Eastern. Instead of being speculative and characterized by dreamy
indolence and meditative silence, it was far more practical. It was
active, stirring; duty, rather than esoteric wisdom, was its watchword.
Fasting, stated hours for prayer, reading, and vigorous manual work were
strictly enjoined by every rule. Consequently, the nuns and monks of the
West never went to the fantastic extremes which exhibited in the East a
stylite, or a female recluse, dwelling, like an animal, in a hollow
tree, or a drove of half wild and wholly maniacal humans who subsisted
by browsing on such edible roots as they found in the earth on which
they grovelled. Method, regularity, and purpose early gave character and
efficiency to Western monasteries, and prepared them for the literary
and industrial usefulness which followed in the wane of the first
frenzy, and which made monasticism, in spite of itself, a powerful
factor in the evolution of modern civilization. This systematizing was
due to the efforts of Ambrose, Athanasius, Gregory the Great, but more
especially to those of Benedict of Nursia.
The first known ceremonial recognition by the Church of a professed nun
is the case of Marcellina. On Christmas Day, perhaps of the year 354,
she received a veil from the hands of Pope Liberius, and made her vows
before a large congregation gathered in the church of Saint Peter, at
Rome. Saint Ambrose, her brother, has preserved for us a summary of the
sermon preached by the bishop on the occasion. It consists of an earnest
but not very convincing--so it would seem to modern ears--exhortation to
abstinence from worldly pleasure and to perseverance in virginity.
Marcellina continued to dwell in private in her own home, for it had not
yet become customary for professed virgins to take up their residence in
a common abode. The inauguration of this new departure had begun,
however, as is shown by passages in the work of Saint Ambrose on
virginity, which he dedicated to his sister. In the eleventh chapter of
the first book, he says: "Some one may say, you are always singing the
praise of virgins. What shall I do who am always singing them and have
no success (in persuading them to the consecrated life)? But this is not
my fault. Then, too, virgins come from Placentia to be consecrated, or
from Bononia and Mauritania, in order to receive the veil here. I treat
the matter here, and persuade those who are elsewhere. If this be so,
let me treat the subject elsewhere, that I may persuade you.
"Behold how sweet is the fruit of modesty, which has sprung up even in
the affections of barbarians. Virgins, coming from the greatest distance
on both sides of Mauritania, desire to be consecrated here; and though
all the family be in bonds, yet modesty cannot be bound. She who mourns
over the hardship of slavery professes to own an eternal kingdom.
"And what shall I say of the virgins of Bononia, a fertile band of
chastity, who, forsaking worldly delights, inhabit the sanctuary of
virginity? Though not of the sex which lives in common, attaining in
their common chastity to the number of twenty, leaving their parents'
dwellings, they press into the houses of Christ; at one time singing
spiritual songs, they provide their sustenance by labor, and seek with
their hands the supplies for their liberal charity."
So, then, it is evident that as early as the latter part of the fourth
century communities of nuns began to live in their own religious houses.
As yet, however, the inmates of these asylums of chastity were
answerable, only to themselves for the faithfulness with which they
fulfilled their vows. There was no organized order, no recognized rule;
each virgin observed her profession according as she interpreted the
terms thereof. The Church exercised no well-defined disciplinary
authority over these convents; of course, if a professed nun
scandalously repudiated her vows, she could be excommunicated, but the
efficacy of this punishment was conditioned entirely by the degree of
horror with which the woman viewed the forfeiture of ecclesiastical
privileges. It was not before the time of Gregory that the Church became
able to enforce its judgments. When all the world became Christian, then
the individual again lost his freedom of thought in relation to
religious matters; then, through its alliance with the secular arm, the
Church gained the power to sternly constrain its recalcitrant children.
This was brought about by the political advantages gained by Gregory,
and by Saint Benedict's gifts of organization.
Saint Benedict was the father of Western organized monasticism; he not
only founded an order to which many religious houses already existing
united themselves, but he established a rule for their government, which
was adopted as the rule for monastic life by all such orders which
existed in the Church down to the time of Saint Francis and Saint
Dominic. What Benedict did for the monks, his sister Scholastica--who,
being a woman, has received far less mention--accomplished for the nuns.
Through her efforts, under the direction and advice of her brother,
greater dignity and weight were given to the female side of monasticism.
We know that Benedict was born at Nursia, in the province of Spoleto, in
the year 480; whether Scholastica was older or younger than her more
famous brother is not said. Their parents were respectable people,
possessed of sufficient means to enable them to give their children a
good education, and to take up temporarily their residence in Rome for
that purpose.
