PRELIMINARY FATIGUE ELIMINATION: WHAT CAN BE DONE IMMEDIATELY, AT THE
VERY BEGINNING
The Lighting Problem.
It is not necessary to have a scientific knowledge of motion study,
physiology, and psychology, or even of hygiene, in order to make
preliminary, anti-fatigue improvements in working conditions of any
industrial organization that has not already had a regular fatigue
survey made. We might profitably begin with lighting, since no fatigue
is more wearing than eye fatigue. We attempt here only to ask a few
general questions about the light. “Is there enough light, so that
every one can see his own work perfectly?” “Is the light properly
distributed?” “Is glare prevented?” Etc. Nearly all factory managers
of to-day are careful to provide enough light for the worker. In
their desire to furnish light enough, many workers often have more
light than is really comfortable, and are forced to adjust their eyes
constantly in order to see distinctly. The lighting to be found in most
factories is not properly distributed, and seldom strikes the work at
the least fatiguing angle.
The greatest fatigue from lighting, however, lies in the question of
glare and reflection. One sees examples of this everywhere. It is
caused largely by a misplaced pride in equipment or machinery, and by
keeping everything in a high state of polish. One is often disturbed
and inconvenienced in even the best equipped public libraries by the
glare of the electric lights upon the shiny, varnished, or otherwise
highly polished surfaces of the desks. Oftentimes we see lights
carefully placed so that the individual gets light enough with his
light in the right location, while lights in the distance shine in his
eyes. Even when the lights are provided with adjustable shades, it is
almost impossible to place one’s book in such a position that reflected
light will not shine from the page to the eyes. The glare from
nickel-plated machinery, be it a large factory machine or a typewriter,
or any other kind of shop or office equipment, will cause fatigue, if
the eye is required to work constantly in the vicinity; but the source
of fatigue is not recognized. A dull black finished machine may not be
as beautiful either to manufacturer or purchaser as would be a shiny,
nickel-plated machine of the same design, but the main question is,
“How much comfort will the operator take while using the machine?” The
kind of finish of such machinery is usually affected greatly, if not
determined wholly, by the question of salesmanship. Good appearances
have always been a large element in making sales, and it is natural and
right that the manufacturer should like his product to be attractive
in appearance, and that the manager should take pride in the looks of
his factory or office. But our entire standard of what is desirable in
“good looks” in a work place has changed. We look now for efficiency
and fatigue elimination rather than for ornament and glaring polish. We
reduced fatigue, annoyance, and distraction on several pieces of work
by having our clients paint nickel and other bright parts with a coat
of dull black paint. For the best results to the eye, the same finish
as that on the inside of a camera is to be recommended.
We are coming to realize more and more that the great test of
everything is suitability, and that the mysterious and tangible thing
called “suitability” simply consists of the measure of predetermined
units of desired qualities. The operating room in the hospital is bare,
with plain walls and rounded corners, with the least opportunity for
dust lodgment, because that is most suitable to the type of work done
there. The modern business desk is flat topped, with no tiny drawers
or cubby-holes to collect papers and miscellaneous odds and ends,
because this type of desk conforms best with present day systems of
office management. In the same way all machinery and office equipment
should be without so-called ornament or polish, because in this way
the most work can be done with the least amount of fatigue. Our whole
idea of ornament is changing. Suitability here also is the standard,
and the artists have done noble work in setting an example to the
trades. “Suitability” must become a slogan for every department in the
organization.
[Illustration: FIG. 5
This photograph shows a typical “motion-studied” desk. This desk is
cross-sectioned, so that standards can be made as to the placing of
those things that are constantly required for work. The only drawer
containing any permanent materials is pulled out at the left. It
contains duplicate supplies of our standard forms, so arranged that a
man will not run out of supplies at his desk, as the holder in which
the reserve supply is placed is a notification to the desk supply
boy that supplies in addition to the weekly furnishings are wanted
immediately.]
[Illustration: FIG. 6
This picture shows a “one-motion” pencil rack. This is one of the many
little devices that we have used to cause every one throughout the
plant to think in terms of elementary and least fatiguing motions.
