Maitreya Bodhi-sattva. Fearing that the mind of no artist could
conceive the beauty of the sacred features, I myself have come to
delineate the figure of Buddha. His right hand hangs down, in token
that when he was about to reach Buddhahood the evil Māra came to tempt
him, saying, “Who will bear witness for you?” Then Tathāgata dropped
his hand and pointed to the ground, saying, “Here is my witness.” On
this an earth-spirit leapt forth to bear witness.’ (Beal’s Records,
ii. 121, abridged.)
This ‘Witness-attitude’ is also shown in the annexed engraving from a
photograph of one of the only statues that remained in the exterior
niches of the ancient Buddha-Gayā temple before its restoration.
[Illustration: ]
The two seal-like circles on each side contain the usual ‘Ye dharmā’
formula (see p. 104 and p. xxx. 18).
The third sedent pose or position may be called the ‘Serpent-canopied.’
This is commemorative of the legend that Gautama, when seated in
meditation after his attainment of Buddhahood, was sheltered from a
violent storm by the expanded hood of the Nāga, or serpent-demon
Mućalinda (see p. 39), while the coils of the snake were wound round his
body, or gathered under him to form a seat. Similarly the ascetic form
of Ṡiva is often represented under a serpent-canopy.
Only one example of this has been found at Buddha-Gayā. Such images,
however, are common in the south, and their prevalence there is not
difficult to account for. Indeed, the connexion of Buddhism with the
serpent-worship of southern countries and with the Nāgas of Hindū
mythology (see p. 220 of these Lectures), was one inevitable result of
its readiness to graft popular superstitions on its own doctrines[254].
I procured a good specimen of the ‘Serpent-canopied’ Buddha during my
stay in Ceylon. It is made of heavy brass, and curiously enough
represents Buddha with an aquiline nose. It has the five rays of light
before alluded to (see pp. 453, 475) issuing from the crown of his head.
See the frontispiece opposite title-page.
In some images an umbrella alone, and in some, as at p. 478, both an
umbrella and tree form the canopy.
The fourth sedent posture may be called the ‘Argumentative’ (Tarka)
attitude (as shown in the engraving opposite p. 477). It represents
Gautama with the thumb and finger of the right hand touching the fingers
of the left, and apparently going through the heads of his
doctrine[255], and enforcing it, as he usually did, by reiterations.
This is sometimes called the ‘Teaching’ attitude.
Often the ‘Ye dharmā’ formula (see p. 104) is carved either under or at
the side of images in this attitude.
The fifth may be called the ‘Preaching’ attitude. It is often erect. The
Buddha has one finger raised in a didactic manner. Monks in the present
day often read the Law and preach in the same manner.
The sixth attitude also—as a rule—comes under the erect class, and is
often scarcely to be distinguished from the last. It may be called the
‘Benedictive’ attitude (Āṡirvāda). See the engraving opposite p. 477.
It represents the Buddha in the act of pronouncing a benediction, the
right hand being raised. This attitude is sometimes sedent. Even to this
day Buddhist monks bless laymen in a similar attitude. Occasionally the
figure with the hand upraised has a crown, and an ornamental head-dress;
but it may be taken for granted that all images of the Buddha which
represent him with a crown of any kind _after his attainment of
Buddhahood_, are comparatively modern and incorrect.
On the other hand, it is clear that even ancient sculptures, when they
represent him as a prince, may correctly give him decorations and a
head-dress.
The seventh attitude may be called the ‘Mendicant.’ This also is a
standing figure, holding a round alms-bowl in one hand, and sometimes
screening it with the other (compare p. 40). Examples of this attitude
are rare. There are no real mendicants in Buddhism. No monk ever begs,
he only receives alms.
