[1] G. K. Gilbert, in an article, "The Deflection of Streams" in the
_American Journal of Science_ (xxvii. 427-432), points out that each
of these streams is "bounded on the west or right side by a bluff 10
to 20 ft. high."
LONG ISLAND CITY, formerly a city of Queens county, New York, U.S.A.,
and since the 1st of January 1898 the first ward of the Borough of
Queens, New York City. Pop. (1880) 17,129, (1890) 30,506, (1900) 48,272,
of whom 15,899 were foreign-born. It has a river front, on East river
and Long Island Sound, of 10 m., and is the eastern terminal and the
headquarters of the Long Island railway, having a large Y.M.C.A.
building (the gift of Mrs Russell Sage) for employees of this railway.
Among manufactures are chemicals, pottery, varnish, silk, &c., and there
are oil-storage warehouses. Most of the borough offices of Queens
borough are in Long Island City, which was formerly the county-seat of
Queens county. The first settlement within the limits of what
subsequently became Long Island City was made in 1640 by a Dutch
blacksmith, Hendrick Harmensen, who soon afterward was murdered by an
Indian. Other settlers, both Dutch and English, soon followed, and
established detached villages, which became known as Hunter's Point,
Blissville, Astoria, Ravenswood, Dutch Kills, Middleton and Steinway.
In 1853 this group of villages, by that time virtually one community,
was called Long Island City, and it was formally incorporated under that
name in 1870. In 1871-1872 the city was laid out by a commission of
which General W. B. Franklin was president. Political convictions,
economic considerations and fear combined to make the residents in this
region largely loyalist in their attitude during the War of
Independence. From 1776 to 1783 British troops occupied Newtown, a
village to the S. E. In January 1776 the committee on the state of New
York in Congress reported a resolution that "Whereas a majority of the
inhabitants of Queens county, in the colony of New York, being incapable
of resolving to live and die free men,... all such persons as voted
against sending deputies to the present convention in New York ... be
put out of the protection of the United Colonies," &c., an action which
led to the arrest and imprisonment of many of the accused persons.
See J. S. Kelsey, _History of Long Island City_ (Long Island City,
1896).
LONGITUDE (from Lat. _longitudo_, "length"), the angle which the
terrestrial meridian from the pole through a point on the earth's
surface makes with some standard meridian, commonly that of Greenwich.
It is equal to the difference between local time on the standard
meridian, and at the place defined, one hour of time corresponding to
15° difference of longitude. Formerly each nation took its own capital
or principal observatory as the standard meridian from which longitudes
were measured. Another system had a meridian passing through or near the
island of Ferro, defined as 20° W. of Paris, as the standard. While the
system of counting from the capital of the country is still used for
local purposes, the tendency in recent years is to use the meridian of
Greenwich for nautical and international purposes. France, however, uses
the meridian of the Paris observatory as its standard for all nautical
and astronomical purposes (see TIME). In astronomy, the longitude of a
celestial body is the distance of its projection upon the ecliptic from
the vernal equinox, counted in the direction west to east from 0° to
360°.
LONGLEY, CHARLES THOMAS (1794-1868), archbishop of Canterbury, was born
at Rochester, and educated at Westminster and Oxford. He was ordained in
1818, and was appointed vicar of Cowley, Oxford, in 1823. In 1827 he
received the rectory of west Tytherley, Hampshire, and two years later
he was elected headmaster of Harrow. This office he held until 1836,
when he was consecrated bishop of the new see of Ripon. In 1856 he was
translated to the see of Durham, and in 1860 he became archbishop of
York. In 1862 he succeeded John Bird Sumner as archbishop of Canterbury.
Soon afterwards the questions connected with the deposition of Bishop
Colenso were referred to him, but, while regarding Colenso's opinions as
heretical and his deposition as justifiable, he refused to pronounce
upon the legal difficulties of the case. The chief event of his primacy
was the meeting at Lambeth, in 1867, of the first Pan-Anglican
conference of British, colonial and foreign bishops (see LAMBETH
CONFERENCES). His published works include numerous sermons and
addresses. He died on the 27th of October 1868 at Addington Park, near
Croydon.
LONGMANS, a firm of English publishers. The founder of the firm, Thomas
Longman (1) (1699-1755), born in 1699, was the son of Ezekiel Longman
(d. 1708), a gentleman of Bristol. Thomas was apprenticed in 1716 to
John Osborn, a London bookseller. At the expiration of his
apprenticeship he married Osborn's daughter, and in August 1724
purchased the stock and household goods of William Taylor, the first
publisher of _Robinson Crusoe_, for £2282 9s. 6d. Taylor's two shops
were known respectively as the Black Swan and the Ship, and occupied the
ground in Paternoster Row upon which the present publishing house
stands. Osborn, who afterwards entered into partnership with his
son-in-law, held one-sixth of the shares in Ephraim Chambers's
_Cyclopaedia of the Arts and Sciences_, and Thomas Longman was one of
the six booksellers who undertook the responsibility of Samuel Johnson's
_Dictionary_. In 1754 Thomas Longman took his nephew into partnership,
the title of the firm becoming T. and T. Longman.
