members who are equipped with writing ability and by writing articles
about interesting nut trees and mentioning our Association and the
Secretary many, many inquiries are received. To these inquiries we can
send our four page information folder or answer questions and thus we
can increase our membership by letting people who are interested in nut
trees know about our Association. On February 28, 1947, Mr. George L.
Denman wrote me that at different times he had two articles about nuts
and nut trees in the Spokesman-Review of Spokane. He said the result was
rather surprising and he requested fifty copies of our folder to assist
him and make it easier to answer inquiries. If our Association can be
mentioned in the article, many inquiries will come direct to the
Secretary and thus save the author the work of answering questions if
he does not have time to do so. The article written by Mr. Davidson in
December, 1946, American Fruit Grower brought in over 100 inquiries to
the Secretary's office.
The Secretary's office has a number of calls for information regarding
sources of nuts and nut kernels for private consumption or planting.
Chestnuts seem to head the list the past year--mostly for planting.
Requests are also received regarding information for market outlets, nut
cracking equipment, nut shelling plants, trees, budwood and graftwood.
Anything you may do to supply this and other kinds of information about
nut trees will be appreciated.
The Secretary of the American Horticultural Society, Inc., with whom we
are affiliated, has expressed the desire of that Society for ideas as to
how we may both profit more from this affiliation. Their need, like
ours, is for more members, more and better articles for the National
Horticultural Magazine. Mr. Reed has contributed several worthwhile
articles to this magazine. The Editor would like to have more articles
about nut trees from our members. The National Horticultural Magazine is
nicely printed and bound, issued four times a year, and is well
illustrated with pictures of the horticultural subjects described in
each issue. Dues in this society are $2.00 per year if you are a member
of our Society, $3.00 if you are not. You can ask our Treasurer to bill
you for membership at the same time membership in our Association is
billed, or membership may be sent direct to The American Horticultural
Society, 821 Washington Loan and Trust Building, Washington 4, D. C.
Our membership at present is 621 according to my present mailing list
which has been corrected to paid-up members. During the war all members
who were thought to be in the armed forces were carried along without
the payment of dues according to our Treasurer's report of last year.
For this reason we can use only our income as an indication of our
growth during those years.
The question of a seal for the Association came up at the time of the
Ellis legacy. Our member, Sargent H. Wellman, Boston, Mass., represented
the Association, and payment was made finally without our seal being
shown. It may be well to consider whether we may need a seal in the
future and if so to take the necessary steps to have one made.
The American Fruit Grower magazine has printed quite regularly the
column "Nut Growers News". They also refer nut tree inquiries to us and
have indicated their interest and further cooperation. They devoted an
entire issue to nuts last December.
A number of our members during the year do much work for the Association
and it is here that I wish to acknowledge all of the help and assistance
the Secretary has had from the various committees and members. The
printing of the report for 1946 and the responsibility of getting it
mailed was due mostly to the work and effort of Mr. Stoke, and Mr. Reed.
It was a real pleasure to work with the members of the Staff at Ontario
Agricultural College with whom I had considerable correspondence during
the year in arranging for our meeting this year.
It has been a real pleasure to serve in the capacity of Secretary to
this organization and I regret that lack of time to do this work as it
should be done makes me feel it is necessary to relinquish this post. I
shall always continue my interest in the Association.
Dr. MacDaniels: "More articles should be written for magazines as one
way in which to increase membership."
Telegram from Dr. W. C. Deming was read:
"Infirmities of age detain me. Congratulations on membership and on
accomplishments. Everything depends on good officers. Present officers
are ideal but young members should now take over. Don't wear out the old
ones.
W. C. DEMING, Dean."
This telegram was sent to Dr. W. C. Deming:
Sept. 3, 1947.
"We had hoped you would be with us. Your telegram evoked many warm
appreciations of your great and long service to our organization and the
cause of nut growers in the North. Warmest greetings from N.N.G.A.
SECRETARY."
J. Russell Smith: "Dr. Deming was one of the five founders of the
Association. He did an excellent job on the reports and in compiling the
cumulative index. He is Dean of the Association."