The eighth and last attitude is recumbent, and this is perhaps as
important as the second, though not so common (see the uppermost figure
opposite to p. 477). It represents the moribund Gautama lying down on
his right side, with his head turned towards the north, and his right
cheek resting on his right hand, about to pass away in the final
consummation of Pari-nirvāṇa (see pp. 50, 140). In many representations
of this attitude, the usual five rays of light often mentioned before
are made to issue from the crown of the head. A colossal image of this
kind was seen by me in a temple near Colombo, and there is a good
example of it in the Indian Institute at Oxford[256]. In some carvings
of the dying Buddha a few attendants are represented, who hold
umbrella-like canopies over the recumbent figure, or bow down
reverentially before it. It has been asserted that this scene—as
commemorative of the grand consummation of the Buddha’s career through
countless existences—is held in as much reverence by Buddhists as the
crucifixion is by Christians.
The representation of the Buddha in the act of being born is found in
sculptures and bas-reliefs, but is never found as a separate image. It
represents him springing out of the side of his mother (note, p. 180).
This birth-scene is occasionally carved on temples. It is shown in the
lower part of the engraving (opposite page 477). The god Brahmā is seen
receiving the new-born child, while Indra stands on his right and the
mother’s sister (i.e. nurse, p. 24) is on her left.
Some representations of the Buddha, or of certain forms of the
Buddha—such as Amitābha—show a sedent figure emerging from a
lotus-blossom, or seated on a pedestal formed of lotus-leaves, this
flower symbolizing perfection.
It must not be forgotten that in every country the images of the Buddha
are generally moulded according to the type of countenance prevalent in
each country. Hence the contour and expression of face differ in Ceylon,
Burma, Siam, Tibet, Mongolia, China, and Japan, although as a rule the
features are calm, mild, meditative, and passionless.
In Burma the people are merry; hence the images sometimes have a twinkle
in the eye and smiling lips.
In China, again, examples sometimes occur of images which do not exhibit
Buddha as the ideal of a man who has conquered his passions, but rather
with the figure and features of a self-indulgent libertine[257]; while
others again portray him with a grim aspect.
We now pass on to the representations of other Buddhas, Bodhi-sattvas,
saints, gods and goddesses.
Often two other images are associated with that of Gautama Buddha
himself.
And, first of all, his image was joined with the other two persons of
the earliest Triad (see p. 175), viz. Dharma (the Law) and Saṅgha (the
Monkhood). A sculpture, in a broken and imperfect condition,
representing this earliest Triad, and dating from the ninth to the tenth
century, was found at Buddha-Gayā. The image of Buddha, under an
umbrella-like tree, is in the centre; that of the Saṅgha is on his
right, with a full-blown lotus (p. 177, note 2), and having one leg
hanging down, while that of Dharma (a female) is on his left with a
half-blown lotus. A drawing of this (from Sir A. Cunningham’s
photograph) is given below:—
[Illustration: ]
In Nepāl the image of Dharma is always that of a sedent female, who is
supposed to be an embodiment of supreme wisdom (prajñā pāramitā), and
sometimes has four arms (see note, p. 178).
Next come the images of the Buddhas who preceded Gautama, especially
Kāṡyapa Buddha, Kanaka-muni, and Kraku-ććhanda. It is often mentioned
that the images of one or other of these three, as of the Bodhi-sattvas,
are set up side by side with that of Gautama.
Then, of course, there are the images of the five Dhyāni-Buddhas.
Perhaps the commonest of these is that of Amitābha (see p. 203), but
images of Akshobhya and Ratna-sambhava are by no means rare.
Then as to the Bodhi-sattvas, of whom Maitreya is the first and the only
one worshipped by Buddhists of all countries (see p. 182), Fā-hien
records that he saw in Northern India a wooden image of Maitreya
Bodhi-sattva eighty cubits high, which on fast days emitted a brilliant
light. Offerings were constantly presented to it by the kings of
surrounding countries (Legge, 23).
Hiouen Thsang (Beal, i. 134) also describes this image of Maitreya as
very dazzling, and says it was the work of the Arhat Madhyāntika, a
disciple of Ānanda. He saw another image of Maitreya made of silver at
Buddha-Gayā, and another made of sandal-wood in Western India. The
latter also gave out a bright light. Probably these images were covered
with some kind of gilding.
In the present day the images of Maitreya often represent him with both
hands raised, the fingers forming the lotus-shaped Mudrā, the body
yellow or gilded, and the hair short and curly.