Upon the death of his uncle in 1755, Thomas Longman (2) (1730-1797)
became sole proprietor. He greatly extended the colonial trade of the
firm. He had three sons. Of these, Thomas Norton Longman (3) (1771-1842)
succeeded to the business. In 1794 Owen Rees became a partner, and
Thomas Brown, who was for many years after 1811 a partner, entered the
house as an apprentice. Brown died in 1869 at the age of 92. In 1799
Longman purchased the copyright of Lindley Murray's _English Grammar_,
which had an annual sale of about 50,000 copies; he also purchased,
about 1800, the copyright, from Joseph Cottle, of Bristol, of Southey's
_Joan of Arc_ and Wordsworth's _Lyrical Ballads_. He published the works
of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey and Scott, and acted as London agent
for the _Edinburgh Review_, which was started in 1802. In 1804 two more
partners were admitted; and in 1824 the title of the firm was changed to
Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown & Green. In 1814 arrangements were
made with Thomas Moore for the publication of _Lalla Rookh_, for which
he received £3000; and when Archibald Constable failed in 1826, Longmans
became the proprietors of the _Edinburgh Review_. They issued in 1829
Lardner's _Cabinet Encyclopaedia_, and in 1832 M'Culloch's _Commercial
Dictionary_.
Thomas Norton Longman (3) died on the 29th of August 1842, leaving his
two sons, Thomas (4) (1804-1879) and William Longman (1813-1877), in
control of the business in Paternoster Row. Their first success was the
publication of Macaulay's _Lays of Ancient Rome_, which was followed in
1849 by the issue of the first two volumes of his _History of England_,
which in a few years had a sale of 40,000 copies. The two brothers were
well known for their literary talent; Thomas Longman edited a
beautifully illustrated edition of the New Testament, and William
Longman was the author of several important books, among them a _History
of the Three Cathedrals dedicated to St Paul_ (1869) and a work on the
_History of the Life and Times of Edward III._ (1873). In 1863 the firm
took over the business of Mr J. W. Parker, and with it _Fraser's
Magazine_, and the publication of the works of John Stuart Mill and J.
A. Froude; while in 1890 they incorporated with their own all the
publications of the old firm of Rivington, established in 1711. The
family control of the firm (now Longmans, Green & Co.) was continued by
Thomas Norton Longman (5), son of Thomas Longman (4).
LONGOMONTANUS (or LONGBERG), CHRISTIAN SEVERIN(1562-1647), Danish
astronomer, was born at the village of Longberg in Jutland, Denmark, on
the 4th of October 1562. The appellation Longomontanus was a Latinized
form of the name of his birthplace. His father, a poor labourer called
Sören, or Severin, died when he was eight years old. An uncle thereupon
took charge of him, and procured him instruction at Lemvig; but after
three years sent him back to his mother, who needed his help in
field-work. She agreed, however, to permit him to study during the
winter months with the clergyman of the parish; and this arrangement
subsisted until 1577, when the illwill of some of his relatives and his
own desire for knowledge impelled him to run away to Viborg. There he
attended the grammar-school, defraying his expenses by manual labour,
and carried with him to Copenhagen in 1588 a high reputation for
learning and ability. Engaged by Tycho Brahe in 1589 as his assistant in
his great astronomical observatory of Uraniborg, he rendered him
invaluable services there during eight years. He quitted the island of
Hveen with his master, but obtained his discharge at Copenhagen on the
1st of June 1597, for the purpose of studying at some German
universities. He rejoined Tycho at Prague in January 1600, and having
completed the Tychonic lunar theory, turned homeward again in August. He
visited Frauenburg, where Copernicus had made his observations, took a
master's degree at Rostock, and at Copenhagen found a patron in
Christian Friis, chancellor of Denmark, who gave him employment in his
household. Appointed in 1603 rector of the school of Viborg, he was
elected two years later to a professorship in the university of
Copenhagen, and his promotion to the chair of mathematics ensued in
1607. This post he held till his death, on the 8th of October 1647.
Longomontanus, although an excellent astronomer, was not an advanced
thinker. He adhered to Tycho's erroneous views about refraction, held
comets to be messengers of evil and imagined that he had squared the
circle. He found that the circle whose diameter is 43 has for its
circumference the square root of 18252--which gives 3.14185... for the
value of [pi]. John Pell and others vainly endeavoured to convince him
of his error. He inaugurated, at Copenhagen in 1632, the erection of a
stately astronomical tower, but did not live to witness its completion.
Christian IV. of Denmark, to whom he dedicated his _Astronomia Danica_,
an exposition of the Tychonic system of the world, conferred upon him
the canonry of Lunden in Schleswig.
The following is a list of his more important works in mathematics and
astronomy: _Systematis Mathematici_, &c. (1611); _Cyclometria e
Lunulis reciproce demonstrata_, &c. (1612); _Disputatio de Eclipsibus_
(1616); _Astronomia Danica_, &c. (1622); _Disputationes quatuor
Astrologicae_ (1622); _Pentas Problematum Philosophiae_ (1623); _De
Chronolabio Historico, seu de Tempore Disputationes tres_ (1627);
_Geometriae quaesita XIII. de Cyclometria rationali et vera_ (1631);
_Inventio Quadraturae Circuli_ (1634); _Disputatio de Matheseos
Indole_ (1636); _Coronis Problematica ex Mysteriis trium Numerorum_
(1637); _Problemata duo Geometrica_ (1638); _Problema contra Paulum
Guldinum de Circuli Mensura_ (1638); _Introductio in Theatrum
Astronomicum_ (1639); _Rotundi in Plano_, &c. (1644); _Admiranda
Operatio trium Numerorum 6, 7, 8_, &c. (1645); _Caput tertium Libri
primi de absoluta Mensura Rotundi plani_, &c. (1646).
