* * * * *
An examination of tabulated results of the investigations of the
conferences will show that in their opinion the following studies
should be begun below the high school:
English literature.
German or French.
Elementary algebra and concrete geometry.
Natural phenomena.
Natural history.
Biography and mythology, civil government, and Greek and Roman history.
Physical geography.
There has been much discussion within a few years as to improvements in
elementary courses of study, with a growing tendency toward important
modifications. Rigid and mechanical methods and an exaggerated notion
of thoroughness in every detail have often become a hindrance to the
progress of the pupils in elementary schools. The mind of the child is
susceptible of a more mature development at the age of fourteen than
is usually attained. There are numerous examples of pupils in graded
schools, who, with very limited school terms, prepare for the high
school at the age of fourteen. Under the guidance of painstaking and
intelligent parents or private tutors, children cover, in a very brief
time, the studies of the grammar school. All have noted, under favoring
conditions, a surprising development, at an early age, in understanding
of history, literature, and common phenomena, a growth far beyond that
reached at the same age in the schools. These facts simply show the
possibilities of the period of elementary education. We understand
that ultimately those best prepared to judge must determine the
modifications, if any are needed, of the elementary courses. Some say
the courses are already overcrowded, it is impossible to add anything.
Is it not true, however, that by placing less stress upon a few things,
by arousing mental activity through the stimulus of the scientific
method, and by improving the skill of the teachers, the work suggested
by these conferences may be easily accomplished? All these experiments
are already old in many schools in the country.
Consider the logical order of studies. Each child, almost from the
dawn of consciousness, recognizes relations of number and space,
observes phenomena and draws crude inferences, records in his mind
the daily deeds of his associates, and employs language to express
his thought, often with large use of imagination. Already has begun
the spontaneous development in mathematics, science, history, and
literature. Nature points the way and we should follow the direction.
These subjects in their various forms should be pursued from the first.
Hill’s “True Order of Studies” shows that there are some five parallel,
upward-running lines representing the divisions of knowledge, and that
development may be compared to the encircling, onward movement of a
spiral, which, at each turn, cuts off a portion of all the lines. If
we accept this view, we must grant that geometry on its concrete side
belongs to the earliest period of education; that the observation of
natural phenomena with simple inferences will be a most attractive
study to the child; that the importance of observation of objects of
natural history is foreshadowed by the spontaneous interest taken in
them before the school period; that tales of ancient heroes, and the
pleasing myths of antiquity, together with the striking characters and
incidents of Greek and Roman history, belong to the early period of
historic knowledge; that the whole world of substance and phenomena
that constitutes our environment should be the subject of study under
the head of physiography or physical geography; that the thoughts of
literature, ethical and imaginative, appeal readily to the child’s
mind. We may add that the taste of children may be early cultivated,
and that the glory which the child discovers in nature makes possible
the art idea and the religious sentiment. The reason for beginning a
foreign language early is somewhat independent, but all agree that
early study of a living language is desirable.
Should we not reconsider our analysis of the elementary courses?
Superintendents and teachers will find the necessary changes not
impossible but easy. The sum of all that is recommended for the
elementary schools by the conferences is not so formidable as at first
appears.
* * * * *
In the conference reports to the Committee of Ten are some views that
have a bearing upon the subject of the high-school period. The Latin
Conference hopes for a modification of the grammar-school courses, that
the high-school course may be begun earlier. The Greek Conference voted
that the average age at which pupils enter college should be lowered.
The Conference on English was of the opinion that English work during
the last two years of the grammar-school course should be in the hands
of a special teacher or teachers. The Conference on Modern Languages
holds that whenever competent teachers can be secured the grammar
school should have an elective course in French or German. The Physics
Conference recommended that “Whenever it is possible, special science
teachers or superintendents should be appointed to instruct teachers
of elementary schools in the methods of teaching natural phenomena.”
The History Conference thought it desirable that in all schools history
should be taught by teachers who have a fondness for historical studies
and have paid special attention to effective methods of imparting
instruction. One member of the conference was almost ready to advise
omitting history from school programmes because of so much rote,
text-book teaching.