Passing next to the images of the triad of mythical Bodhi-sattvas,
Mañju-ṡrī, Avalokiteṡvara, and Vajra-pāṇi (p. 195), we may gather from
what has been already stated (p. 196), that the interaction of Buddhism
and Hindūism affected both the mythology and imagery of both systems.
Yet it does not appear that the images of the Bodhi-sattva Mañju-ṡrī
were ever unnaturally distorted. They are quite as human and pleasant in
appearance as those of Gautama and Maitreya. In general Mañju-ṡrī
represented in a sedent attitude, with his left hand holding a lotus,
and his right holding the sword of wisdom, with a shining blade to
dissipate the darkness of ignorance (see p. 201). His body ought to be
yellow.
It was not till the introduction of the worship of Avalokiteṡvara that
the followers of Buddha thought of endowing the figures of deified
saints with an extra number of heads and arms.
The process of Avalokiteṡvara’s (Padma-pāṇi’s) creation and the
formation of his numerous heads by the Dhyāni-Buddha Amitābha, is thus
described (Schlagintweit, p. 84, abridged):—
Once upon a time Amitābha, after giving himself up to earnest
meditation, caused a red ray of light to issue from his right eye,
which brought Padma-pāṇi Bodhi-sattva into existence; while from his
left eye burst forth a blue ray of light, which becoming incarnate in
the two wives of King Srong Tsan (see p. 271), had power to enlighten
the minds of human beings. Amitābha then blessed Padma-pāṇi’s
Bodhi-sattva by laying his hands upon him, so that by virtue of this
benediction, he brought forth the prayer ‘Om maṇi padme Hūm.’
Padma-pāṇi then made a solemn vow to rescue all the beings in hell
from their pains, saying to himself:—‘If I fail, may my head split
into a thousand pieces!’ After remaining absorbed in contemplation for
some time, he proceeded to the various hells, expecting to find that
the inhabitants, through the efficacy of his meditations, had ascended
to the higher worlds. And this indeed he found they had done. But no
sooner was their release accomplished than all the hells again became
as full as ever, the places of the out-going tenants being supplied by
an equal number of new-comers. This so astounded the unhappy
Bodhi-sattva that his head instantly split into a thousand pieces.
Then Amitābha, deeply moved by his son’s misfortune, hastened to his
assistance, and formed the thousand pieces into ten heads.
Schlagintweit states, and I have myself observed, that Avalokiteṡvara’s
eleven heads are generally represented as forming a pyramid, and are
ranged in four rows. Each series of heads has a particular complexion.
The three faces resting on the neck are white, the three above yellow,
the next three red, the tenth blue, and the eleventh—that is, the head
of his father Amitābha at the top of all[258]—is red. In Japanese images
the heads are much smaller, and are arranged like a crown, the centre of
which is formed by two entire figures, the lower one sitting, the other
standing above it. Ten small heads are combined with these two figures.
The number of Avalokiteṡvara’s hands ought to amount to a thousand, and
he is called ‘a thousand-eyed,’ as having the eye of wisdom on each
palm. Of course all these thousand arms and eyes cannot be represented
in images. Still there is an idol in the British Museum which represents
him with about forty arms, two of which have the hands joined in an
attitude of worship.
A remarkable description of an image of Avalokiteṡvara seen by Sarat
Chandra Dās (so recently as 1882) in the great temple at Lhāssa occurs
in his ‘Narrative’ (which I here abridge):—
Next to the image of Buddha, the most conspicuous figure was that of
Chanrassig (i. e. the eleven-faced Avalokiteṡvara). The origin of this
is ascribed to King Sron Tsan Gampo (p. 271 of this volume). Once the
king heard a voice from heaven, saying that if he constructed an image
of Avalokiteṡvara of the size of his own person, all his desires would
be fulfilled.
Thereupon he proceeded to do so, and the materials he used were a
branch of the sacred Bodhi-tree, a portion of the Vajrāsana, some soil
from an oceanic island, some sand from the river Nairañjana, some pith
of Goṡīrsha sandal-wood, a portion of the soil of the eight sacred
places of ancient India, and many other rare articles pounded together
and made into paste, with the milk of a red cow and a she-goat. This
paste the king touched with his head, and prayed to the all-knowing
Buddhas and the host of Bodhi-sattvas, that by the merit of making
that image, there might be god-speed to the great work he had
undertaken—namely, the diffusion of Buddhism in Tibet.