See E. P. F. Vindingius, _Regia Academia Havinensis_, p. 212 (1665);
R. Nyerup and Kraft, _Almindeligt Litteraturlexikon_, p. 350 (1820);
Ch. G. Jöcher, _Allgemeines Gelehrten-lexikon_, ii. 2518, iii. 2111;
Jens Worm, _Forsög til et Lexikon over danske, norske og islandske
laerde Maend_, p. 617, 1771, &c.; P. Bayle, _Hist. and Crit.
Dictionary_, iii. 861 (2nd ed. 1736); J. B. J. Delambre, _Hist. de
l'astr. moderne_, i. 262; J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de l'astr. moderne_,
ii. 141; J. L. E. Dreyer, _Tycho Brahe_, pp. 126, 259, 288, 299; F.
Hoeffer, _Hist. de l'astronomie_, p. 391; J. Mädler, _Geschichte der
Himmelskunde_, i. 195; J. F. Weidler, _Hist. Astronomiae_, p. 451.
LONGSTREET, JAMES (1821-1904), American soldier, lieutenant-general in
the Confederate army, was born on the 8th of February 1821 in Edgefield
district, South Carolina, and graduated at West Point in 1842. He served
in the Mexican War, was severely wounded, and received two brevets for
gallantry. In 1861, having attained the rank of major, he resigned when
his state seceded, and became a brigadier-general in the Confederate
army. In this rank he fought at the first battle of Bull Run, and
subsequently at the head of a division in the Peninsular campaign and
the Seven Days. This division subsequently became the nucleus of the I.
corps, Army of Northern Virginia, which was commanded throughout the war
by Longstreet. This corps took part in the battles of second Bull Run
and Antietam, and held the left of Lee's front at Fredericksburg. Most
of the corps was absent in North Carolina when the battle of
Chancellorsville took place, but Longstreet, now a lieutenant-general,
returned to Lee in time to take part in the campaign of Gettysburg. At
that battle he disapproved of the attack because of the exceptionally
strong position of the Federals. He has been charged with tardiness in
getting into the action, but his delay was in part authorized by Lee to
await an absent brigade, and in part was the result of instructions to
conceal his movements, which caused circuitous marching. The most
conspicuous fighting in the battle was conducted by Longstreet. In
September 1863 he took his corps to the west and bore a conspicuous part
in the great battle of Chickamauga. In November he commanded the
unsuccessful expedition against Knoxville. In 1864 he rejoined Lee's
army in Virginia, and on the 6th of May arrived upon the field of the
Wilderness as the Confederate right had been turned and routed. His
attack was a model of impetuosity and skill, and drove the enemy back
until their entire force upon that flank was in confusion. At this
critical moment, as Longstreet in person, at the head of fresh troops,
was pushing the attack in the forest, he was fired upon by mistake by
his own men and desperately wounded. This mischance stayed the
Confederate assault for two hours, and enabled the enemy to provide
effective means to meet it. In October 1864 he resumed command of his
corps, which he retained until the surrender, although paralysed in his
right arm. During the period of Reconstruction Longstreet's attitude
towards the political problem, and the discussion of certain military
incidents, notably the responsibility for the Gettysburg failure,
brought the general into extreme unpopularity, and in the course of a
controversy, which lasted for many years, much was said and written by
both sides which could be condoned only by irritation. His acceptance of
a Federal office at New Orleans brought him, in a riot, into armed
conflict with his old Confederate soldiers. His admiration for General
Grant and his loyalty to the Republican party accentuated the
ill-feeling of the Southern people. But in time his services in former
days were recalled, and he became once more "General Lee's war-horse" to
his old soldiers and the people of the South. He held several civil
offices, among them being that of minister to Turkey under Grant and
that of commissioner of Pacific railways under Presidents McKinley and
Roosevelt. In 1896 he published _From Manassas to Appomattox_, and in
his later years he prepared an account of Gettysburg, which was
published soon after his death, with notes and reminiscences of his
whole military career. General Longstreet died at Gainesville, Georgia,
on the 2nd of January 1904.
See _Lee and Longstreet at High Tide_, by Helen D. Longstreet
(Gainesville, Ga., 1904).
LONGTON, a market-town of Staffordshire, England, on the North
Staffordshire railway, 2½ m. S.E. of Stoke-on-Trent, within which
parliamentary and municipal borough it is included. Pop. (1901) 35,815.
The town is in the Potteries district, and in the neighbourhood of coal
and iron mines. It was governed by a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30
councillors until under the "Potteries Federation" scheme (1908) it
became part of the borough of Stoke-on-Trent in 1910.
LONGUEVILLE, the name of a French family which originated with Jean,
count of Dunois, the "Bastard of Orleans," to whom Charles VII. gave the
countship of Longueville in Normandy in 1443. François of Orleans, count
of Longueville, was created duke in 1505. The marriage of his brother
Louis with Jeanne, daughter and heiress of Philip, count of
Baden-Hochberg-Sausenberg (d. 1503), added considerable estates to the
house of Longueville. Henry, duc de Longueville (d. 1663), took an
important part in the Fronde, and for a long time held the royal troops
in check in Normandy. His wife, Anne Geneviève (see below), was a
leading figure in the political dissensions of the time. The last of the
family was Jean Louis, the Abbé d'Orléans, who died in 1694. The
numismatist, Charles d'Orléans-Rothelin (1691-1744), belonged to a
bastard branch of the family.