This pencil rack was devised little by little, suggestions coming from
different employees. For example, one suggestion was that the grooves
be painted different colours, representing the standardized places for
the different coloured pencils. Another suggestion was that a deep
horizontal groove be added, that the fingers might go around the pencil
at the exact place where used when in the position of writing. The
slant of the rack is that slant whereby the pencil will surely slide
down by gravity to the stop at the bottom of the pencil rack, but not
slide with force enough to break even the most delicate point.
Such a device alone saves very little time or fatigue, but it
represents one of many kinds of devices that make for habits that cause
less fatigue.]
The new doctrine will interest the selling department, who act as
intermediaries between the manufacturing department and the public
who is to buy the product. It will be a real part of the preliminary
work in adjusting such conditions as lighting to take the sales
department and purchasing department into conference on the subject.
Let all interested see that nothing comes into or goes out of the
plant until the question, “What is its relation to fatigue?” has been
considered. We forget sometimes that a thing may have value not only
because it has certain qualities that eliminate fatigue, but also
because it lacks certain qualities that would cause fatigue.
Go, then, through your own plant with the question of glare in your
mind. Examine and inspect every work place, and see what can be done.
Not only for reasons of glare, but for other reasons we recommend
that every work place should be inspected for unnecessary fatigue by
having a man, competent in fatigue study, actually sit and stand in
the working position in each and every work place in the establishment
once every three months during the installation period, and not
seldomer than once per year thereafter. Sometimes it will be found
that moving the nearest light or shading a distant light will be all
that is necessary. Sometimes a coating of dull black paint on some
of the working equipment is required; sometimes the substitution of
a dull-finished for a glossy paper. Sometimes dull-coloured blotting
paper can be laid upon the place where the reflected glare comes.
Perhaps a dull finish upon that would not only save the time of your
workers, but also those who are to use the product after it leaves
your hands. The world worked a great many years under the motto, “Give
the public what it wants.” We are beginning to realize to-day that the
public will want just exactly what it is educated to want; also that
the public is easily educated if the arguments that are used are based
upon measurement, and are presented in attractive form. The lighting
problem is but a small element of the problem of eye fatigue. This
will, however, be left for later consideration.
The Heating, Cooling, and Ventilating Problem.
This problem has to do with different aspects of seeing that the worker
is provided with proper air. We are beginning to realize that the air
problem is much more complicated than was formerly thought. Recent
investigations have gone to prove that the temperature of the air is
fully as important as the supply of air, and that humidity is another
important element. In this day no one can feel satisfied with his
solution of the air problem who has not submitted it to an expert, and
installed the results of his measured investigation. In the meantime,
safety lies on the side of providing more fresh air than is necessary.
If there is plenty of fresh air, unless the work itself demands
peculiar temperature or humidity conditions, the worker is fairly safe.
The rest periods that are being installed will do much to solve the air
problem, as they furnish an admirable opportunity for giving the work
places a thorough ventilation, if not a complete “airing out.” This is
not in the least to underestimate the importance of proper temperature
and of proper humidity, as will be noted later. All measured records
of outputs should include records of the temperature and the humidity.
The accumulation of this data is daily bringing nearer the time when
standards covering these will be available. In the meantime, give the
worker plenty of fresh air _all the time_.
Fire Protection.
The average manager to-day realizes fully the necessity for fire
protection. It is not, perhaps, so fully realized that the mere
knowledge that there is adequate fire protection has a considerable
effect upon the mental comfort of many of the workers. Nothing is
more fatiguing than worry. When each worker in the establishment
knows that in case of a fire he can leave the building with speed and
perfect safety, he has absolutely no worry or distraction from the fire
standpoint.
Fire protection should include not only seeing that the building and
all it contains are made as fire-proof as possible, and installing all
possible devices for putting out a fire should one start, but also the
fire drill. Here the motto of the Boy Scouts is useful, “Be prepared.”
There is nothing so satisfactory as preparedness. The fire drill is
not only a means of handling the organization during a fire, but it is
also a splendid preparation for meeting an emergency. The great problem
that arises in any unexpected situation is the problem of making a
decision. If one can acquire the habit of making a decision quickly,
and can also make habitual certain decisions in certain situations,
the resulting speed and fatigue elimination is remarkable. Make the
response to the fire situation, then, standard. You will be benefiting
your workers not only by teaching them how to act in any fire anywhere,
but also by teaching them how to respond to a signal in a standard way.
