Lollardy. Hitherto its strength had lain among the country gentlemen who
were the representatives of the shires. The court and clergy had been
afraid to attack this powerful class. The new king determined to overawe
them, and to this end selected one who had been a personal friend and
whose life had been blameless. This was Sir John Oldcastle, in right of
his wife, Lord Cobham, "the good Lord Cobham" as the common people
called him. Henry first tried personal persuasion, and when that failed
directed trial for heresy. Oldcastle was convicted, but was imprisoned
for forty days in the Tower in hope that he might recant. He escaped,
and summoned his co-religionists to his aid. A Lollard plot was formed
to seize the king's person. In the end Oldcastle was burnt for an
obstinate heretic (Dec. 1417). These persecutions were not greatly
protested against; the wars of Henry V. with France had awakened the
martial spirit of the nation, and little sympathy was felt for men who
had declared that all war was but the murder and plundering of poor
people for the sake of kings. Mocking ballads were composed upon the
martyr Oldcastle, and this dislike to warfare was one of the chief
accusations made against him (comp. Wright's _Political Poems_, ii.
244). But Arundel could not prevent the writing and distribution of
Lollard books and pamphlets. Two appeared about the time of the
martyrdom of Oldcastle--_The Ploughman's Prayer_ and the _Lanthorne of
Light_. _The Ploughman's Prayer_ declared that true worship consists in
three things--in loving God, and dreading God and trusting in God above
all other things; and it showed how Lollards, pressed by persecution,
became further separated from the religious life of the church. "Men
maketh now great stonen houses full of glasen windows, and clepeth
thilke thine houses and churches. And they setten in these houses
mawmets of stocks and stones, to fore them they knelen privilich and
apert and maken their prayers, and all this they say is they worship....
For Lorde our belief is that thine house is man's soul." Notwithstanding
the repression, Lollardy fastened in new parts of England, and Lollards
abounded in Somerset, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Lincoln and
Buckinghamshire.
The council of Constance (1414-1418) put an end to the papal schism, and
also showed its determination to put down heresy by burning John Huss.
When news of this reached England the clergy were incited to still more
vigorous proceedings against Lollard preachers and books. From this time
Lollardy appears banished from the fields and streets, and takes refuge
in houses and places of concealment. There was no more wayside
preaching, but instead there were _conventicula occulta_ in houses, in
peasants' huts, in sawpits and in field ditches, where the Bible was
read and exhortations were given, and so Lollardy continued. In 1428
Archbishop Chichele confessed that the Lollards seemed as numerous as
ever, and that their literary and preaching work went on as vigorously
as before. It was found also that many of the poorer rectors and parish
priests, and a great many chaplains and curates, were in secret
association with the Lollards, so much so that in many places
processions were never made and worship on saints' days was abandoned.
For the Lollards were hardened by persecution, and became fanatical in
the statement of their doctrines. Thomas Bagley was accused of declaring
that if in the sacrament a priest made bread into God, he made a God
that can be eaten by rats and mice; that the pharisees of the day, the
monks, and the nuns, and the friars and all other privileged persons
recognized by the church were limbs of Satan; and that auricular
confession to the priest was the will not of God but of the devil. And
others held that any priest who took salary was excommunicate; and that
boys could bless the bread as well as priests.
From England Lollardy passed into Scotland. Oxford infected St Andrews,
and we find traces of more than one vigorous search made for Lollards
among the teaching staff of the Scottish university, while the Lollards
of Kyle in Ayrshire were claimed by Knox as the forerunners of the
Scotch Reformation.
The opinions of the later Lollards can best be gathered from the
learned and unfortunate Pecock, who wrote his elaborate _Repressor_
against the "Bible-men," as he calls them. He summed up their
doctrines under eleven heads: they condemn the having and using images
in the churches, the going on pilgrimages to the memorial or "mynde
places" of the saints, the holding of landed possessions by the
clergy, the various ranks of the hierarchy, the framing of
ecclesiastical laws and ordinances by papal and episcopal authority,
the institution of religious orders, the costliness of ecclesiastical
decorations, the ceremonies of the mass and the sacraments, the taking
of oaths and the maintaining that war and capital punishment are
lawful. When these points are compared with the Lollard Conclusions of
1395, it is plain that Lollardy had not greatly altered its opinions
after fifty-five years of persecution. All the articles of Pecock's
list, save that on capital punishment, are to be found in the
Conclusions; and, although many writers have held that Wycliffe's own
views differed greatly from what have been called the "exaggerations
of the later and more violent Lollards," all these views may be traced
to Wycliffe himself. Pecock's idea was that all the statements which
he was prepared to impugn came from three false opinions or
"trowings," viz. that no governance or ordinance is to be esteemed a
law of God which is not founded on Scripture, that every humble-minded
Christian man or woman is able without "fail and defaut" to find out
the true sense of Scripture, and that having done so he ought to
listen to no arguments to the contrary; he elsewhere adds a fourth (i.