LONGUEVILLE, ANNE GENEVIÈVE, DUCHESSE DE (1619-1679), was the only
daughter of Henri de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, and his wife Charlotte
Marguerite de Montmorency, and the sister of Louis, the great Condé. She
was born on the 28th of August 1619, in the prison of Vincennes, into
which her father and mother had been thrown for opposition to Marshal
D'Ancre, the favourite of Marie de' Medici, who was then regent in the
minority of Louis XIII. She was educated with great strictness in the
convent of the Carmelites in the Rue St Jacques at Paris. Her early
years were clouded by the execution of the duc de Montmorency, her
mother's only brother, for intriguing against Richelieu in 1631, and
that of her mother's cousin the comte de Montmorency-Boutteville for
duelling in 1635; but her parents made their peace with Richelieu, and
being introduced into society in 1635 she soon became one of the stars
of the Hôtel Rambouillet, at that time the centre of all that was
learned, witty and gay in France. In 1642 she was married to the duc de
Longueville, governor of Normandy, a widower twice her age. The marriage
was not happy. After Richelieu's death her father became chief of the
council of regency during the minority of Louis XIV., her brother Louis
won the great victory of Rocroy in 1643 (see CONDÉ), and the duchess
became of political importance. In 1646 she accompanied her husband to
Münster, where he was sent by Mazarin as chief envoy, and where she
charmed the German diplomatists who were making the treaty of
Westphalia, and was addressed as the "goddess of peace and concord." On
her return she fell in love with the duc de la Rochefoucauld, the
author of the _Maxims_, who made use of her love to obtain influence
over her brother, and thus win honours for himself. She was the guiding
spirit of the first Fronde, when she brought over Armand, Prince de
Conti, her second brother, and her husband to the malcontents, but she
failed to attract Condé himself, whose loyalty to the court overthrew
the first Fronde. It was during the first Fronde that she lived at the
Hôtel de Ville and took the city of Paris as god-mother for the child
born to her there. The peace did not satisfy her, although La
Rochefoucauld won the titles he desired. The second Fronde was largely
her work, and in it she played the most prominent part in attracting to
the rebels first Condé and later Turenne. In the last year of the war
she was accompanied into Guienne by the duc de Nemours, her intimacy
with whom gave La Rochefoucauld an excuse for abandoning her, and who
himself immediately returned to his old mistress the duchesse de
Chevreuse. Thus abandoned, and in disgrace at court, the duchess betook
herself to religion. She accompanied her husband to his government at
Rouen, and devoted herself to good works. She took for her director M.
Singlin, famous in the history of Port Royal. She chiefly lived in
Normandy till 1663, when her husband died, and she came to Paris. There
she became more and more Jansenist in opinion, and her piety and the
remembrance of her influence during the disastrous days of the Fronde,
and above all the love her brother, the great Condé, bore her, made her
conspicuous. The king pardoned her and in every way showed respect for
her. She became the great protectress of the Jansenists; it was in her
house that Arnauld, Nicole and De Lane were protected; and to her
influence must be in great part attributed the release of Lemaistre De
Sacy from the Bastille, the introduction of Pomponne into the ministry
and of Arnauld to the king. Her famous letters to the pope are part of
the history of PORT ROYAL (q.v.), and as long as she lived the nuns of
Port Royal des Champs were left in safety. Her elder son resigned his
title and estates, and became a Jesuit under the name of the Abbé
d'Orléans, while the younger, after leading a debauched life, was killed
leading the attack in the passage of the Rhine in 1673. As her health
failed she hardly ever left the convent of the Carmelites in which she
had been educated. On her death in 1679 she was buried with great
splendour by her brother Condé, and her heart, as she had directed, was
sent to the nuns of the Port Royal des Champs.
The chief authority for Madame de Longueville's life is a little book
in two volumes by Villefore the Jansenist, published in 1738. Victor
Cousin has devoted four volumes to her, which, though immensely
diffuse, give a vivid picture of her time. See also Sainte-Beuve,
_Portraits des femmes_ (1840). Her connexion with Port Royal should be
studied in Arnauld's _Memoirs_, and in the different histories of that
institution.
LONGUS, Greek sophist and romancer, author of _Daphnis and Chloë_.
Nothing is known of his life, and all that can be said is that he
probably lived at the end of the 2nd or the beginning of the 3rd century
A.D. It has been suggested that the name Longus is merely a misreading
of the last word of the title [Greek: Lesbiakôn erôtikôn logoi d'] in
the Florentine MS.; Seiler also observes that the best MS. begins and
ends with [Greek: logou] (not [Greek: loggou]) [Greek: poimenikôn]. If
his name was really Longus, he was probably a freedman of some Roman
family which bore it. Longus's style is rhetorical, his shepherds and
shepherdesses are wholly conventional, but he has imparted human
interest to a purely fanciful picture. As an analysis of feeling,
_Daphnis and Chloë_ makes a nearer approach to the modern novel than its
chief rival among Greek erotic romances, the _Aethiopica_ of Heliodorus,
which is remarkable mainly for the ingenious succession of incidents.
Daphnis and Chloë, two children found by shepherds, grow up together,
nourishing a mutual love which neither suspects. The development of this
simple passion forms the chief interest, and there are few incidents.
Chloë is carried off by a pirate, and ultimately regains her family.