Report of Committee on Time and Place: Prof. Slate reported three
invitations, the most attractive at the present time being the
invitation to meet at Norris, Tenn.
Prof. Slate: "In order to bring the matter to a head, I move we hold our
1948 meeting at Norris, Tenn., or wherever arrangements can be made
convenient to that point."
Stoke: "Second."
Passed with unanimous approval.
Report on the Ohio Contest--Sterling Smith: "The Ohio contest had 692
entries. Mr. Chase helped with the judging. A number of good walnuts
were brought out. The data for the first ten is given in the 1946 annual
report. We are trying to find out what the parent trees are doing--what
they were bearing in the past and also this year. This is to be done for
5 years. Ohio has 90 members which puts them in the lead--ahead of New
York."
J. Russell Smith: "I greatly appreciate the report given. I approve of
the 5 year plan. It would bring in members."
Sterling Smith: "Couldn't we offer $100.00 or more for a really
outstanding black walnut that would meet certain specifications? Our
good walnuts now run about 25 grams and 32% kernel."
Dr. MacDaniels: "Is there anyone present who helped with the judging of
this contest?"
Mr. Chase: "It required over 2 weeks with 4 to 6 persons to crack and
cull out the ones we knew were not worth further consideration.
One-tenth passed the screening test. The nut selected is one in
ten-thousand expectancy. This contest brought out some outstanding nuts.
The judges didn't have much trouble selecting No. 1. The next four were
harder to place. The third prize went to Pennsylvania and the eighth
prize to West Virginia."
Report of Treasurer
For Period from September 1, 1946 to August 30, 1947.
INCOME:
Annual Memberships $1,212.00
Philip Allen Life Membership 50.00
Sale of Reports 44.00
Ellis Legacy 12.50
Miscellaneous 5.60
---------
Total Income $1,324.10
DISBURSEMENTS:
Fruit Grower Subscriptions $ 80.80
President's Expense 10.00
Secretary's Expense 59.50
Treasurer's Expense 45.80
Supplies 77.66
Banquet 1946 Meeting 22.32
Reporter 1946 Meeting 25.00
Ellis Legacy Bond & Addition 1,000.00
Treasurer's Bond 12.50
Report for 1945 569.84
Report for 1946 821.83
Postage & Envelopes 49.03
Miscellaneous 19.20
---------
Total Disbursements $2,793.54
Balance on Hand September 3, 1946 $3,259.88
Receipts for the Year 1,324.10
---------
Total $4,583.98
Disbursements for Year 2,793.54
Balance August 30, 1947 $1,790.44
---------
In Walker Savings Bank $ 633.92
In Peoples Savings Bank 1,056.44
Cash and Checks on hand 100.08
---------
Subtotal $1,790.44
Secretary has on hand 26.71
---------
Balance $1,817.15
D. C. SNYDER, _Treasurer_
* * * * *
Member: "The charge of $1.00 to non-members for the current
report--shouldn't the price of the reports be increased to cover the
increased costs of printing?"
Mr. Snyder: "I think the amount should be increased as the cost of the
report is almost $1.00 now, and with handling and mailing we are doing
this at a loss if we continue to sell the report for $1.00."
McCollum: "Shouldn't the price of a full set of reports be raised? They
are sold at the same price now as they were a number of years ago.
Several volumes have been added. I believe the price should be
increased."
Prof. Slate: "Some years go out of print about as soon as new ones come
along."
Dr. Rohrbacher: "I move we sell our current and last year's report at
$2.00 per copy."
Second by Mr. Silvis.
Mr. Corsan: "Nut enthusiasts and nut groups haven't the slightest
hesitancy in parting with $2.00."
Member: "A non-member paying $2.00 for the annual report would
automatically become a member."
J. Russell Smith: "I would like to recommend that if at all possible an
index be included in each volume of our report as it is published. A
volume like this has 50 or 75 different articles but no mention in the
title reveals the content of the article which makes it a job to try to
refer back to or use these reports for reference. An index would make
them much more valuable. This is not a job for the Secretary, it is a
technical job. I would like to make a motion, if the Executive Committee
finds it feasible, that this be done."