These various sets of habits in response to various stimuli should be
formed in the first years of the school life, if not before. They are
being formed at this time to-day to a greater extent than ever before,
but unfortunately the majority of adult workers in the industries have
never had such training as children. It, therefore, becomes the duty of
the management to form such habits as rapidly as possible.
Safety Protection.
Safety protection in its broadest sense covers not only protection from
grave dangers, but from anything that might have a harmful effect upon
the worker’s body or mind. The standard to be set is that everything
should be safe not only when the work is done by experienced adult
workers, but even should it be done by inexperienced, immature or tired
workers. We know how many accidents happen to the inexperienced worker,
that would never happen to the experienced worker. We all know how many
children are hurt, where an older person would see and avoid danger;
and we note every day, more and more clearly, that the exhausted worker
is to an enormous extent more susceptible to accidents than is the
rested worker. It is usually the tired motorman who has the collision.
The tired locomotive engineer passes the stop signal. The exhausted
motorist is in the accident. The tired operator gets his fingers caught
in the machine. The overtired sickroom attendant gives the wrong
medicine.
One side of the fatigue elimination question is that fatigue
elimination cuts down accidents. The other side is that cutting out
the chance of accidents eliminates fatigue. Here again the question of
worry is an important element. If one knows that the working conditions
are absolutely safe, he can concentrate his attention upon the work in
hand.
It is coming to be understood not only that it is mandatory that
working conditions be made healthful, but also that it is perfectly
possible, and, in most cases, easy to make such conditions healthful.
Look over your conditions, then. Put the proper safety devices on the
machine, the tools, etc. Install the vacuum cleaners that will collect
the dust and lint. Put the goggles or nostril-guard, or other device,
on the worker, that will insure to him clean air and decent working
conditions. Make a scientific attack upon the problem later, but put in
a safety device now, even if you have to change some of it next week.
You will gain the immediate return that will make the investigation
pay from every standpoint in the changed attitude of your workers, if
in nothing else. The Museum of Safety Devices, with its energetic and
enthusiastic secretary, will show you what has been done and what can
be done in the line of safety. “Safety First” has become the slogan of
the day. If we make it “Safety First, beginning now,” we shall have
full working directions.
The Work Place.
The working conditions that we have so far discussed have more or
less effect upon all of the workers in a group. We come next to the
inspection of the work place of each individual worker. The first
consideration here is that he have room enough in which to work.
There is an enormous amount of fatigue involved in doing work in an
overcrowded work place, yet few workers or managers realize this.
Again, habit is involved here, and the habit of order demands that the
work place be kept in an orderly condition. Any one who has walked
through factories, shops, or any places where work is going on must
have noted the tired appearance of the workers among what is called
“clutter.” The girl selling ribbon, who walks up and down behind the
counter through an accumulation of paper, cardboard cores, and other
odds and ends, has not only the bodily fatigue of pushing the clutter
ahead, or kicking it aside, but also the mental fatigue that comes
from adjusting herself constantly to such conditions. The folder of
cloth, who has barely enough room to move her hands because of the
supply of finished and unfinished materials, is fatigued from the
clumsy position, even though she and no one else realizes this. The
office worker, whose finished and unfinished papers are heaped in
confusion before him, expends not only useless motions in getting at
and disposing of what he wishes to handle, but also mental energy,
in constantly adjusting and readjusting himself to the work. There
has been a popular idea that it “looked busy” to have plenty of work
around, that to see work to be done would impress both managers
and workers with the need for applying themselves to the work more
constantly and with considerably more speed. This may be true if the
work is arranged in an orderly fashion, but disorderly work is far more
likely to discourage than to stimulate the worker. As for completed
work, there is no excuse for leaving large quantities of it at the work
place one moment longer than is absolutely necessary. Any encouragement
that it might give the worker could better be given by a record of what
he has done.
The Work-bench or Table.