Rivals alarm the peace of mind of Daphnis; but the two lovers are
recognized by their parents, and return to a happy married life in the
country. _Daphnis and Chloë_ was the model of _La Sireine_ of Honoré
d'Urfé, the _Diana enamorada_ of Montemayor, the _Aminta of Tasso_, and
_The Gentle Shepherd_ of Allan Ramsay. The celebrated _Paul et Virginie_
is an echo of the same story.
See J. Dunlop's _History of Prose Fiction_ (1888), and especially E.
Rohde, _Der griechische Roman_ (1900). Longus found an incomparable
translator in Jacques Amyot, bishop of Auxerre, whose French version,
as revised by Paul Louis Courier, is better known than the original.
It appeared in 1559, thirty-nine years before the publication of the
Greek text at Florence by Columbani. The chief subsequent editions are
those by G. Jungermann (1605), J. B. de Villoison (1778, the first
standard text with commentary), A. Coraes (Coray) (1802), P. L.
Courier (1810, with a newly discovered passage), E. Seiler (1835), R.
Hercher (1858), N. Piccolos (Paris, 1866) and Kiefer (Leipzig, 1904),
W. D. Lowe (Cambridge, 1908). A. J. Pons's edition (1878) of Courier's
version contains an exhaustive bibliography. There are English
translations by G. Thorneley (1733, reprinted 1893), C. V. Le Grice
(1803), R. Smith (in Bohn's _Classical Library_), and the rare
Elizabethan version by Angel Day from Amyot's translation (ed. J.
Jacobs in _Tudor Library_, 1890). The illustrated editions, generally
of Amyot's version, are numerous and some are beautiful, Prudhon's
designs being especially celebrated.
LONGWY, a fortified town of north-eastern France in the department of
Meurthe-et-Moselle, 89 m. N.N.W of Nancy by rail. Pop. (1906) 8523.
Longwy is situated on a plateau overlooking the Chiers, a right-bank
affluent of the Meuse, near the frontiers of Belgium and Luxemburg. It
comprises an upper and a lower town; the former, on a hill, 390 ft.
above the Chiers valley, commands the Luxemburg road, and is
strengthened by an enceinte and a few outlying fortifications. There is
garrison accommodation for 5000 men and 800 horses, but the permanent
garrison is small. The lower town is the industrial centre. The
17th-century church has a lofty square tower, the hôtel de ville dates
from 1730, and there is a fine hospital. Iron is extensively mined in
the district, and supplies numerous blast furnaces. Several iron and
steel works are in operation, and metal utensils, fire-proof ware and
porcelain are manufactured. Longwy (_Longus vicus_) came into the
possession of the French in 1678 and was at once fortified by Vauban. It
was captured by the Prussians in 1792, 1815 and 1871.
LÖNNROT, ELIAS (1802-1884), Finnish philologist and discoverer of the
_Kalevala_, was born at Nyland in Finland on the 9th of April 1802. He
was an apothecary's assistant, but entered the university of Åbo in
1822, and after taking his successive degrees became a physician in
1832. But before this, as early as 1827, he had begun to publish
contributions to the study of the ancient Finnish language, and to
collect the national ballads and folklore, a field which was at that
time uncultivated. In 1833 he settled as a doctor in the country
district of Kajana, and began to travel throughout Finland and the
adjoining Russian provinces in his leisure time, collecting songs and
legends. In this way he was able to put together the great epic of
Finland, the _Kalevala_, the first edition of which he published in
1835; he continued to add to it, and in 1849 issued a larger and
completer text. In 1840 Lönnrot issued his important collection of the
Kanteletar, or folk-songs of ancient Finland, which he had taken down
from oral tradition. The _Proverbs of Finland_ followed in 1842. In
1853, on the death of Castrén, Lönnrot became professor of the Finnish
language and literature at the high school of Helsingfors; he retired
from this chair in 1862. He died on the 19th of March 1884.
LONSDALE, EARLS OF. This English earldom is held by the ancient family
of Lowther, which traces its descent to Sir Hugh Lowther, who flourished
in the reign of Edward I. Sir Hugh's descendant Sir Richard Lowther
(1529-1607) received Mary queen of Scots on her flight into England in
1568, and in the two following years was concerned with his brother
Gerard in attempts to release her from captivity. He was sheriff of
Cumberland and lord warden of the west marches. A house built by Gerard
Lowther at Penrith is now the "Two Lions Inn." Sir Richard's eldest son,
Sir Christopher Lowther (d. 1617), was the ancestor of the later
Lowthers, and another son. Sir Gerard Lowther (d. 1624), was judge of
the common pleas in Ireland.
One of Sir Christopher's descendants was Sir John Lowther, Bart. (d.
1706), the founder of the trade of Whitehaven, and another was John
Lowther (1655-1700), who was created Viscount Lonsdale in 1696. Before
this creation John had succeeded his grandfather, another Sir John
Lowther (d. 1675), as a baronet, and had been member of parliament for
Westmorland from 1675 to 1696. In 1688 he was serviceable in securing
Cumberland and Westmorland for William of Orange; in 1690 he was first
lord of the treasury, and he was lord privy seal from March 1699 until
his death in July 1700. Lonsdale wrote: _Memoirs of the Reign of James
II._, which were printed in 1808 and again in 1857. His family became
extinct when his son Henry, the 3rd viscount (1694-1751), died unmarried
in March 1751.