102), that if a man be not only meek but also keep God's law he shall
have a true understanding of Scripture, even though "no man ellis
teche him saue God." These statements, especially the last, show us
the connexion between the Lollards and those mystics of the 14th
century, such as Tauler and Ruysbroeck, who accepted the teachings of
Nicholas of Basel, and formed themselves into the association of the
Friends of God.
The persecutions were continued down to the reign of Henry VIII., and
when the writings of Luther began to appear in England the clergy were
not so much afraid of Lutheranism as of the increased life they gave to
men who for generations had been reading Wycliffe's _Wickette_. "It is,"
wrote Bishop Tunstall to Erasmus in 1523, "no question of pernicious
novelty, it is only that new arms are being added to the great band of
Wycliffite heretics." Lollardy, which continued down to the Reformation,
did much to shape the movement in England. The subordination of clerical
to laic jurisdiction, the reduction in ecclesiastical possessions, the
insisting on a translation of the Bible which could be read by the
"common" man were all inheritances bequeathed by the Lollards.
LITERATURE.--_Fasciculi Zizaniorum Magistri Johannis Wyclif cum
Tritico_, edited for the Rolls Series by W. W. Shirley (London, 1858);
the _Chronicon Angliae, auctore monacho quodam Sancti Albani_, ed. by
Sir E. Maunde Thompson (London, 1874); _Historia Anglicana_ of Thomas
Walsingham, ed. by H. T. Riley, vol. iii. (London. 1869); _Chronicon_
of Henry Knighton, ed. by J. R. Lumby (London, 1895); R. L. Poole,
_Wycliffe and Movements for Reform_ (London, 1889); R. Pecock,
_Repressor of overmuch Blaming of the Clergy_ (2 vols., London, 1860);
F. D. Matthew, _The English Works of John Wyclif_ (Early English Text
Society, London, 1880); T. Wright, _Political Poems and Songs_ (2
vols., London, 1859); G. V. Lechler, _Johann von Wiclif_, ii. (1873);
J. Loserth, _Hus und Wycliffe_ (Prague, 1884, English translation by
J. Evans, London, 1884); D. Wilkins, _Concilia Magnae Britanniae et
Hiberniae_, iii. (London, 1773); E. Powell and G. M. Trevelyan, _The
Peasants' Rising and the Lollards, a Collection of Unpublished
Documents_ (London, 1899); G. M. Trevelyan, _England in the Age of
Wycliffe_ (London, 1898, 3rd ed., 1904); the publications of the
Wiclif Society; H. S. Cronin, "The Twelve Conclusions of the
Lollards," in the _English Historical Review_ (April 1907, pp. 292
ff.); and J. Gairdner, _Lollardy and the Reformation in England_
(1908). (T. M. L.)
LOLLIUS, MARCUS, Roman general, the first governor of Galatia (25 B.C.),
consul in 21. In 16, when governor of Gaul, he was defeated by the
Sigambri (Sygambri), Usipetes and Tencteri, German tribes who had
crossed the Rhine. This defeat is coupled by Tacitus with the disaster
of Varus, but it was disgraceful rather than dangerous. Lollius was
subsequently (2 B.C.) attached in the capacity of tutor and adviser to
Gaius Caesar (Augustus's grandson) on his mission to the East. He was
accused of extortion and treachery to the state, and denounced by Gaius
to the emperor. To avoid punishment he is said to have taken poison.
According to Velleïus Paterculus and Pliny, he was a hypocrite and cared
for nothing but amassing wealth. It was formerly thought that this was
the Lollius whom Horace described as a model of integrity and superior
to avarice in _Od._ iv. 9, but it seems hardly likely that this Ode, as
well as the two Lollian epistles of Horace (i. 2 and 18), was addressed
to him. All three must have been addressed to the same individual, a
young man, probably the son of this Lollius.
See Suetonius, _Augustus_, 23, _Tiberius_, 12; Vell. Pat. ii. 97. 102;
Tacitus, _Annals_, i. 10, iii. 48; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ix. 35 (58);
Dio Cassius, liv. 6; see also J. C. Tarver, _Tiberius the Tyrant_
(1902), pp. 200 foll.