These opinions are additional evidence of need of modifications in
grammar-school work, and some think that ultimately the best solution
will be found in extending the high-school period downward to include
part of the elementary period.
It was agreed in the Committee of Ten that their task would be less
difficult did the high-school period begin, say two years earlier; and
the reason why the recommendation of the conferences, that certain
studies be introduced below the high school, was viewed with suspicion
was the impossibility, with the present organization of the schools, of
securing good instruction in these studies.
The following view of the high-school period is expressed by a
prominent high-school principal: “My opinion is that it would be much
better for our boys and girls to begin their preparation for college
at least two years earlier than they now do. If our high schools
could receive the pupils at eleven or twelve, instead of fourteen,
preparation for college would be completed at sixteen instead of
eighteen, as is now generally the case.”
The custom in European countries supports the view that high-school
methods should reach down into the grades. In Prussia only three
years of elementary work precede the gymnasium, and the pupil can
enter the gymnasium at the age of nine. The gymnasium itself covers
a period of nine years, extending five years below the period of our
high schools. Examining the course of the Prussian gymnasium, we find
in the first five years, or before the age of fourteen, Latin, Greek,
French, history, geometry, natural history; and it is conceded by many
educators that more is attained by the age of eighteen in Germany than
in this country; that at the age of fourteen in Germany the development
of the pupil is more mature, and that in essential features of
education he has made more desirable progress.
If our high schools should be made equivalent in length and rank to the
Prussian gymnasium, the change would involve the entire reconstruction
of our school system, from the primary school to the end of the
university. The high schools would become colleges, and the colleges
would become high schools, and the graduates from them would enter
the university prepared to take up professional or other special
university work. That there are many leading educators who advocate
these changes for the universities is well known, and there are some
strong tendencies toward the German system. On the other hand, many
deplore the possibility of losing the American college, which is an
institution somewhat peculiar to this country. They think that its
broad, general education and superior culture are worth retaining, and
that specialization should begin at a late period.
One significant fact stares us in the face, namely, that the average
American boy no longer will spend four years beyond the high school in
general education, and then pass four years more at the professional
school or three years in the graduate course. Somewhere the work must
be shortened, in either the elementary school, the high school, or the
college.
The whole subject is of great interest and importance, but at the
present stage of inquiry no definite conclusions can be reached.
* * * * *
The relation of the mind to a study is determined by the nature of
the mind and the nature of the study, and there seems to be no reason
in psychology why a college-preparatory subject should be taught
differently to one fitting for the duties of life. Besides, it is
economy to make identical the work of different courses, as far as
possible. There was perfect unanimity in the opinion that the same
studies should be pursued by all in the same way, as far as taken.
Every one knows that many teachers are unskilled to present in the
elementary schools the beginnings of geometry, science, history,
or literature, and that the failures in this work are due to the
mechanical efforts of those who have had no higher or special
training. The demands of present methods are imperative for improved
power in instruction. Science is not well taught in all schools. There
is a school which teaches biology from a manual without specimen,
microscope, or illustrations. It was a humiliating confession of the
committee that the classical course is superior, for the reason that
it is difficult to find enough instructors competent to teach modern
subjects by modern methods.
A very important point, recognized by the committee, is the advantage
of postponing as long as possible the necessity of making a final
choice of courses. In this country we have no fixed conditions of
rank, and the poor man’s son has the same privileges as the sons of
position and wealth. Hence, the station in life is not determined by
the differentiation in courses at an early period. Very few parents
decide upon the final character of the child’s instruction much before
the beginning of the college period.
For these reasons many would not agree with the conference
recommendation to begin Latin at an earlier period. It would not be
economy; there is enough else that belongs to the elementary stage of
education, and no plan is feasible that is founded upon the foreign
view of caste and fixed condition in life.