The gods, Buddhas, saints, etc. filled the aerial space to listen to
his prayer.
The king then ordered the Nepālese artist to hasten the completion of
the image, and with a view of heightening its sanctity, obtained a
sandal-wood image of Avalokiteṡvara from Ceylon and inserted it
inside, together with the relics of the seven past Buddhas. When the
work was finished, the artist said:—
‘Sire, I cannot say that I have made this image, it has passed into
self-grown existence.’ Then a current of lightning flashed forth from
its feet. Afterwards, the souls of the king and his queen are said to
have been absorbed into it, in consequence of which this image is
called ‘the five-absorbed self-sprung.’
It is recorded in another tradition that a wonder-working image of
Avalokiteṡvara was set up in a monastery near Kabul, and another in
Magadha near the Ganges. Any worshipper who approached these idols in
devotion and faith were favoured with a personal vision of the saint.
The statues opened, and the Bodhi-sattva emerged in bright rays of light
(compare Koeppen, i. p. 499).
Originally, and still in Tibet, Avalokiteṡvara (otherwise called
Padma-pāṇi) had only male attributes; but in China this deity (as we
have already mentioned at p. 200) is represented as a woman, called
Kwan-yin (in Japan Kwan-non), with a thousand arms and a thousand eyes.
She has her principal seat in the island of Poo-too, on the coast of
China, which is a place of pilgrimage.
There are two images of Kwan-yin in the British Museum, one with sixteen
arms and the other with eight.
Images of the third mythical Bodhi-sattva—the fierce Vajra-pāṇi,
‘holding a thunderbolt in one hand’—like one form of Ṡiva—are almost as
common as those of the merciful and mild Avalokiteṡvara. He has been
described in a previous Lecture (p. 201).
In the Pitt-Rivers collection at Oxford there is an image of this
Bodhi-sattva engaged in combating the power of evil. It is remarkable
that the figures of three monkeys are carved underneath, one stopping
his ears with his hands, another stopping his eyes, and another his
mouth, to symbolize the effort to prevent the entrance of evil desires
through the three most important organs of sense.
With regard to the images of female deities we may observe that Tārā,
the wife or Ṡakti of Amogha-siddha (p. 216), is represented as a green
sedent figure; her right hand on her knee, her left holding a lotus.
A standing image of the goddess Paṭṭinī (p. 217 of this volume) may be
seen in the British Museum.
In a temple which I visited near Dārjīling I saw the image of the
Padma-sambhava or ‘lotus-born’ form of Buddha occupying the centre of
the altar, with the images of Gautama Buddha and of Buddha Āyushmat, or
the ‘Buddha of Life,’ on each side.
Sir R. Temple (Journal, p. 212) relates how in a chamber of a Sikkim
monastery there were three figures, the central of which, with a fair
complexion, was Amitābha, that on its right Gautama Buddha, and on its
left Gorakh-nāth (see p. 193 of this volume).
In the monastery of Galdan (p. 441) Mr. Sarat Chandra Dās saw the golden
image of Tsong Khapa (with his golden chain and his tooth and his
block-prints), along with the images of Amitābha, Gautama, Maitreya,
Bhairava (the awful defender of Buddhism), Yama ‘the lord of death,’ and
his terrific messengers.
In the great Cho Khang at Lhāssa (see p. 459) he saw images of
Avalokiteṡvara, Mañju-srī, Maitreya, Kuvera, Padma-sambhava, with an
immense number of others, and especially one of the terrific goddess
Paldan (or Pandan) who is feared all over Tibet, Mongolia, and China, as
the greatest guardian deity of the Dalai and Tashi Lāmas and of the
Buddhist Dharma. He found her shrine infested with mice, who are
believed to be metamorphosed monks.