LOLOS, the name given by the Chinese to a large tribe of aborigines who
inhabit the greater part of southern Szechuen. Their home is in the
mountainous country called Taliang shan, which lies between the Yangtsze
river on the east and the Kien ch'ang valley on the west, in south
Szechuen, but they are found in scattered communities as far south as
the Burmese frontier, and west to the Mekong. There seems no reason to
doubt that they were, like the Miaotze, one of the aboriginal tribes of
China, driven southwards by the advancing flood of Chinese. The name is
said to be a Chinese corruption of Lulu, the name of a former chieftain
of a tribe who called themselves Nersu. Their language, like the
Chinese, is monosyllabic and probably ideographic, and the characters
bear a certain resemblance to Chinese. No literature, however, worthy of
the name is known to exist, and few can read and write. Politically they
are divided into tribes, each under the government of a hereditary
chieftain. The community consists of three classes, the "blackbones" or
nobles, the "whitebones" or plebeians, and the _watze_ or slaves. The
last are mostly Chinese captured in forays, or the descendants of such
captives. Within Lolo-land proper, which covers some 11,000 sq. m., the
Chinese government exercises no jurisdiction. The Lolos make frequent
raids on their unarmed Chinese neighbours. They cultivate wheat, barley
and millet, but little rice. They have some knowledge of metals, making
their own tools and weapons. Women are said to be held in respect, and
may become chiefs of the tribes. They do not intermarry with Chinese.
See A. F. Legendre, "Les Lolos. Étude ethnologique et
anthropologique," in _T'oung Pao II._, vol. x. (1909); E. C. Baber,
_Royal Geog. Society Sup. Papers_, vol. i. (London, 1882); F. S. A.
Bourne, _Blue Book, China, No. 1_ (1888); A. Hosie, _Three Years in
Western China_ (London, 1897).
LOMBARD LEAGUE, the name given in general to any league of the cities of
Lombardy, but applied especially to the league founded in 1167, which
brought about the defeat of the emperor Frederick I. at Legnano, and the
consequent destruction of his plans for obtaining complete authority
over Italy.
Lacking often the protection of a strong ruler, the Lombard cities had
been accustomed to act together for mutual defence, and in 1093 Milan,
Lodi, Piacenza and Cremona formed an alliance against the emperor Henry
IV., in favour of his rebellious son Conrad. The early years of the
reign of Frederick I. were largely spent in attacks on the privileges of
the cities of Lombardy. This led to a coalition, formed in March 1167,
between the cities of Cremona, Mantua, Bergamo and Brescia to confine
Frederick to the rights which the emperors had enjoyed for the past
hundred years. This league or _concordia_ was soon joined by other
cities, among which were Milan, Parma, Padua, Verona, Piacenza and
Bologna, and the allies began to build a fortress near the confluence of
the Tanaro and the Bormida, which, in honour of Pope Alexander III.,
was called Alessandria. During the absence of Frederick from Italy from
1168 to 1174, the relations between the pope and the league became
closer, and Alexander became the leader of the alliance. Meetings of the
league were held in 1172 and 1173 to strengthen the bond, and to concert
measures against the emperor, the penalties of the church being invoked
to prevent defection. The decisive struggle began when Frederick
attacked Alessandria in 1174. The fortress was bravely defended, and the
siege was raised on the approach of succour from the allied cities.
Negotiations for peace failed, and the emperor, having marched against
Milan, suffered a severe defeat at Legnano on the 29th of May 1176.
Subsequently Pope Alexander was detached from his allies, and made peace
with Frederick, after which a truce for six years was arranged between
the emperor and the league. Further negotiations ripened into the peace
of Constance signed on the 25th of June 1183, which granted almost all
the demands of the cities, and left only a shadowy authority to the
emperor (see ITALY).
In 1226, when the emperor Frederick II. avowed his intention of
restoring the imperial authority in Italy, the league was renewed, and
at once fifteen cities, including Milan and Verona, were placed under
the ban. Frederick, however, was not in a position to fight, and the
mediation of Pope Honorius III. was successful in restoring peace. In
1231 the hostile intentions of the emperor once more stirred the cities
into activity. They held a meeting at Bologna and raised an army, but as
in 1226, the matter ended in mutual fulminations and defiances. A more
serious conflict arose in 1234. The great question at issue, the nature
and extent of the imperial authority over the Lombard cities, was still
unsettled when Frederick's rebellious son, the German king Henry VII.,
allied himself with them. Having crushed his son and rejected the
proffered mediation of Pope Gregory IX., the emperor declared war on the
Lombards in 1236; he inflicted a serious defeat upon their forces at
Cortenuova in November 1237 and met with other successes, but in 1238 he
was beaten back from before Brescia. In 1239 Pope Gregory joined the
cities and the struggle widened out into the larger one of the Empire
and the Papacy. This was still proceeding when Frederick died in
December 1250 and it was only ended by the overthrow of the Hohenstaufen
and the complete destruction of the imperial authority in Italy.