Few work-benches or tables should be considered as absolutely
satisfactory that do not permit the worker to do his work standing or
sitting. Our ideas as to proper work-benches or tables, and as to the
proper placing, height, etc., of machinery and tools have too often
been prescribed to us by the manufacturers of the articles, who have
thought more of what was convenient to manufacture than of what was
least fatiguing to use. Such manufacturers are not to be blamed in
the least for their attitude. They, naturally, have been guided by
what would sell best. They have, as a rule, shown themselves more than
willing to supply any legitimate demand. The user must demand what will
be best for his work. It is no slight, short-time job to determine the
proper height, positioning, and layout of a work-bench, using this
term in a general sense to cover the place of any kind of work upon
which the worker is engaged. As preliminary work, we may, usually,
then, boost everything that can be so lifted to such a height that the
worker, at his option, may stand or sit. If it becomes a case of
single choice, that is, his either standing or sitting, arrange the
work so that he does it sitting, and does the necessary standing or
moving about during his rest periods.
[Illustration: FIG. 7
This picture shows the “Gilbreth” table laid down in its lower
position. This table is particularly adapted for a work-bench or table
where it is desired to have two different heights for different kinds
of work. The table and its load can be picked up with a booster truck
in either this position or the higher position simply by operating the
lever of the booster truck and without touching the table at all.]
[Illustration: FIG. 8
This picture shows the “Gilbreth” table standing in its higher
position.]
[Illustration: FIG. 9
This is a sample of photographs that are taken to impress upon the
foreman the reasons why certain methods are wrong. For example, this
picture shows two “Gilbreth” tables resting on their long side at
their low height, so fixed that they can be picked up by “booster”
trucks. The in-and-out bins are not the same size. The outward one is
considerably too high to be convenient for the worker, and the worker
is provided with a box instead of a comfortable stool.]
The change in industrial conditions has made this problem important.
The question once was, “_Can_ we make it of a quality that will pass?”
Since the day of intensive outputs, the question has become, “_How
many_ can we make of a given quality?” In the first case, any kind of
work-bench was good enough,--the worry being limited to the question of
“_Can_ we make it?” Now it is no trouble to make almost anything; but
the worry is “Can we make enough so that the cost will enable us to pay
the required wages and still compete, or must we give up manufacturing
in this location?” This makes us think of the least fatiguing
conditions and of making work-benches of two levels, etc.
The Chair or Other Fatigue-Eliminating Device.
Closely related with the work place is the work chair. It is distinct
from the rest chair in that it is specially devised to be used during
work periods. The ideal work chair is of such a height that the
worker’s elbows will bear the same relation to the work place when he
is sitting as they would if the work place were properly adjusted for
him to do standing work. Types of chairs that have been designed and
that are proving effective in eliminating fatigue while at work will
be described more at length in the next chapter. The important point
to be considered here is to adjust the work to the worker if possible.
Where this is not possible, immediately, adjust the worker as best
you can to the work. Make the relation of his elbows to the work the
deciding point. If at present the work must be done standing, and the
worker is too small, and it is easier to raise the worker than lower
the work-bench or table, provide some sort of a stand or platform that
will put him at the proper level. If he is large, raise the work-bench
by lengthening the legs, or adding a false top, or, in some rare cases,
by lowering the standing place. If the work is seated work, adjusting
the chair will probably be the simplest change to make. Arm rests often
afford an immediate and immense relief, but must fit the particular
arm and be adjustable for best results. A head-rest may also be a
valuable first aid, though often a later improvement in working methods
will eliminate so much eye and head fatigue that the head-rest will not
be needed. In other types of work, the foot-rest will often do the most
immediate good. If every manager were made to sit for a certain number
of hours to-day with his feet hanging, there would be an enormous
increase in the number of foot rests in our industrial plants to-morrow
morning.
[Illustration: FIG. 10
Very few people realize that the working girl should be measured for
her working chair in which she spends one-half of the time that she
is awake during her entire working life. For this purpose we have had
testing chairs of varying heights made for the girls to sit in, and
then have made a chair for each girl, particularly adapted to her and
her work. The correct height of chair is determined much quicker and
fits much more accurately than does an adjustable chair.]
[Illustration: FIG. 11
This picture shows a worker seated at standing height operating a drill
press. The pieces arrive in his inward box by means of a small belt
conveyor that transports finished pieces from the machine that performs
the previous operation.]
Placing the Material Worked On.