While at Rome, Benedict became enamored of the idea of devoting himself
to religion; and in order to get away from the moral dangers of the
city, he fled from his school and his parents to a small village called
Effide, about two miles from Subiaco. His nurse--Cyrilla--was his
accomplice and companion in this adventure, and for this she has
received her due meed of honor in the legends which have attached to the
life of the great founder. As an example of these legends, and as an
illustration of their historic value, we will notice one story. One day,
Cyrilla accidentally broke a stone sieve which she had borrowed for the
purpose of making the youthful saint some bread. Compassionating her
distress, Benedict placed the two pieces in position and then prayed
over them. To the great joy of Cyrilla and the no small wonderment of
the rustics, they became firmly cemented together and the sieve was
again made whole. This marvellous utensil was hung over the church door,
where it remained for many years an irrefutable proof of the power of
monastic holiness.
Later on, Saint Benedict established twelve monasteries in the
neighborhood, at last settling at Monte Casino, not far from the place
where his sister, Saint Scholastica, also presided over a colony of
religious women. Here were formulated and adopted the regulations which
for so many years governed these religious recluses, both male and
female. Three virtues comprised the whole of the Benedictine discipline:
celibate seclusion, extended to the cultivation of silence as far as the
exigences of the convent would permit; humility to the very last degree;
and obedience to superiors even--so said the law--when impossibilities
were commanded. The effect designed was to concentrate the entire
thought of the recluse upon himself. Yet, idleness on the part of its
subjects was far from the purpose of this discipline. All the waking
hours--which were by far the greater part of the time--of these nuns
were devoted to the worship of God, reading, and manual labor. Besides
the essential work of their own household, the nuns occupied themselves
in spinning, weaving, and manufacturing clothing, which was distributed
in charity; thus their time was not wholly spent in vain. They also wove
and embroidered the beautiful tapestries and hangings which ornamented
the churches, and, in course of time, developed a textile art which was
one of the glories of the Middle Ages. With the time at their disposal,
it is no wonder that the ancient convents could exhibit histories of the
Creation, done in stitchwork. In imitation of the Psalmist, seven times
a day the nuns met in their chapel for prayer and praise. Sloth was not
possible with them; for they were obliged to waken for matins very early
in the morning, before the breaking of day, even in summer, and this
after having risen for a short service of praise at midnight.
Abstinence from the flesh of four-footed animals was perpetually and
universally enforced. Fowls were allowed on festival occasions; but the
regular diet was vegetable broth and bread. A large part of the year was
a prescribed fast during which one meal a day was made to suffice and
that at even. No nun was permitted to speak of or consider anything as
her own, not even a girdle or any part of her dress. At first, when
members of the order became delinquent in their duties, only such
penalties as sequestration from the common table or the chapel, with
expulsion from the order in case of incorrigibility, could be enforced.
But, as the Church's disciplinary hand grew heavier on the lives of
mankind, severer punishments were adopted, which contumacy served only
to render yet more cruel, even to life-long solitary incarceration.
But the most stringent rule of monasticism, as regulated by Saint
Benedict and Saint Scholastica, was that in relation to the sexes.
According to it, they were required to treat each other as natural,
irreconcilable enemies. Communion, even between those of the closest
kin, was almost entirely interdicted. The two founders, brother and
sister though they were, and united not only in a perfect harmony of
disposition and affection, but in devotion to the same life purpose, saw
each other but once a year. "There is something striking," says Milman,
"in the attachment of the brother and sister, the human affection
struggling with the hard spirit of monasticism. Saint Scholastica was a
female Benedict--equally devout, equally powerful in attracting and
ruling recluses of her own sex, the remote foundress of convents almost
as numerous as those of her brother's rule." We are indebted to Gregory
the Great for the narration of some interesting incidents in the lives
of these two saints. The only one which our space will permit, and
perhaps the one which best illustrates the spirit that governed them in
the hard and self-denying path which they elected to walk, is the
account of their last meeting. Though the convent was situated not far
from the monastery, though they were brother and sister, aged, and
devoted to the same holy aims, they met but once a year, for so said the
rule. Scholastica was dying, and the time came for Benedict to pay his
annual visit. Evening had come all too quickly, for the few hours had
rapidly passed in the delight of spiritual communion. Scholastica
entreated her brother to remain in the convent for that one night, as it
was likely that he would never again see her alive. But not even
sisterly affection could turn the monk from the rigid observance of his
rules, one of which was that neither he nor any of his brethren should
spend a night outside of the monastery. As he was preparing to bid her
farewell, she bent her head for a few moments in profound prayer.
Suddenly the sky, which had hitherto been clear and serene, became
overcast, the vivid lightning flashed, the thunder crashed, and the rain
swept down in torrents; heaven had come to the aged nun's assistance.
"The Lord have mercy on you, my sister!" said Benedict, "what have you
done?" "You," she replied, "have rejected my prayers; but the Lord hath
not. Go now, if you can!" Her intercession was rewarded with triumph,
and they passed the night in holy communion. Three days afterward,
Benedict saw the soul of Scholastica soaring to heaven in the shape of a
dove, whither, after a very little while, he followed her.