Second by Mr. Silvis.
Dr. Colby: "Don't you think that index should begin with the volume Dr.
Deming finished? I suggest that the executive Committee arrange for
compiling of the index subsequent to and including 1940."
Mr. Corsan: "I would like to suggest that the nut exhibit be left at
O.A.C. permanently because of the large number of visitors who come here
and who would see it. This would help to increase our membership."
* * * * *
Report from the Constitution and By-Laws Committee--Dr. MacDaniels.
* * * * *
Dr. Crane: "I move we accept the report of the Committee and suggested
changes be voted on item by item."
Mr. Silvis: "Second."
The question of whether the entire Constitution and By-Laws should be
read at this meeting or mimeographed and mailed to each member was
considered.
Prof. Slate: "I move the Constitution be taken up now."
Dr. Colby: "Second."
The motion was carried. Dr. MacDaniels read the Constitution and By-Laws
and they will be voted on at the 1948 meeting.
J. Russell Smith: "I move that '10 days' notice for change in the
Constitution be changed to '30 days'."
Seconded by Mr. Silvis.
Motion carried.
On fiscal year--Dr. Rohrbacher: "I suggest the fiscal year be changed to
January 1 through to the end of December."
Mr. Snyder: "I can see no improvement in changing the fiscal year. If we
are to hold our meetings the first part of September each year it would
be better to have our fiscal year ended August 31."
Dr. MacDaniels: "I move that our fiscal year be from September 1st to
August 31st and I move that the annual dues include a report for only
the year you join."
Motion carried.
Factors Influencing the Hardiness of Woody Plants
H. L. CRANE, Principal Horticulturist[1]
There is hardly any soil or climatic condition found in the world where
it is not possible for at least one or more kinds of plants to be grown.
This is possible because the plants that can be grown under the most
adverse conditions have special structures and adaptations with regard
to periods of growth and rest or dormancy. One of the most important
adaptations of nearly all trees and shrubs that shed their leaves in
autumn and survive freezing weather without injury for a part of the
year, is that of rest. This rest in plants is somewhat similar to sleep
in animals in that it is a period in which the life process activities
take place slowly. In other words, the plant physiologist defines rest
in living plants as that period in which their buds will not open and
grow even though the temperature, moisture, and other external
environmental conditions are highly suitable for growth.
[Footnote 1: Division of Fruit and Vegetable Crops and Disease, Bureau
of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural
Research Administration, U. S. Department of Agriculture.]
Different kinds of deciduous plants have or require rest periods of
different lengths, just as some people require more sleep than do
others. Two or three weeks may be enough for soft-shelled almonds but
three or four months may be required for butternuts, to cite extremes.
The Eastern black walnut requires more rest than most Persian walnut
clones, and they more than the Southern California black walnut. Even
within a species there is considerable difference in the rest period of
individual seedling trees and certain clones. For example, it has been
found that the varieties of Persian walnut grown in northern California
and in Oregon, such as Franquette and Mayette, have the longest rest
period; and those grown in Southern California, such as Placentia,
Ehrhardt, Chase, and others, have the shortest rest period. It is quite
possible that the clones and seedlings of the Persian walnut brought to
this country a few years ago by the Rev. Paul Crath from the Carpathian
Mountains of Poland may require the longest rest period of all.
The question may be asked what causes or brings on this rest period in
plants and what breaks it? The scientific answers to these questions are
not known at this time, but we do know some of the factors which cause
the initiation of rest and how it is broken.
Tree growth is initiated in the spring with coming of warm weather and
other suitable conditions. At first the rate of growth is slow; but the
rate increases and goes through a maximum and then slows up again and
finally ceases. On the cessation of growth in length, a terminal bud is
formed and the tree begins to go into rest. This period of growth is
determined by the age of the tree, the suitability of moisture and
nutrient supply. Young trees grow longer during the spring and summer
than do old ones. Deficiencies of soil moisture or nutrients or both
cause the cessation of growth and the beginning of rest. In some trees,
such as tung, cessation of growth and the initiation of rest is caused
by the change from long to short day-lengths.