* * * * *
Uniformity in requirements for admission to college was the subject
of the report that finally led to this investigation. Although
uniformity is not prominently urged in the report of the Committee
of Ten, doubtless the logical outcome of the latter report will be a
tendency toward some kind of uniformity. There is a vigorous conflict
of opinion to-day as to nationalism and individualism, with a strong
tendency, especially in education, toward individualism. In the opinion
of many there exists a harmful slavery of the high and preparatory
schools to the erratic and varied demands of different colleges, and
also a slavery to ignorance and caprice in some schools themselves,
which would be removed by a general agreement to uniformity. Men are
not enslaved, but are emancipated, by organization, and freedom of the
individual is found in the good order of society and government. In
a facetious criticism of the committee’s report, arguing for extreme
individualism in choice of studies, appears the following query:
“Please tell us if you and your colleagues on the conference considered
any methods for the encouragement of cranks?” No; for the encouragement
neither of cranks, nor of crankiness, but for the encouragement of
the best kind of rational education. While there are a few wise,
independent investigators who need no enforced uniformity, and will
not be bound by the recommendations of others, many of the schools are
largely imitators, or, worse, are working independently with limited
insight, and these schools would be vastly improved by adopting courses
and methods growing from a consensus of the best opinions of the
country. The lowest would thereby tend to rise to the highest, and from
that plane a new advance could be made. Meantime the original thinkers
would be free to push forward toward higher results, to be generally
adopted later. Through contact of various ideas some principles are
settled, and the world is free to move on toward fresh discovery.
The selection of studies is to be determined largely by the
nature of the mind and by the universal character of natural and
civil environments, and this fact points toward the possibility of
uniformity. The period of secondary education is not the period for
specializing, and even if it were, there should be some uniformity
in differentiation. In the United States there is, broadly speaking,
uniformity of tradition, of government, of civilization, and the
educated youth of San Francisco bears about the same relation to the
world as the educated youth of Boston; hence, so far as elementary and
secondary education is pursued, there is no reason why it should not
be substantially the same in various schools—not in details belonging
to the individual teacher, but in paper requirements and important
features of methods.
* * * * *
Nothing in the whole report is more important than the proposed closer
connection between high schools and colleges, and this is clearly
and forcibly urged. Whatever course of study properly belongs to a
secondary school is also a good preparation for higher education, else
either secondary or higher education is seriously in error. Whenever
a youth decides to take a college course, he should find himself on
the road toward it. No one can doubt that in the coming years pupils
having pursued properly arranged high-school courses must be admitted
to corresponding courses in higher education. The divorcement between
higher education and all lower grade work, except the classical, has
been a fatal defect in the past. The entire course of education should
be a practical interest of college professors, and there should be
a hearty coöperation between them and school superintendents and
principals in considering all educational problems.
It is a fact of significance that a committee, on which some leading
institutions are represented, urges the professional schools of the
country to place their standard of admission as high as that of the
colleges; and we hope that aid will thus be given the institutions
endeavoring to raise the requirements of law, medical, and divinity
schools.
The reports of most of the conferences asked for continuous and
adequate work for each subject, that it might become a source of
discipline and of valuable insight. No doubt part of the work in high
schools is too brief and fragmentary to gain from it the best results.
The aim should be to reduce the number of subjects taken by any pupil,
and the number of topics under a subject. It is not necessary that the
entire landscape be studied in all its parts and details, if a thorough
knowledge of the most prominent features is gained.