James Lowther, 1st earl of Lonsdale (1736-1802), was a son of Robert
Lowther (d. 1745) of Maulds Meaburn, Westmorland, who was for some time
governor of Barbados, and was descended from Sir Christopher Lowther;
through his mother Catherine Pennington, James was a great-grandson of
the 1st viscount Lonsdale. He inherited one of the family baronetcies in
1751, and from three sources he obtained immense wealth, being the heir
of the 3rd viscount Lonsdale, of Sir James Lowther, Bart. (d. 1755) of
Whitehaven, and of Sir William Lowther, Bart. (d. 1756). From 1757 to
1784 he was a member of parliament, exercising enormous influence on
elections in the north of England and usually controlling nine seats in
the House of Commons, where his nominees were known as "Sir James's
ninepins." He secured the election of William Pitt as member for his
borough of Appleby in 1781, and his dispute with the 3rd duke of
Portland over the possession of the socage manor of Carlisle and the
forest of Inglewood gave rise to lengthy proceedings, both in parliament
and in the law courts. In 1784 Lowther was created earl of Lonsdale and
in 1797 Viscount Lowther with an extended remainder. The earl's enormous
wealth enabled him to gratify his political ambitions. Sir N. W. Wraxall
(_Historical and Posthumous Memoirs_, ed. H. B. Wheatley, 1884), who
gives interesting glimpses of his life, speaks of his "prodigious
property" and quotes Junius, who called him "the little contemptible
tyrant of the north." He was known as the "bad earl," and Horace Walpole
and others speak slightingly of him; he was, however, a benefactor to
Whitehaven, where he boasted he owned the "land, fire and water."
He married Mary (1768-1824) daughter of George III.'s favourite, John
Stuart, 3rd earl of Bute, but died childless on the 24th of May 1802,
when the earldom became extinct; but a kinsman, Sir William Lowther,
Bart. (1757-1844), of Swillington, became 2nd viscount Lowther. This
viscount, who was created earl of Lonsdale in 1807, is chiefly famous as
the friend of Wordsworth and the builder of Lowther Castle, Penrith. His
son, William Lowther, 3rd earl of Lonsdale (1787-1872), held several
subordinate positions in various Tory ministries, and was lord president
of the council in 1852. He died unmarried, and was succeeded by his
nephew Henry (1818-1876), whose son Hugh Cecil (b. 1857) succeeded his
brother as 6th earl of Lonsdale in 1882.
Other prominent members of the Lowther family are the Right Hon. James
William Lowther (b. 1855), who became speaker of the House of Commons in
1905; Sir Gerard Augustus Lowther (b. 1858), who became British
ambassador at Constantinople in 1908; and the Right Hon. James Lowther
(1840-1904), who was a well-known Conservative member of parliament from
1865, onwards, and chief secretary for Ireland from 1878 to 1880.
LONSDALE, WILLIAM (1794-1871), English geologist and palaeontologist,
was born at Bath on the 9th of September 1794. He was educated for the
army and in 1810 obtained a commission as ensign in the 4th (King's Own)
regiment. He served in the Peninsular War at the battles of Salamanca
and Waterloo, for both of which he received medals; and he retired as
lieutenant. Residing afterwards for some years at Batheaston he
collected a series of rocks and fossils which he presented to the
Literary and Scientific Institution of Bath. He became the first
honorary curator of the natural history department of the museum, and
worked until 1829 when he was appointed assistant secretary and curator
of the Geological Society of London at Somerset House. There he held
office until 1842, when ill-health led him to resign. The ability with
which he edited the publications of the society and advised the council
"on every obscure and difficult point" was commented on by Murchison in
his presidential address (1843). In 1829 Lonsdale read before the
society an important paper "On the Oolitic District of Bath" (_Trans.
Geol. Soc._ ser. 2, vol. iii.), the results of a survey begun in 1827;
later he was engaged in a survey of the Oolitic strata of
Gloucestershire (1832), at the instigation of the Geological Society,
and he laid down on the one-inch ordnance maps the boundaries of the
various geological formations. He gave particular attention to the study
of corals, becoming the highest authority in England on the subject, and
he described fossil forms from the Tertiary and Cretaceous strata of
North America and from the older strata of Britain and Russia. In 1837
he suggested from a study of the fossils of the South Devon limestones
that they would prove to be of an age intermediate between the
Carboniferous and Silurian systems. This suggestion was adopted by
Sedgwick and Murchison in 1839, and may be regarded as the basis on
which they founded the Devonian system. Lonsdale's paper, "Notes on the
Age of the Limestones of South Devonshire" (read 1840), was published in
the same volume of the _Transactions of the Geological Society_ (ser. 2,
vol. v.) with Sedgwick and Murchison's famous paper "On the Physical
Structure of Devonshire," and these authors observe that "the conclusion
arrived at by Mr Lonsdale, we now apply without reserve both to the five
groups of our North Devon section, and to the fossiliferous slates of
Cornwall." The later years of Lonsdale's life were spent in retirement,
and he died at Bristol on the 11th of November 1871. (H. B. Wo.)
LONS-LE-SAUNIER, a town of eastern France, capital of the department of
Jura, 76 m. N.N.E. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyons railway, on which it is a
junction for Chalon-sur-Saône, Dôle, Besançon and Champagnole. Pop.