At Sera (p. 442) he saw images of the Buddha in his character of
‘demon-vanquisher,’ along with Maitreya (in silver), Avalokiteṡvara, the
six-armed Bhairava, the goddess Kālī, Dolkar (= Tārā, p. 271), the
Tāntrik Vajra-vārāhī, the sixteen Sthaviras (pp. 48, 255), and a great
variety of others.
At Radeng (p. 273) he saw a golden image of Milaraspa (p. 384).
In the monastery of Sam ye (p. 448) he saw images of the Indian Paṇḍits
who brought Buddhism into Tibet, with a vast number of other images.
At Tashi Lunpo he saw golden images of Buddha and Maitreya, besides
images of 1000 other Buddhas (p. 189), and the four guardians of the
quarters (p. 206).
At Yarlung he saw an image of Vairoćana Buddha, besides images of the
sixteen Sthaviras, and a gigantic image of the king of the Nāgas, and a
terrific representation of the demon Rāvaṇa (of the Rāmāyaṇa).
At Mindolling he saw fresco paintings of the six classes of beings (p.
122) inhabiting the six corresponding worlds. Of course delineations of
the Jātakas (p. 111) and pictures of all kinds were common in
monasteries and temples everywhere.
The two wonder-working images brought from Nepāl and China have been
already mentioned (p. 271).
As an illustration of the monstrous superstition and idolatry prevalent
in modern Buddhist countries, I venture, in conclusion, to quote, with
abridgment, the following description of an idol seen by Miss Bird in
Japan (see her ‘Unbeaten Tracks in Japan,’ published by Mr. Murray):—
In one shrine is a large idol spotted all over with pellets of paper,
and hundreds of these may be seen sticking to the wire-netting which
protects him. A worshipper writes his petition on paper, or, better
still, has it written for him by the priest, chews it to a pulp and
spits it at the divinity. If, having been well aimed, it passes
through the wire and sticks, it is a good omen, if it lodges in the
netting the prayer has probably been unheard.
On the left there is a shrine with a screen, to which innumerable
prayers have been tied. On the right sits one of Buddha’s original
sixteen disciples (see p. 47 of these Lectures). A Koolie with a
swelled knee applied it to the knee of the idol, while one with
inflamed eyelids rubbed his eyelids on it!
LECTURE XVII.
_Sacred Objects._
Next to the subject of images and idols comes that of certain sacred
objects which Buddhists of all Schools—whether adherents of the
Hīna-yāna or Mahā-yāna systems—hold in veneration; for example, relics,
relic-receptacles or Stūpas, foot-prints, trees, utensils, bells,
symbols, and animals.
The narratives of the Chinese travellers, frequently mentioned before,
teem with descriptions of such objects. Take, for instance, Fā-hien’s
account of the district of Nagāra, near Peshawar in Northern India
(Legge, 34-40), in which several sacred objects are stated to exist—such
as a fragment of Buddha’s skull, one of his teeth, portions of his hair
and nails, his alms-bowl, his staff (contained in a wooden tube, so
heavy that even a thousand men could not lift it), his robe, and the
impression of his shadow. This was at the beginning of the fifth century
of our era.
Fā-hien’s statements are confirmed by Sung-Yun, the next Chinese
traveller mentioned before (p. 161 of this volume[259]), who started on
his journey rather more than a century after Fā-hien.
We then visited the Ki-Ka-lam temple near Nagāra. This contains the
yellow robe (Kashāya) of Buddha in thirteen pieces. Here also is the
staff of Buddha, in a wooden case covered with gold-leaf. The weight
of this staff is sometimes so heavy that a hundred men cannot raise
it, and at other times it is so light that one man can lift it. In the
city of Na-kie (Nagarahāra) is a tooth of Buddha and also some of his
hair, both of which are contained in precious caskets. Morning and
evening religious offerings are made to them.
We next arrive at the cave of Go-pāla, where is the shadow of Buddha.
To anyone entering the cavern, and looking for a long time (or, from a
long distance) at the western side of it opposite the door, the
figure, with its characteristic marks, appears; on going nearer, it
gradually grows fainter and then disappears. On touching the place
where it was, there is nothing but the bare wall. Gradually
retreating, the figure begins to come in view again, and foremost is
conspicuous that peculiar mark between the eyebrows (ūrṇa), which is
so rare among men.