* * * * *
In one important point I was constrained to differ from the reading
of the report, as finally submitted, although the expressions to
which exceptions were taken were due rather to the standpoint of the
writer of the report than the resolutions of the committee. I refer to
those paragraphs in which it is implied that the choice of studies in
secondary schools may be a matter of comparative indifference, provided
good training is obtained from the subjects chosen. This view makes
education formal, without giving due regard to the content. Here are
the world of nature and the world of mind. Nature, when its meaning
is realized, has the same meaning for all, and in its various phases
affects all in substantially the same way. The history of mankind, in
its various kinds and degrees of development, has the same content for
all. The nature of mind in generic characteristics, and the universal
truths that belong to the spiritual world, are the same for all. Mind
has the same powers in all human beings. We all know, feel, and will;
all persons acquire through attention, retain in memory under the
same conditions, obey the same laws of association, reason, so far as
rightly, from the same principles, act from motives. Men may be classed
crudely according to the motives that will appeal to them. While there
are infinite variations in details of men’s natures, in power of
insight, degree of development, methods of acquisition, predominant
motives, in interests and tendencies, all persons in their growth
obey the laws of human nature. Hence, we may argue that a science of
education is possible; that it is possible to select studies with a
view to their universal use in the primary development of the powers,
and with the assurance of superior value as revealing to man his entire
environment and the nature of his being.
Mere form, mere power, without content, mean nothing. Power is power
through knowledge. The very world in which we are to use our power
is the world which we must first understand in order to use it. The
present is understood, not by the power to read history, but by what
history contains. The laws of nature and deductions therefrom are
not made available by mere power, but by the power which comes from
the knowledge of them. Hence, the education which does not include
something of all views of the world, and of the thinking subject, is
lacking in data for the wise and effective use of power.
* * * * *
In view of this position, the committee might well analyze carefully
the nature and importance of each leading subject, representing a
part of the field of knowledge, to the end that a wise correlation
of the work of the conferences might be made. The study of number
in its concrete form and in its abstract relations, the study of
space relations, as founded upon axiomatic truths, are necessary as
a basis of many kinds of knowledge, as representing an essential
view of the world, as a foundation for the possibilities of commerce
and structures, and as furnishing important training in exact
reasoning. Science includes many things; but chemistry and physics,
which explain the manifestations of force in the material world,
biology which reveals important laws of plant and animal life, and
physiography, which acquaints us with our entire environment as to
location, phenomena, and partial explanation—these are connected with
the practical side of civilization and the welfare of humanity, and
are a guard against superstition and error; they are indispensable
for practice in induction, and they should be well represented in a
course of study. History, in which man discovers the meaning of the
present and gains wisdom for the future, which is a potent source of
ethical thought, must not be omitted. English language, as the means of
accurate, vigorous, and beautiful expression, and English literature,
which is the treasury of much of the world’s best thought, are not
subjects to leave to the election of the pupil.
In addition to the training in observation, memory, expression, and
inductive reasoning which most studies offer, we must consider the
development of imagination, right emotion, and right will. In other
words, æsthetic and ethical training is most essential. Secondary
schools need not employ formal courses of study to this end, but
various means may be employed incidentally. There are a hundred ways in
which taste may be cultivated, and literature is one of the best means
for developing the art idea. Moral character is developed by right
habit, by the right use of the powers in the process of education, by
growth in knowledge of ethical principles, by growth of the spirit of
reverence, and by the ethical code of religion. All of these means,
except the formal use of the last, may be employed by the schools. And
the ethical element is inherent in the very nature of right education.
To educate rightly is to educate ethically. History, biography, and
literature make direct contributions to ethical knowledge.
We now reach the study of foreign classical tongues. If there is
nothing more than formal training, for instance, in Latin, the sooner
we abandon its study the better. But we find in it also a valuable
content. In the process of development some phases of human possibility
seem to have been almost fully realized, while the world has continued
to develop along other lines. In such cases we must go back and
fill our minds with the concepts that belong to the remote period.
The Greek and Latin classics give us an insight into the character
of ancient peoples and their institutions, give us the concepts of
their civilizations, the beauty of their literatures, and make a
practical contribution to the knowledge of our own language. From the
foreign modern tongues, German may be chosen because of its valuable
literature, its contributions to science, its dignity, and its relation
to the Anglo-Saxon element of our own language.
We have endeavored to show that the choice of studies is not a matter
of indifference, that mathematics, science, history, language and
literature, and art and ethics all belong to the period of secondary
education; and we have tried to suggest the inference that all should
be employed. The relative importance of each cannot be exactly
measured, but experience and reason must guide us.