(1906) 10,648. The town is built on both sides of the river Vallière and
is surrounded by the vine-clad hills of the western Jura. It owes its
name to the salt mines of Montmorot, its western suburb, which have been
used from a very remote period. The church of St Désiré, a building of
the 12th and 15th centuries, preserves a huge Romanesque crypt. The town
is the seat of a prefects and of a court of assizes, and there are
tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce,
lycées and training-colleges for both sexes, and a branch of the Bank of
France. There is an establishment for the use of the mineral waters,
which are sodio-chlorinated and have strengthening properties. The
principal industry of the place is the manufacture of sparkling wines,
the Étoile growth being the best for this purpose. Trade is in cheese,
cereals, horses, cattle, wood, &c.
Lons-le-Saunier, known as _Ledo_ in the time of the Gauls, was fortified
by the Romans, who added the surname _Salinarius_ to the Gallic name. An
object of contention owing to the value of its salt, it belonged for a
long time during the medieval period to the powerful house of Chalon, a
younger branch of that of Burgundy. It was burned in 1364 by the
English, and again in 1637, when it was seized by the duke of
Longueville for Louis XIII. It became definitively French in 1674. It
was here that the meeting between Ney and Napoleon took place, on the
return of the latter from Elba in 1815. Rouget de l'Isle, the author of
the _Marseillaise_, was born at Montaigu near this town, where there is
a statue erected to him.
LOO (formerly called "Lanterloo," Fr. _lanturlu_, the refrain of a
popular 17th-century song), a round game of cards, played by any number
of persons; from five to seven makes the best game. "Three-card loo" is
the game usually played. An ordinary pack of fifty-two cards is used and
the deal passes after each round. Each player must have the same number
of deals; but if there is a "loo" (the sum forfeited by a player who
plays, but does not win a trick) in the last deal of a round, the game
continues till there is a hand without a loo. The dealer deals three
cards face downwards, one by one, to each player and an extra hand
called "miss," and turns up the top of the undealt cards for trumps.
Each player contributes to the pool a sum previously agreed upon. The
unit for a single stake should be divisible by three without a
remainder, e.g. three counters or three pence. The players are bound to
put in the stake before the deal is completed. Each player in rotation,
beginning from the dealer's left, looks at his cards, and declares
whether he will play, or pass, or take "miss." If the former, he says "I
play." If he takes miss he places his cards face downwards in the middle
of the table, and takes up the extra hand. If he passes, he similarly
places his cards face downwards in the middle of the table. If miss is
taken, the subsequent players only have the option of playing or
passing. A player who takes miss must play. Those who are now left in
play one card each in rotation, beginning from the dealer's left, the
cards thus played constituting a trick. The trick is won by the highest
card of the suit led, or, if trumped, by the highest trump, the cards
ranking as at whist. The winner of the trick leads to the next, and so
on, until the hand is played out. The cards remain face upwards in front
of the persons placing them.
If the leader holds ace of trumps he must lead it (or king, if ace is
turned up). If the leader has two trumps he must lead one of them, and
if one is ace (or king, ace being turned up) he must lead it. With this
exception the leader is not bound to lead his highest trump if more than
two declare to play; _but if there are only two declared players_ the
leader with more than one trump must lead the highest. Except with
trumps as above stated he may lead any card he chooses. The subsequent
players must head the trick if able, and must follow suit if able.
Holding none of the suit led, they must head the trick with a trump, if
able. Otherwise they may play any card they please. The winner of the
first trick is subject to the rules already stated respecting the lead,
and in addition he must lead a trump if able (called _trump after
trick_).
When the hand has been played out, the winners of the tricks divide the
pool, each receiving one-third of the amount for each trick. If only one
has declared to play, the dealer plays miss either for himself or for
the pool. If he plays for the pool he must declare before seeing miss
that he does not play for himself. Any tricks he may win, when playing
for the pool, remain there as an addition to the next pool. Other rules
provide that the dealer must play, if only one player stands, with his
own cards or with "miss." If miss is gone and against him, he may defend
with the three top cards of the pack, excluding the trump card; these
cards are called "master."
If each declared player wins at least one trick it is a _single_, i.e. a
fresh pool is made as already described; but if one of the declared
players fails to make a trick he is looed. Then only the player who is
looed contributes to the next pool. If more than one player is looed,
each has to contribute.
At _unlimited loo_ each player looed has to put in the amount there
was in the pool. But it is often agreed to limit the loo, so that it
shall not exceed a certain fixed sum. Thus, at eighteen-penny loo, the
loo is generally limited to half a guinea. If there is less than the
limit in the pool the payment is regulated as before; but if there is
more than the limit, the loo is the fixed sum agreed on.
The game is sometimes varied by "forces," i.e. by compelling every one
to play in the first deal, or when there is no loo the previous deal,
or whenever clubs are trumps ("club law"). When there is a force no
miss is dealt. "Irish loo" is played by allowing declared players to
exchange some or all of their cards for cards dealt from the top of
the pack. There is no miss, and it is not compulsory to lead a trump
with two trumps, unless there are only two declared players. At
"five-card loo" each player has five cards instead of three, and a
single stake should be divisible by five. "Pam" (knave of clubs) ranks
as the highest trump, whatever suit is turned up. There is no miss,
and cards may be exchanged as at Irish loo. If ace of trumps is led,
the leader says "Pam be civil," when the holder of that card must pass
the trick if he can do so without revoking. A flush (five cards of the
same suit, or four with Pam) "loos the board," i.e. the holder
receives the amount of a loo from every one, and the hand is not
played. A trump flush takes precedence of flushes in other suits. If
more than one flush is held, or if Pam is held, the holder is exempted
from payment. As between two flushes which do not take precedence, the
elder hand wins. A single stake should be divisible by five.