Before the cave is a square stone, on which is a trace of Buddha’s
foot (Beal’s Translation, p. cvii, abridged).
Hiouen Thsang, the third traveller, confirms the statements of his
predecessors in regard to the relics in this district, and adds as
follows:—
There is another little Stūpa, made of the seven precious substances,
in which is deposited the _eye-ball_ of the Buddha, large as an Āmra
fruit, and bright and clear throughout. It is deposited in a sealed-up
casket (Beal, i. 96).
It is easy to perceive from the above extracts that the worship of
certain sacred objects connected with the founder of Buddhism had become
even in Fā-hien’s time a marked feature of Buddhism. In fact, the number
of such objects increased so rapidly that before long it became usual to
classify them under three heads as follow[260]:—
(1) Ṡārīrika (or Ṡarīra-dhātu or simply Ṡārīra), objects which once
formed part of the Buddha’s body, such as a bone, a tooth, a hair, a
nail.
(2) Pāribhogika, ‘objects possessed or used by the Buddha,’ such as his
seat, alms-bowl, drinking-vessel (kumbha), staff, vestments, and even
his spittoon. Under this division is placed the Bodhi-tree.
(3) Uddeṡika, objects worshipped as in some way commemorative of the
Buddha or of some event or incident in his life.
It would be difficult to decide under which of these categories the
_sacred books_ containing the Buddha’s Law are to be placed, and yet
they are deeply revered, and at the present day almost deified, as if
they were intelligent and omniscient beings. They are wrapped in costly
cloth or silk, and their names are mentioned with the addition of
honorific personal titles. Occasionally such sacred books are placed on
a kind of rude altar, near the road-side, that passers-by may place
offerings of money upon them[261].
Without attempting, therefore, to follow any particular classification,
we proceed to notice some of the chief objects in the order of their
importance, beginning with relics.
_Relics._
Adoration of relics constitutes an important point of difference between
Buddhism and Brāhmanism; for Brāhmanism and its offspring Hindūism are
wholly opposed to the practice of preserving the ashes, bones, hair, or
teeth of deceased persons, however much such individuals may have been
revered during life.
I remarked in the course of my travels through India that articles used
by great religious teachers—as, for example, robes, wooden shoes, and
seats—are sometimes preserved and venerated after their death. All
articles of this kind, however, must, of course, be removed from the
body before actual decease; for it is well known that, in the minds of
Hindūs, ideas of impurity are inseparably connected with death, and
contamination is supposed to result from contact with the corpses of
even a man’s dearest relatives. Nor is the mortal frame ever held in
veneration by the Hindūs as it was by the ancient Egyptians, and as it
generally is in Christian countries.
Even the living body is regarded as a mass of corruption, a thing to be
held in contempt, and a constant impediment to sanctity of life. How
much more then ought every part of a dead body to be got rid of without
delay! Hence in the present day a corpse is burnt, and its ashes are
generally scattered on the surface of sacred rivers or of the sea.
It is true that the bodies of great Hindū ascetics and devotees are
exempted from this rule. They are usually buried—not burnt. Not,
however, because the mere corporeal frame is held in greater veneration,
but because the bodies of the most eminent saints are supposed to lie
undecomposed in a kind of trance, or state of intense ecstatic
meditation (samādhi).
The Buddhist, too, is a thorough Hindū in contemning the living body;
but when the corpse is burnt, he does not scatter the ashes on rivers.
He takes measures to preserve them.
We know that according to the teaching of Brāhmanism the burning of a
corpse is followed by religious ceremonies called Ṡrāddhas[262]. The
greater the number of Ṡrāddhas which a living man is able to perform in
behalf of his deceased relatives, the greater is the benefit which
accrues to their souls; and if the dead man’s soul happens to be in one
of the hells, the sooner it is released from its purgatorial pains.
A true Buddhist, on the other hand, considers all such Ṡrāddhas as
useless; although it is certainly a fact that in the end the more
developed Buddhism of the North invented similar ceremonies, called
Bardo (see pp. 293, 334).