For a full account of the Lombard League see C. Vignati, _Storia
diplomata della Lega Lombarda_ (Milan, 1866); H. Prutz, _Kaiser
Friedrich I._, Band ii. (Danzig, 1871-1874); W. von Giesebrecht,
_Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band v. (Leipzig, 1888); and J.
Ficker, _Zur Geschichte des Lombardenbundes_ (Vienna, 1868).
LOMBARDO, the name of a family of Venetian sculptors and architects;
their surname was apparently Solaro, and the name of Lombardo was given
to the earliest known, Martino, who emigrated from Lombardy to Venice in
the middle of the 15th century and became celebrated as an architect. He
had two sons, Moro and Pietro, of whom the latter (_c._ 1435-1515) was
one of the greatest sculptors and architects of his time, while his sons
Antonio (d. 1516) and Tullio (d. 1559) were hardly less celebrated.
Pietro's work as an architect is seen in numerous churches, the
Vendramini-Calargi palace (1481), the doge's palace (1498), the façade
(1485) of the _scuola_ of St Mark and the cathedral of Cividale del
Friuli (1502); but he is now more famous as a sculptor, often in
collaboration with his sons; he executed the tomb of the doge Mocenigo
(1478) in the church of San Giovanni e Paolo at Venice, and a bas-relief
for the tomb of Dante at Ravenna, and in 1483 began the beautiful
decorations in the church of Sta Maria de' Miracoli at Venice, which is
associated with his workshop (see also VENICE for numerous references to
the work of the Lombardi). Antonio's masterpiece is the marble relief of
St Anthony making a new-born child speak in defence of its mother's
honour, in the Santo at Padua (1505). Tullio's best-known works are the
four kneeling angels (1484) in the church of San Martino, Venice, a
coronation of the Virgin in San Giovanni Crisostomo and two bas-reliefs
in the Santo, Padua, besides two others formerly in the Spitzer
collection, representing Vulcan's Forge and Minerva disputing with
Neptune.
LOMBARDS, or LANGOBARDI, a Suevic people who appear to have inhabited
the lower basin of the Elbe and whose name is believed to survive in the
modern Bardengau to the south of Hamburg. They are first mentioned in
connexion with the year A.D. 5, at which time they were defeated by the
Romans under Tiberius, afterwards emperor. In A.D. 9, however, after the
destruction of Varus's army, the Romans gave up their attempt to extend
their frontier to the Elbe. At first, with most of the Suevic tribes,
they were subject to the hegemony of Maroboduus, king of the Marcomanni,
but they revolted from him in his war with Arminius, chief of the
Cherusci, in the year 17. We again hear of their interference in the
dynastic strife of the Cherusci some time after the year 47. From this
time they are not mentioned until the year 165, when a force of
Langobardi, in alliance with the Marcomanni, was defeated by the Romans,
apparently on the Danubian frontier. It has been inferred from this
incident that the Langobardi had already moved southwards, but the force
mentioned may very well have been sent from the old home of the tribe,
as the various Suevic peoples seem generally to have preserved some form
of political union. From this time onwards we hear no more of them until
the end of the 5th century.
In their own traditions we are told that the Langobardi were originally
called Winnili and dwelt in an island named Scadinavia (with this story
compare that of the Gothic migration, see GOTHS). Thence they set out
under the leadership of Ibor and Aio, the sons of a prophetess called
Gambara, and came into conflict with the Vandals. The leaders of the
latter prayed to Wodan for victory, while Gambara and her sons invoked
Frea. Wodan promised to give victory to those whom he should see in
front of him at sunrise. Frea directed the Winnili to bring their women
with their hair let down round their faces like beards and turned
Wodan's couch round so that he faced them. When Wodan awoke at sunrise
he saw the host of the Winnili and said, "_Qui sunt isti
Longibarbi?_"--"Who are these long-beards?"--and Frea replied, "As thou
hast given them the name, give them also the victory." They conquered in
the battle and were thenceforth known as Langobardi. After this they are
said to have wandered through regions which cannot now be identified,
apparently between the Elbe and the Oder, under legendary kings, the
first of whom was Agilmund, the son of Aio.