As it is with all social movements, after a while the glory of the
initial purity of purpose which marked the inception of Benedictine
monasticism began to wane; its singleness of aim became diverted; its
disingenuousness was replaced by sophisticated evasion of its rule. The
monasteries and convents became wealthy; ways were discovered by which
their discipline could be softened without formally abrogating the rule;
and events rendered it advisable to legislate that houses for nuns and
for monks should not be erected in close proximity.
The time came when the abbess took her place among the high dignitaries
of the Church, and the office grew to be one, not only of great
spiritual influence, but of enviable social standing. Even in the days
of Gregory the Great, who, though he lost no opportunity to magnify the
papal office, was a man of intense spiritual nature and powerful moral
character, the leaders of female monasticism began to realize the
possibilities of ecclesiastical officialdom. The honors of an abbess
were found to be a not altogether unsatisfactory substitute for the
undesired or the unattainable glories of the world. It was at least
something to be addressed in correspondence by the great bishop of Rome
as a coworker; and there are many letters extant written by Gregory to
abbesses in various parts of the Western world. These furnish us with
sidelights upon the personnel, the duties, customs, and standing of the
women who were placed in charge of these convents.
In a letter written to Thalassia, abbess of the convent which Brunehaut
founded in the city of Autun, Saint Gregory sets forth the privileges
and the manner of electing a woman to that office. He says: "We indulge,
grant and confirm by decree of our present authority, privileges as
follows: Ordaining that no king, no bishop, no one endowed with any
dignity whatsoever, shall have power, under show of any cause or
occasion whatsoever, to diminish or take away, or apply to his own uses,
or grant as if to other pious uses for excuse of his own avarice,
anything of what has been given to the monastery by the above-written
king's children, or of what shall in future be bestowed on it by any
others whatever of their own possessions. But all things that have been
there offered, or may come to be offered, we will to be possessed by
thee, as well as those who shall succeed thee in thy office and place,
from the present time inviolate and without disturbance, provided thou
apply them in all ways to the uses of those for whose sustenance and
government they have been granted." The use and benefit of papal
supremacy is beginning to be seen. This cumbrous legal enactment
conferred upon Thalassia a life lease and freehold in the property of
her convent, as secure as the tithes of his parish are to an English
incumbent.
In this same letter, which was written some time in the latter part of
the sixth century, there is also a clause concerning the election of an
abbess. There is to be nothing crafty or secret about it. The election
is to be conducted in the fear of God. The king is to choose such a
woman as will meet with the approval of the nuns; she is then to be
ordained by the bishop. This all goes to show that, even in those early
times, for a woman who was willing to forego the attractions of married
life, or was unwilling to accept its cares, the position of abbess was
one which might well stir the ambitious. But, however that might be, in
the same letter, Gregory, who evidently knew the weaknesses of human
nature, prevented the questionable methods which the ambitious might be
tempted to adopt. "No one," he says, "of the kings, no one of the
priests, or any one else in person or by proxy, shall dare to accept
anything in gold, or in any kind of consideration whatever, for the
ordination of such abbess, or for any causes whatever pertaining to this
monastery, and that the same abbess presume not to give anything on
account of her ordination, lest by such occasion what is offered or has
been offered to places of piety should be consumed. And inasmuch as many
occasions for the deception of religious women are sought out, as is
said, in your parts by bad men, we ordain that an abbess of this same
monastery shall in no wise be deprived or deposed unless in case of
criminality requiring it. Hence, it is necessary that if any complaint
of this kind should arise against her, not only the bishop of the city
of Autun should examine the case, but that he should call to his
assistance six other of his fellow-bishops, and so fully investigate the
matter to the end that, all judging with one accord, a strict canonical
decision may either smite if guilty, or absolve her if innocent." A law
against any wrong always predicates the existence of that fault. Hence,
the prohibitions we have quoted could not have been of unknown
occurrence among the fellow abbesses of Thalassia.
Through other letters we learn that it was in contradiction of monastic
rule for those embracing that life to retain property of their own after
profession, or even the power of disposing of it by will; it became the
property of the convent. It appears, also, that if a nun were
transferred from one monastery to another, or if, as sometimes happened,
a consecrated virgin living at home had lapsed and was therefore sent to
a monastery, her property always went to the convent in which she at
that present time resided. This was so strictly enforced that when one
Sirica, abbess at Caralis, made a will and distributed her property,
Gregory ordered that it be restored to the monastery without dispute or
evasion. As many women of position were induced to become nuns, it is
easy to be seen how the convents quickly acquired great wealth.