True Buddhism, in short, has only one way of honouring ancestors, and
only one method of keeping alive the memory of those perfected saints
whose whole personality has become extinct, and whose transition into
other forms of life has finally ceased.
The calcined ashes, or certain unconsumed portions of the body—such as
fragments of bone or hair or nails or teeth—are deposited in
relic-shrines.
Of course the most sacred of all Buddhist relics are those of the Buddha
himself. It is said that after the cremation of his corpse the chief
remains consisted of four teeth, the two cheek-bones, and fragments of
the skull. But it is believed that, even before his death, portions of
his hair and nails were preserved and placed under Dāgabas (Stūpas). One
legend relates that when Gautama had decided on abandoning all worldly
associations, his first act was to cut off the mass of his hair, with
its ornament (ćūḍā-maṇi), and that these were taken up by the god Indra
to the Trayastriṉṡa heaven, and there placed under a Dāgaba and
worshipped by the gods.
Fā-hien, in a passage already alluded to, says that in the country of
Nagāra there is a particular spot where Buddha shaved off his hair and
clipt his nails, and, having done so, proceeded to erect a lofty mound
or Stūpa to enshrine them, as well as to be a model for all future
Stūpas (p. 504 of this volume).
Hiouen Thsang relates a tradition that when the two travelling merchants
Trapusha and Bhallika (see p. 40) were converted, the Buddha gave them
at their own request some of his own hair and nail-parings, besides his
alms-bowl, staff, and a portion of his clothing, and bade them deposit
each article in Stūpas or Dāgabas. The two merchants, it is narrated,
went home to their own country and acquired an enormous stock of
religious merit by being the first to erect a Stūpa for the reception of
personal memorials of the great Buddha. According to a tradition the two
merchants were from Burma, and the shrine which was erected to receive
eight of his hairs afterwards developed into the great Rangoon Dāgaba
(Pagoda). It may be inferred from this legend (as Dr. Oldenberg has
already remarked) that the care of the Buddha’s relics, and the
institution of ceremonies in their honour, were in the first instance
left to the devotion of religiously minded Buddhist laymen.
‘What are we to do,’ Ānanda asks of the Master, when his end is
drawing near[263], ‘with the body of the Perfect One?’ ‘Let not the
honours due to the body of the Perfect One trouble you, Ānanda. Seek
ye rather perfection for yourselves. There are, Ānanda, wise men among
the nobles, the Brāhmans, and the citizens, who believe in the Perfect
One; they will honour the body of the Perfect One.’
Hiouen Thsang (Beal, ii. 40) also states that when certain Indian Rājas,
eight in number, heard of the Buddha’s death, they collected armies and
marched to Kusi-nārā (p. 424) to seize portions of the relics; but the
prince of Kusi-nārā refused to give them up. In the end the matter was
settled amicably, and the relics were divided, so that each of the eight
princes might take a share. Then all departed to their own homes, and
each prince built a Stūpa over his own portion of the relics. The gods
also took their portions.
Fā-hien (chap. xxiii) alludes to the building of the eight Stūpas, and
adds that king Aṡoka destroyed them, and in their place built 84,000
others—one for the conservation of each atom of the elements of the
Buddha’s body; the belief being that the bodies of all human beings
consist of that number of elementary particles (see p. 423). The
eight-fold division is described in ‘Buddhist Suttas,’ pp. 133-136 (S.
B. E. vol. xi).
It appears probable that the earliest relics of his burnt body held in
honour were his teeth; and of these again the most celebrated seem to
have been his four eye-teeth. One of the four is said to have been
appropriated by the gods and another by the Nāgas, while the third was
taken to Gāndhāra in the north-west, and the fourth to Kaliṅga in the
south-east.