Shortly before the end of the 5th century the Langobardi appear to have
taken possession of the territories formerly occupied by the Rugii whom
Odoacer had overthrown in 487, a region which probably included the
present province of Lower Austria. At this time they were subject to
Rodulf, king of the Heruli, who, however, took up arms against them;
according to one story, owing to the treacherous murder of Rodulf's
brother, according to another through an irresistible desire for
fighting on the part of his men. The result was the total defeat of the
Heruli by the Langobardi under their king Tato and the death of Rodulf
at some date between 493 and 508. By this time the Langobardi are said
to have adopted Christianity in its Arian form. Tato was subsequently
killed by his nephew Waccho. The latter reigned for thirty years, though
frequent attempts were made by Ildichis, a son or grandson of Tato, to
recover the throne. Waccho is said to have conquered the Suabi, possibly
the Bavarians, and he was also involved in strife with the Gepidae, with
whom Ildichis had taken refuge. He was succeeded by his youthful son
Walthari, who reigned only seven years under the guardianship of a
certain Audoin. On Walthari's death (about 546?) Audoin succeeded. He
also was involved in hostilities with the Gepidae, whose support of
Ildichis he repaid by protecting Ustrogotthus, a rival of their king
Thorisind. In these quarrels both nations aimed at obtaining the support
of the emperor Justinian, who, in pursuance of his policy of playing off
one against the other, invited the Langobardi into Noricum and Pannonia,
where they now settled.
A large force of Lombards under Audoin fought on the imperial side at
the battle of the Apennines against the Ostrogothic king Totila in 553,
but the assistance of Justinian, though often promised, had no effect on
the relations of the two nations, which were settled for the moment
after a series of truces by the victory of the Langobardi, probably in
554. The resulting peace was sealed by the murder of Ildichis and
Ustrogotthus, and the Langobardi seem to have continued inactive until
the death of Audoin, perhaps in 565, and the accession of his son
Alboin, who had won a great reputation in the wars with the Gepidae. It
was about this time that the Avars, under their first Chagun Baian,
entered Europe, and with them, Alboin is said to have made an alliance
against the Gepidae under their new king Cunimund. The Avars, however,
did not take part in the final battle, in which the Langobardi were
completely victorious. Alboin, who had slain Cunimund in the battle, now
took Rosamund, daughter of the dead king, to be his wife.
In 568 Alboin and the Langobardi, in accordance with a compact made with
Baian, which is recorded by Menander, abandoned their old homes to the
Avars and passed southwards into Italy, were they were destined to found
a new and mighty kingdom. (F. G. M. B.)
_The Lombard Kingdom in Italy._--In 568 Alboin, king of the Langobards,
with the women and children of the tribe and all their possessions, with
Saxon allies, with the subject tribe of the Gepidae and a mixed host of
other barbarians, descended into Italy by the great plain at the head of
the Adriatic. The war which had ended in the downfall of the Goths had
exhausted Italy; it was followed by famine and pestilence; and the
government at Constantinople made but faint efforts to retain the
province which Belisarius and Narses had recovered for it. Except in a
few fortified places, such as Ticinum or Pavia, the Italians did not
venture to encounter the new invaders; and, though Alboin was not
without generosity, the Lombards, wherever resisted, justified the
opinion of their ferocity by the savage cruelty of the invasion. In 572,
according to the Lombard chronicler, Alboin fell a victim to the revenge
of his wife Rosamund, the daughter of the king of the Gepidae, whose
skull Alboin had turned into a drinking cup, out of which he forced
Rosamund to drink. By this time the Langobards had established
themselves in the north of Italy. Chiefs were placed, or placed
themselves, first in the border cities, like Friuli and Trent, which
commanded the north-eastern passes, and then in other principal places;
and this arrangement became characteristic of the Lombard settlement.
The principal seat of the settlement was the rich plain watered by the
Po and its affluents, which was in future to receive its name from them;
but their power extended across the Apennines into Liguria and Tuscany,
and then southwards to the outlying dukedoms of Spoleto and Benevento.
The invaders failed to secure any maritime ports or any territory that
was conveniently commanded from the sea. Ticinum (Pavia), the one place
which had obstinately resisted Alboin, became the seat of their kings.