After rest has begun, the longer it continues the more profound or
deeper it becomes until a maximum is reached, i.e., it becomes
increasingly difficult, up to a certain time, to make the trees start
growth again even though optimum conditions are provided. Some trees
such as Persian walnuts and pecans, for example, are slow to go into
deep or profound rest in late summer or fall. For this reason, there may
be several cycles or periods of growth during the summer and early fall,
depending on weather conditions and whether the leaves on the trees have
remained in a healthy condition. Under conditions of dry weather growth
stops on the Persian walnut and pecan and when this is followed by a
rainy period and warm weather growth begins again. In fact in early
summer a walnut or pecan tree may form terminal buds on all the shoots
and remain without growth long enough for an apple or pear tree to go
into complete or profound rest; then later, new shoot growth may be made
from all or nearly all of the walnut or pecan shoots. Not only is this
an important factor in promoting susceptibility to cold injury but in
the case of bearing trees more often than not this late growth prevents
the proper development of the kernels in the nuts and they are poorly
filled or shriveled at harvest. Should the leaves of these trees in
midsummer or later be so seriously damaged by disease or insects as to
result in partial or complete defoliation, new growth is generally sure
to follow even in late fall if growing conditions are suitable. This
habit permits such trees to grow so late that there is much greater
danger of severe injury from late fall or early winter than is the case
with most other deciduous fruit trees. Furthermore, it explains why we
see so much cold injury in the shoots and limbs of trees; they had grown
late and had no chance to develop hardiness before killing temperatures
occurred.
After the rest in trees has become deep or profound a certain amount of
chilling temperature must prevail before the rest period is broken so as
to permit the buds to open and grow normally on the approach of warm
weather. This is often spoken of as the chilling requirement. If the
rest period is not broken by a suitable amount of chilling, tree growth
is very slow to start in the spring, and then only certain of the longer
and stronger twigs may force into growth; water sprouts may develop on
the trunks and main limbs; flower buds may not open but fall off; and
even though the trees may flower the flowering period is long and few or
no fruits or nuts may be set. The most effective chilling temperature is
not known but we can be reasonably certain that temperatures of 45 deg.F. to
32 deg.F. are just as effective in breaking the winter rest period as are
those well below freezing, if not more so.
This chilling requirement is essentially the same as the rest period.
Almonds have a short rest period and require 2 to 3 weeks of chilling,
while butternuts, with a long rest period, may require 3 or 4 months.
When the tree has been subjected to adequate chilling the rest period is
broken and with the oncoming of warm weather growth, blossoming and
fruit setting is normal.
A distinction of great importance from a physiological and a practical
point of view is made between rest and dormancy in plants. This
difference can be simply stated: plants, trees, or seeds that will not
grow when external environmental conditions are favorable for growth are
in rest, but after the rest period has been broken and they do not grow
because of unfavorable conditions they are said to be dormant.
The difference between rest period and dormancy is of great importance
in the United States in determining the amount of cold injury that may
be sustained by woody plants. Furthermore, it explains why certain
plants may be successfully grown in much colder parts of the world and
yet fail here. Our winter weather conditions are not uniform, in that it
is quite common for us to have quite long periods of alternating warm
and cold weather. Too often during mid-or late winter the weather may be
quite warm for several days, with above-freezing temperatures even at
night, only to be quickly followed by a sudden and extreme drop in
temperature. Such conditions are almost certain to result in cold injury
to at least certain kinds of woody plants in which the rest period had
been broken prior to the occurrence of warm weather, especially so if
conditions are favorable for initiation of growth. The plants that were
still in the rest period at the time of the warm weather or those with
high heat requirement to start growth (as for example, the pecan) would
be the only ones that would escape injury. To illustrate with an
example: The Chinese chestnut tree has a shorter rest period or less
chilling requirement than does the average Persian walnut tree. Now
suppose that during the months of November and December a sufficient
number of hours of chilling temperatures were experienced to break the
rest period or to satisfy the chilling requirement of the Chinese
chestnut but not that of the Persian walnut. Then suppose there was a
period of two weeks or more of warm weather in January and it was ended
by a very sudden drop to below freezing temperatures. Later we would
expect to find that some parts or tissues of the Chinese chestnut trees
had been injured while the Persian walnut trees had survived without
injury. Similar differences would be expected with other crops, such as
peaches and apples, that have a difference in rest period or chilling
requirement. Under the conditions just described the parts or tissues of
the tree that are most likely to be injured are those that first become
active with the coming of warm weather, such as the pith in the wood,
the lower buds, and later the cambium or the leaf buds. This explains
why peach fruit buds and the catkins of the European filbert are often
killed in the East during the winter.