The first two eye-teeth have only mythical histories, and little is
recorded of the third, but the fourth has gone through a series of
terrestrial adventures, which have been much written about and would
fill several volumes. One of the immediate followers of Gautama is said
to have gained possession of it on the occasion of the eight-fold
distribution of the great sage’s relics (p. 499), and to have conveyed
it to a place afterwards called Danta-pura, ‘tooth-city[264],’ the
capital of Kaliṅga (Orissa), where it is believed to have remained
undisturbed for about 800 years. After that period it was seized, at the
instigation of some Brāhmans, by a powerful Hindū king who reigned at
Pāṭaliputra. Its vicissitudes and adventures for centuries afterwards
were very varied. It was conveyed surreptitiously to Ceylon about the
year 311 of our era by a princess of Kaliṅga, who concealed it in her
hair. There it remained till 1315, when it was carried back to Southern
India. After a time it was taken back to Kandy in Ceylon. Next it was
seized by the Portuguese and carried off to Goa. Thence it was
transported to Pegu, and finally the precious tooth-relic (dāṭhā-dhātu),
or at least some imitation of it, was restored to the good people of
Kandy, where it is still preserved by them as a veritable Palladium,
with every possible precaution against further outrage, although under
the protecting ægis of our government its security ought not any longer
to be matter of anxiety.
Every native of Ceylon (Laṅkā), whether Buddhist or Hindū, seems to feel
that the welfare of his country depends on its careful conservation. At
any rate the Sinhalese have placed their tooth-temple—called Dalada
Māligāwa—in the loveliest part of their beautiful island (see p. 454),
amid richly wooded hills, from which may be obtained some of the most
enchanting views in the world. The eye-tooth is in appearance like a
piece of discoloured ivory about two inches[265] long, and one inch
across in the thickest part. Indeed, all the supposed relics of the
Buddha’s body, and the dress and implements he used, are of such a size
as to make his worshippers believe that his stature far exceeded that of
ordinary men.
The tooth is enclosed in nine bell-shaped, jewelled golden cases, one
within the other, each locked by a key, and each key consigned to the
custody of a separate official. The interior cases increase in
costliness till the most highly jewelled of all is reached, and within
this on a golden lotus lies the relic. When I visited the tooth-temple
in 1877, the cases were kept within iron bars in a dimly-lighted
shrine—redolent with flower-offerings which exhaled an overpowering
perfume—and in the very centre of the buildings of the temple. When the
Prince of Wales visited Kandy in 1876, all the officials assembled to
unlock the cases and exhibit the treasured relic.
A detailed account of the tooth is given in a book called Dalada-vaṉṡa
or Dāṭhā-vaṉṡa, said to have been written originally in ancient
Sinhalese (Elu) about the year 310 of our era, and translated into the
sacred Pāli about the year 1200. This book has been rendered into
English by the late Sir Coomāra Swāmy. The tooth is also described in
many other Pāli and Sinhalese books, including the Mahā-vaṉṡa.
And here it may be remarked that one feature of the Buddha’s relics was
that they gave forth on special occasions celestial light, and had the
power of working miracles. Sometimes a reverent circumambulation of the
shrine which contained the relics was believed to be sufficiently
efficacious in stimulating their miraculous powers. Sometimes they were
taken out and exhibited. The following extract from Fā-hien reminds one
of what takes place at Kandy in the present day:—
In the city of He-lo (the present Hiḍḍa, west of Peshawar) there is
the flat-bone of Buddha’s skull, deposited in a Vihāra adorned all
over with gold-leaf and the seven sacred substances. The king of the
country revering the bone, and anxious lest it should be stolen, has
selected eight individuals representing great families, and committed
to each a seal with which he should seal the shrine and guard the
relic. At early dawn these men come, and after each has inspected his
seal, they open the door. This done they wash their hands with scented
water, and bring out the bone, which they place on a lofty platform,
where it is supported on a pedestal of the seven precious substances.
The king every morning makes his offerings and performs his worship.
The chiefs of the Vaiṡyas also make their offerings. Then they replace
the bone in the Vihāra, under a Stūpa of the seven precious substances
(p. 528 of this volume) more than five cubits high (Legge, pp. 36-38,
abridged).
Fā-hien records a similar exhibition of the Buddha’s alms-bowl in the
country near Peshawar:—
When it is mid-day they bring out the bowl and make offerings to it.
It may contain about two pecks, and it has a bright lustre. When poor
people throw into it a few flowers, it becomes full. If the rich throw
in myriads of flowers, they are not able to fill it.