After the short and cruel reign of Cleph, the successor of Alboin, the
Lombards (as we may begin for convenience sake to call them) tried for
ten years the experiment of a national confederacy of their dukes (as,
after the Latin writers, their chiefs are styled), without any king. It
was the rule of some thirty-five or thirty-six petty tyrants, under
whose oppression and private wars even the invaders suffered. With
anarchy among themselves and so precarious a hold on the country, hated
by the Italian population and by the Catholic clergy, threatened also by
an alliance of the Greek empire with their persistent rivals the Franks
beyond the Alps, they resolved to sacrifice their independence and elect
a king. In 584 they chose Authari, the grandson of Alboin, and endowed
the royal domain with a half of their possessions. From this time till
the fall of the Lombard power before the arms of their rivals the Franks
under Charles the Great, the kingly rule continued. Authari, "the
Long-haired," with his Roman title of Flavius, marks the change from the
war king of an invading host to the permanent representative of the
unity and law of the nation, and the increased power of the crown, by
the possession of a great domain, to enforce its will. The independence
of the dukes was surrendered to the king. The dukedoms in the
neighbourhood of the seat of power were gradually absorbed, and their
holders transformed into royal officers. Those of the northern marches,
Trent and Friuli, with the important dukedom of Turin, retained longer
the kind of independence which marchlands usually give where invasion is
to be feared. The great dukedom of Benevento in the south, with its
neighbour Spoleto, threatened at one time to be a separate principality,
and even to the last resisted, with varying success, the full claims of
the royal authority at Pavia.
The kingdom of the Lombards lasted more than two hundred years, from
Alboin (568) to the fall of Desiderius (774)--much longer than the
preceding Teutonic kingdom of Theodoric and the Goths. But it differed
from the other Teutonic conquests in Gaul, in Britain, in Spain. It was
never complete in point of territory: there were always two, and almost
to the last three, capitals--the Lombard one, Pavia; the Latin one,
Rome; the Greek one, Ravenna; and the Lombards never could get access to
the sea. And it never was complete over the subject race: it profoundly
affected the Italians of the north; in its turn it was entirely
transformed by contact with them; but the Lombards never amalgamated
with the Italians till their power as a ruling race was crushed by the
victory given to the Roman element by the restored empire of the Franks.
The Langobards, German in their faults and in their strength, but
coarser, at least at first, than the Germans whom the Italians had
known, the Goths of Theodoric and Totila, found themselves continually
in the presence of a subject population very different from anything
which the other Teutonic conquerors met with among the provincials--like
them, exhausted, dispirited, unwarlike, but with the remains and memory
of a great civilization round them, intelligent, subtle, sensitive,
feeling themselves infinitely superior in experience and knowledge to
the rough barbarians whom they could not fight, and capable of hatred
such as only cultivated races can nourish. The Lombards who, after they
had occupied the lands and cities of Upper Italy, still went on sending
forth furious bands to plunder and destroy where they did not care to
stay, never were able to overcome the mingled fear and scorn and
loathing of the Italians. They adapted themselves very quickly indeed to
many Italian fashions. Within thirty years of the invasions, Authari
took the imperial title of Flavius, even while his bands were leading
Italian captives in leash like dogs under the walls of Rome, and under
the eyes of Pope Gregory; and it was retained by his successors. They
soon became Catholics; and then in all the usages of religion, in church
building, in founding monasteries, in their veneration for relics, they
vied with Italians. Authari's queen, Theodelinda, solemnly placed the
Lombard nation under the patronage of St John the Baptist, and at Monza
she built in his honour the first Lombard church, and the royal palace
near it. King Liutprand (712-744) bought the relics of St Augustine for
a large sum to be placed in his church at Pavia. Their Teutonic speech
disappeared; except in names and a few technical words all traces of it
are lost. But to the last they had the unpardonable crime of being a
ruling barbarian race or caste in Italy. To the end they are
"nefandissimi," execrable, loathsome, filthy. So wrote Gregory the Great
when they first appeared. So wrote Pope Stephen IV., at the end of their
rule, when stirring up the kings of the Franks to destroy them.
Authari's short reign (584-591) was one of renewed effort for conquest.