Some kinds of woody plants are very much hardier than are other kinds.
For example, the butternut is hardier than the eastern black walnut and
the almond is hardier than the tung tree. Hardiness is only a relative
term and can be determined only when the different kinds of plants are
in the same physiological condition as regards growth or activity. Just
what it is that makes a difference in the hardiness or ability to
withstand low temperatures without injury is not known. However, over
the years, experience and research have taught us that there are a
number of factors that affect the hardiness of woody plants.
There is a very great difference between the temperature that will cause
injury to a tree tissue when it is in active growth and most tender in
the spring and that required when it is most resistant in midwinter.
With some trees this difference in temperature is as much as 50 deg. to
60 deg.F. or even more. With woody plants, the tissues are least hardy in
spring when they are growing rapidly, and as the season progresses
hardiness normally increases provided that second or late growth does
not occur. There are many changes that take place in the tissues of a
tree as hardiness is developed: the moisture content is reduced; cell
walls are thickened; the concentration of sugars, starches, and other
carbohydrates becomes greater; there is the formation of pentosans,
gums, and waxes; and the respiration and other life processes become
slower. However, none of these offer a full and satisfactory explanation
of why the plant becomes as resistant to cold as it does. All of these
changes and probably many others play a part in developing hardiness in
woody plants.
Maximum hardiness is developed only by trees that support a large area
of normal leaves continuously from the time of foliation in the spring
until late fall when they are killed by frost. Attacks by insects or
diseases that injure the leave or cause partial or complete defoliation
at any time during the spring, summer, or before the occurrence of frost
in the fall, not only prevent the development of maximum hardiness of
the trees, but such defoliation results in reduced growth of the trees
and in poor filling of the nuts. The importance of maintaining a large
area of healthy leaves on the trees during the entire growing season can
hardly be too strongly stressed. This is because trees that hold their
leaves are strong, vigorous trees and are the ones best able to
withstand cold, as well as other adversities, without injury. This,
however, does not mean that fertilizer applications should be made in
late summer or that cultivation should be practiced at that time, which
would tend under suitable conditions to stimulate late growth of the
trees. This is because some trees like the Persian walnut are slow to go
into rest at best and practices that stimulate late growth of the trees
cause them to be susceptible to cold injury especially in late fall or
early winter. I have seen very severe injury and killing of pecan trees
in south Georgia as a result of spring fertilizer applications which,
because of drouth, did not become available to the trees until late
August and early September and then caused second growth of the trees.
In the case of walnuts and pecans, especially, but also others than are
not sprayed for the control of diseases and insects, it is not uncommon
for the trees to become defoliated in late summer and while bearing a
crop of nuts. Very often this premature defoliation results in the
production of a new crop of leaves and some shoot growth. This is one of
the worst conditions one can have in an orchard, for the nuts are
certain to be very poorly filled and the trees especially susceptible to
cold injury.
In such a case as this, the nuts withdraw carbohydrates, proteins and
minerals from the leaves and wood of the tree for their development and
the production of new leaves and shoots has a like effect. This all
results in such a severe removal or using up of the materials involved
in the development? of hardiness that such trees are very susceptible to
cold injury.