LOOE, a seaport and market town in the Bodmin parliamentary division of
Cornwall, England, 17 m. by sea W. of Plymouth, a terminus of the
Liskeard & Looe light railway. Pop. (1901) 2548. It is divided by the
river into East Looe and West Looe; and is sheltered so completely by
the surrounding hills that myrtles, geraniums, fuchsias and other
delicate plants flourish at all seasons in the open air. Its lanes are
narrow, steep and winding; many of the houses are entered by wooden
staircases; and though considerably modernized the town has a medieval
air. Inland, the shores of the river are richly wooded; and towards the
sea they rise on the south into rugged cliffs. The parish church of St
Martin, which stands 1 m. outside the town, has a Norman doorway and
font. Among other buildings may be mentioned the ancient chapel of St
Nicholas in West Looe, restored in 1862; and the old town-hall, where
the ancient pillory is preserved. A considerable export trade in copper,
tin and granite was formerly carried on, and the last is still exported,
but the chief trade is in grain; while timber, coal and limestone are
imported. There are also thriving fisheries, the Looe fishermen being
particularly expert with the seine on a rocky bottom. The inlet of
Trelawne is one of the most exquisite wooded coombes in Cornwall. At its
head are the remains of a camp, connected with the Giant's Hedge, a
raised earthwork which extends for 7 m. in a straight line, as far as a
larger camp, on Bury Down, and is of Danish or Saxon construction.
Trelawne, a fine old mansion belonging to the family of Trelawny, dates
in part from the 15th century, but has been very largely restored.
The harbourage was probably the original cause of settlement at Looe. At
the time of the Domesday Survey East Looe was assessed under Pendrym,
which was of the king's demesne and West Looe under Hamelin's manor of
Trelowia. In the 14th century the former manor was held by the family of
Bodrugan; the latter by that of Dauney, who had inherited it from the
Treverbyns. In 1237 Henry Bodrugan received the grant of a market on
Fridays and a fair at Michaelmas in his manor of Pendrym. In 1301 his
grandson and namesake granted to East Looe a market and fair, view of
frank pledge, ducking stool and pillory and assize of bread and ale.
Otto Bodrugan in 1320 granted the burgesses the privilege of electing
their own portreeve and controlling the trade of the town. A charter of
incorporation was granted in 1558 under which the common council was to
consist of a mayor and 8 chief burgesses. There was to be a court of
record, a market on Saturdays and fairs at Michaelmas and Candlemas. In
1685 James II. provided that there should be a mayor and 11 aldermen, 36
free burgesses, 4 fairs and a court of pie powder. East Looe was
governed under this charter until 1885. West Looe (known also as
Porpighan or Porbuan) benefited by a charter granted by Richard king of
the Romans to Odo Treverbyn and ratified in 1325 constituting it a free
borough whose burgesses were to be free of all custom throughout
Cornwall. Residence for a year and a day within the borough conferred
freedom from servitude. There were to be a market on Wednesdays and a
fair at Michaelmas. Hugh son of Odo Treverbyn gave West Looe the
privileges enjoyed by Helston and Launceston. Upon the attainder of the
earl of Devon in 1539 the borough fell to the crown and was annexed to
the duchy. In 1574 a charter of incorporation was granted, providing for
a mayor and 11 burgesses, also for a market on Wednesdays and two fairs.
West Looe continued to be administered under this charter until 1869,
when the death of the mayor deprived the council of its only surviving
member and elector. Parliamentary representation was conferred upon East
Looe in 1571 and upon West Looe in 1553. In the debate on the reform
bill O'Connell stated that there was but one borough more rotten than
East Looe and that was West Looe. Looe was second only to Fowey as a
port in the 15th century. It furnished 20 ships for the siege of Calais.
Of the markets and fairs only the markets on Wednesdays and Saturdays
and a fair on the 6th of May remain.
LOOM, or LOON (Icelandic, _Lómr_), a name applied to water-birds of
three distinct families, remarkable for their clumsy gait on land.[1]
The first is the _Colymbidae_, to which the term diver (q.v.) is
usually restricted in books; the second the _Podicipedidae_, or grebes
(q.v.); and the third the _Alcidae_. The form loon is most commonly used
both in the British Islands and in North America for all species of the
genus _Colymbus_, or _Eudytes_ according to some ornithologists,
frequently with the prefix sprat, indicating the fish on which they are
supposed to prey; though it is the local name of the great crested grebe
(_Podiceps cristatus_) wherever that bird is sufficiently well known to
have one; and, as appears from Grew (_Mus. Reg. Soc._ p. 69), it was
formerly given to the little grebe or dabchick (_P. fluviatilis_ or
_minor_). The other form loo_m_ seems more confined in its application
to the north, and is said by T. Edmonston (_Etym. Gloss. Shetl. and
Orkn. Dialect_, p. 67) to be the proper name in Shetland of _Colymbus
septentrionalis_;[2] but it has come into use among Arctic seamen as the
name of the guillemot (_Alca arra_ or _bruennichi_) which throngs the
cliffs of northern lands, from whose "loomeries" they obtain a wholesome
food; while the writer believes he has heard the word locally applied to
the razorbill (q.v.). (A. N.)