In cases where it is difficult to readjust the work place, much fatigue
may often be eliminated by placing the work in a better position. In
fact this aspect of the problem should always be considered along
with the readjustment of the work itself. For example, in folding
handkerchiefs, a folder may be seated at a table, folding directly on
the table. The table may be too low for the work. If she is given a
board upon which to fold, this may not only put her work itself at the
proper height, but it is also possible, with trifling added expense, to
provide her with a table in two adjoining sections at two different
heights, and a sloping board that will make the work less fatiguing, as
she can maintain a much better posture. She will also be enabled to put
the finished product at a lower level. This will increase speed, while
at the same time eliminating fatigue, which is, of course, an ideal
condition.
In considering the placing of materials, we must consider also the
manner in which the materials come to the worker and in which they
leave him. Our later method study will make so many changes here that
only very apparent, necessary, and inexpensive improvements should
be made at this stage. Be sure, however, that you are using gravity
wherever it can be used to advantage. Often we have found a small belt
conveyor to be helpful in cutting down the hand transportation.
The Placing of Tools and Devices.
Gravity and mechanical means can be of use here, especially in carrying
working equipment back to the place where it remains when not in use.
Many preliminary improvements can also be made by standardizing the
place where the tool is to be left when not in use. There is not only
the bodily fatigue of bringing the tool from a more distant place than
is necessary, there is also the unconscious fatigue of constantly
deciding such unimportant questions as where it is to be placed.
The Clothing of the Worker.
In an excellent series of articles on dress, published some years
ago, Miss Tarbell laid down the rule that “suitability” is the final
test of a costume. It is with this in mind that the clothing worn by
the members of the organization while at work should be examined. It
must be said, in the first place, that there is no more reason for
the common custom of the worker providing his special outer clothing
while at work than there is for his providing his other tools and
equipment. In other times, the workmen of many trades preferred to
provide their own tools, and did so, but in a scientifically managed
plant to-day, the workers are provided by the management with standard
tools. The management has standardized the best in a tool, and keeps
it in the best possible working condition. In the same way, it should
be the duty of the management to provide special working clothes, when
they have been standardized. This involves, of course, the problem of
laundering, which may seem complicated to one who is not acquainted
with what has been done in this field.
There has been very little done in most kinds of work to provide a
costume, designed to conform to motion economy and least fatigue, that
is, at the same time, useful, artistic, and pleasing. Progress has been
rendered even slower by the fact that many workers have a prejudice
against such garments, feeling that they show a class distinction. All
that is necessary is to create a fashion of wearing such garments,
like the fashion of wearing atelier or studio clothes. In no place can
an example of unsuitable clothing be more clearly seen than in the
laundry industry. Much of the work done in the typical laundry is done
while standing, and the women who form a majority of the workers wear
clothes, and particularly shoes that make the work far more fatiguing
than it need be. Yet in this very industry some of the most progressive
work to improve conditions is being done. In Europe a shoe with a
thick wooden sole and a heavy leather upper over the front part of the
foot only is considered the most comfortable and least fatiguing. It
is also certainly the cheapest and most durable. But Americans will
not wear such a shoe. The shoe furnishes the most difficult feature of
the costume problem. Here again the most important thing is that the
“fashion” of wearing comfortable and efficient garments shall be set.
We have hoped for years that sensible fashions in workers’ clothes
might be set by patterning after tennis or other athletic costumes, but
the time when this will become general seems as yet far distant, due to
the necessity of the worker using his oldest and discarded “dress up”
clothes, ultimately for his working clothes. Nevertheless, the great
loss in efficiency, due to the general custom of wearing clothes that
interfere with comfortable work, and that cause unnecessary fatigue,
has caused us to start a campaign for the design and standardization
of more suitable clothes. As yet we have had but few designs submitted
in answer to our appeal to the worker to study the clothes problem for
himself or herself. We are making the same appeal to the management to
suggest costumes for the approval of the worker.
In order that there may be no duplication, that we may pass
on good ideas, we have started a little museum where typical
fatigue-eliminating devices of all sorts may be gathered, and studied
by any one interested. We must next describe in some detail what is and
what is not as yet there, in order to offer definite suggestions for
preliminary fatigue-eliminating designs that can be used from the first
day of making changes.
Summary.
Preliminary fatigue elimination consists of improving lighting,
heating, ventilation, fire and safety protection. It also consists
of improving work places and work tables, of providing and improving
chairs, and rearranging materials and tools, and studying the clothing
of the worker. It aims to make immediate inexpensive changes before
entering into an intensive study of the problem.