All the abbesses did not consider themselves slavishly bound to follow
the uniform rule. In the letter just mentioned, the same Sirica is seen
to have manifested a refreshing independence in relation to other
matters in regard to which a woman does not take kindly to outside
interference. Gregory says: "And when we enquired of the Solicitude of
your Holiness why you endured that property belonging to the monastery
should be detained by others, our common son Epiphanius, your
archpresbyter, being present before us, replied that the said abbess had
up to the day of her death refused to wear the monastic dress, but had
continued in the use of such dresses as are used by the presbyteresses
of that place. To this the aforesaid Gavina replied that the practice
had come to be almost lawful from custom, alleging that the abbess who
had been before the above-mentioned Sirica had used such dresses. When,
then, we begun to feel no small doubt with regard to the character of
the dresses, it appeared necessary for us to consider with our legal
advisers, as well as with the other learned men of this city, what was
to be done with regard to law. And they, having considered the matter,
answered that, after an abbess had been solemnly ordained by the bishop
and had presided in the government of a monastery for many years until
the end of her life, the character of her dress might attach blame to
the bishop for having allowed it so to be, but still could not prejudice
the monastery." Those "presbyteresses" whose attire Sirica considered
she had ample right to copy, were the wives of presbyters who had been
married before ordination. It is all very trivial; and yet there is to
be recognized such a touch of naturalness about this abbess of thirteen
centuries ago that it is worthy of remark. And it must be confessed that
Sirica has our entire approval as we fancy we see her going calmly about
the duties of her office, while Pope Gregory of Rome is calling together
his legal advisers to know what shall be done about her dress, she all
the while determined that she is going to array herself in exactly that
style which, to her independent mind, seems most befitting.
When, however, serious faults on the part of nuns had to be dealt with,
Gregory possessed, even in that early day, the power as well as the will
to inflict punishment of a severe nature. Moreover, the Church had
become what Rome was in the time of the emperors,--so universal and
thoroughly organized that culprits could not hope to flee beyond the
reach of the disciplinary hand. Petronilla, a nun of Lucania, had given
way to the weakness of nature and the seducements of Agnellus, the son
of a bishop. Taking the property which Petronilla had brought to the
monastery, and also that which the father of Agnellus had given to the
institution, they fled to Sicily in the hope of there enjoying love and
affluence in their mutual companionship and that of their child. But
Gregory's supervision was as far-reaching as was the power of his hand.
He writes to Cyprian, Deacon and Rector of Sicily, "to cause the
aforesaid man, and the above-named woman, to be summarily brought before
thee, and institute a most thorough investigation into the case. And, if
thou shouldest find it to be as reported to us, determine an affair
defiled by so many iniquities with the utmost severity of expurgation;
to the end that both strict retribution may overtake the man, who has
regarded neither his own nor her condition, and that, she having been
first punished and consigned to a monastery under penance, all the
property that had been taken away from the above-named place, with all
its fruits and accessions, may be restored." What the exact nature of
the penance inflicted was we do not know; but in another place, speaking
of nuns who had been detected in the same fault, the great bishop orders
that they "afford an example of the more rigorous kind of discipline,
such as may inspire fear in others." The Church had already acquired the
power to enforce its artificial morality, which power it vigorously
employed on those with whom it could afford to be at no pains to
ingratiate itself.
Rigid disciplinarian as he was, and zealous in his labors to aggrandize
the Church, Gregory was careful not to allow the privileges of
monasticism to be pushed to the endangering, as he thought, of the moral
welfare of those whom it concerned. The law was that if either a husband
or a wife decided to devote himself or herself to the monastic life, the
marriage bonds might be severed without the consent of the other
partner. But in a letter which he wrote to a notary of Panormus and sent
by the hand of a woman named Agathosa, he refers to the latter's claim
that her husband had entered a monastery without her consent. He
instructs the notary "to investigate the matter by diligent enquiry, so
as to see whether it may not be the case that the man's profession was
with her consent, or that she herself had promised to change her state.
And should it be found to be so, see to his remaining in the monastery,
and compel her to change her state, as she had promised. If, however,
neither of these things is the case, and you do not find that the
aforesaid woman has committed any crime of fornication on account of
which it is lawful for a man to leave his wife, then, lest his
profession should possibly be an occasion of perdition to the wife left
behind in the world, we desire thee, without any excuse allowed, to
restore her husband to her, even though he should be already tonsured."
It is quite noticeable that the bishop would much prefer that the woman
follow her husband's example and embrace the monastic life. It is
possible that Gregory, in addition to his constant zeal in gaining
recruits for this vocation, realized, personally inexperienced though he
was in such matters, that the wife would find but cold comfort in the
enforced embraces of a husband who preferred the monks of a religious
house to her own society. Still, even in the case of a professed nun who
had been forcibly compelled to marry against her will, he did not
suggest that the matrimonial bonds should be severed without the consent
of the enterprising husband, but only that she should have the right,
after providing for her children, to devote the residue of her property
to the Church to which she would gladly have sacrificed her whole life.