It brought the Langobards face to face, not merely with the emperors at
Constantinople, but with the first of the great statesmen popes, Gregory
the Great (590-604). But Lombard conquest was bungling and wasteful;
when they had spoiled a city they proceeded to tear down its walls and
raze it to the ground. Authari's chief connexion with the fortunes of
his people was an important, though an accidental one. The Lombard
chronicler tells a romantic tale of the way in which Authari sought his
bride from Garibald, duke of the Bavarians, how he went incognito in the
embassy to judge of her attractions, and how she recognized her
disguised suitor. The bride was the Christian Theodelinda, and she
became to the Langobards what Bertha was to the Anglo-Saxons and
Clotilda to the Franks. She became the mediator between the Lombards
and the Catholic Church. Authari, who had brought her to Italy, died
shortly after his marriage. But Theodelinda had so won on the Lombard
chiefs that they bid her as queen choose the one among them whom she
would have for her husband and for king. She chose Agilulf, duke of
Turin (592-615). He was not a true Langobard, but a Thuringian. It was
the beginning of peace between the Lombards and the Catholic clergy.
Agilulf could not abandon his traditional Arianism, and he was a very
uneasy neighbour, not only to the Greek exarch, but to Rome itself. But
he was favourably disposed both to peace and to the Catholic Church.
Gregory interfered to prevent a national conspiracy against the
Langobards, like that of St Brice's day in England against the Danes, or
that later uprising against the French, the Sicilian Vespers. He was
right both in point of humanity and of policy. The Arian and Catholic
bishops went on for a time side by side; but the Lombard kings and
clergy rapidly yielded to the religious influences around them, even
while the national antipathies continued unabated and vehement. Gregory,
who despaired of any serious effort on the part of the Greek emperors to
expel the Lombards, endeavoured to promote peace between the Italians
and Agilulf; and, in spite of the feeble hostility of the exarchs of
Ravenna, the pope and the king of the Lombards became the two real
powers in the north and centre of Italy. Agilulf was followed, after two
unimportant reigns, by his son-in-law, the husband of Theodelinda's
daughter, King Rothari (636-652), the Lombard legislator, still an Arian
though he favoured the Catholics. He was the first of their kings who
collected their customs under the name of laws--and he did this, not in
their own Teutonic dialect, but in Latin. The use of Latin implies that
the laws were to be not merely the personal law of the Lombards, but the
law of the land, binding on Lombards and Romans alike. But such rude
legislation could not provide for all questions arising even in the
decayed state of Roman civilization. It is probable that among
themselves the Italians kept to their old usages and legal precedents
where they were not overridden by the conquerors' law, and by degrees a
good many of the Roman civil arrangements made their way into the
Lombard code, while all ecclesiastical ones, and they were a large
class, were untouched by it.
There must have been much change of property; but appearances are
conflicting as to the terms on which land generally was held by the
old possessors or the new comers, and as to the relative legal
position of the two. Savigny held that, making allowance for the
anomalies and usurpations of conquest, the Roman population held the
bulk of the land as they had held it before, and were governed by an
uninterrupted and acknowledged exercise of Roman law in their old
municipal organization. Later inquirers, including Leo, Troya and
Hegel, have found that the supposition does not tally with a whole
series of facts, which point to a Lombard territorial law ignoring
completely any parallel Roman and personal law, to a great restriction
of full civil rights among the Romans, analogous to the condition of
the rayah under the Turks, and to a reduction of the Roman occupiers
to a class of half-free "aldii," holding immovable tenancies under
lords of superior race and privilege, and subject to the sacrifice
either of the third part of their holdings or the third part of the
produce. The Roman losses, both of property and rights, were likely to
be great at first; how far they continued permanent during the two
centuries of the Lombard kingdom, or how far the legal distinctions
between Rome and Lombard gradually passed into desuetude, is a further
question. The legislation of the Lombard kings, in form a territorial
and not a personal law, shows no signs of a disposition either to
depress or to favour the Romans, but only the purpose to maintain, in
a rough fashion, strict order and discipline impartially among all
their subjects.
From Rothari (d. 652) to Liutprand (712-744) the Lombard kings,
succeeding one another in the irregular fashion of the time, sometimes
by descent, sometimes by election, sometimes by conspiracy and violence,
strove fitfully to enlarge their boundaries, and contended with the
aristocracy of dukes inherent in the original organization of the
nation, an element which, though much weakened, always embarrassed the
power of the crown, and checked the unity of the nation. Their old
enemies the Franks on the west, and the Slavs or Huns, ever ready to
break in on the north-east, and sometimes called in by mutinous and
traitorous dukes of Friuli and Trent, were constant and serious dangers.
By the popes, who represented Italian interests, they were always
looked upon with dislike and jealousy, even when they had become zealous
Catholics, the founders of churches and monasteries; with the Greek
empire there was chronic war. From time to time they made raids into the
unsubdued parts of Italy, and added a city or two to their dominions.
But there was no sustained effort for the complete subjugation of Italy
till Liutprand, the most powerful of the line. He tried it, and failed.
He broke up the independence of the great southern duchies, Benevento
and Spoleto. For a time, in the heat of the dispute about images, he won
the pope to his side against the Greeks. For a time, but only for a
time, he deprived the Greeks of Ravenna. Aistulf, his successor, carried
on the same policy. He even threatened Rome itself, and claimed a
capitation tax. But the popes, thoroughly irritated and alarmed, and
hopeless of aid from the East, turned to the family which was rising
into power among the Franks of the West, the mayors of the palace of
Austrasia. Pope Gregory III. applied in vain to Charles Martel. But with
his successors Pippin and Charles the popes were more successful. In
return for the transfer by the pope of the Frank crown from the decayed
line of Clovis to his own, Pippin crossed the Alps, defeated Aistulf and
gave to the pope the lands which Aistulf had torn from the empire,
Ravenna and the Pentapolis (754-756). But the angry quarrels still went
on between the popes and the Lombards. The Lombards were still to the
Italians a "foul and horrid" race. At length, invited by Pope Adrian I.,
Pippin's son Charlemagne once more descended into Italy. As the Lombard
kingdom began, so it ended, with a siege of Pavia. Desiderius, the last
king, became a prisoner (774), and the Lombard power perished.
Charlemagne, with the title of king of the Franks and Lombards, became
master of Italy, and in 800 the pope, who had crowned Pippin king of the
Franks, claimed to bestow the Roman empire, and crowned his greater son
emperor of the Romans (800).
_Effects of the Carolingian Conquest._--To Italy the overthrow of the
Lombard kings was the loss of its last chance of independence and unity.
To the Lombards the conquest was the destruction of their legal and
social supremacy. Henceforth they were equally with the Italians the
subjects of the Frank kings. The Carolingian kings expressly recognized
the Roman law, and allowed all who would be counted Romans to "profess"
it. But Latin influences were not strong enough to extinguish the
Lombard name and destroy altogether the recollections and habits of the
Lombard rule; Lombard law was still recognized, and survived in the
schools of Pavia. Lombardy remained the name of the finest province of
Italy, and for a time was the name for Italy itself. But what was
specially Lombard could not stand in the long run against the Italian
atmosphere which surrounded it. Generation after generation passed more
and more into real Italians. Antipathies, indeed, survived, and men even
in the 10th century called each other Roman or Langobard as terms of
reproach. But the altered name of Lombard also denoted henceforth some
of the proudest of Italians; and, though the Lombard speech had utterly
perished their most common names still kept up the remembrance that
their fathers had come from beyond the Alps.
But the establishment of the Frank kingdom, and still more the
re-establishment of the Christian empire as the source of law and
jurisdiction in Christendom, had momentous influence on the history of
the Italianized Lombards. The Empire was the counterweight to the local
tyrannies into which the local authorities established by the Empire
itself, the feudal powers, judicial and military, necessary for the
purposes of government, invariably tended to degenerate. When they
became intolerable, from the Empire were sought the exemptions,
privileges, immunities from that local authority, which, anomalous and
anarchical as they were in theory, yet in fact were the foundations of
all the liberties of the middle ages in the Swiss cantons, in the free
towns of Germany and the Low Countries, in the Lombard cities of Italy.
Italy was and ever has been a land of cities; and, ever since the
downfall of Rome and the decay of the municipal system, the bishops of
the cities had really been at the head of the peaceful and industrial
part of their population, and were a natural refuge for the oppressed,
and sometimes for the mutinous and the evil doers, from the military and
civil powers of the duke or count or judge, too often a rule of cruelty
or fraud. Under the Carolingian empire, a vast system grew up in the
North Italian cities of episcopal "immunities," by which a city with its
surrounding district was removed, more or less completely, from the
jurisdiction of the ordinary authority, military or civil, and placed
under that of the bishop. These "immunities" led to the temporal
sovereignty of the bishops; under it the spirit of liberty grew more
readily than under the military chief. Municipal organization, never
quite forgotten, naturally revived under new forms, and with its
"consuls" at the head of the citizens, with its "arts" and "crafts" and
"gilds," grew up secure under the shadow of the church. In due time the
city populations, free from the feudal yoke, and safe within the walls
which in many instances the bishops had built for them, became impatient
also of the bishop's government. The cities which the bishops had made
thus independent of the dukes and counts next sought to be free from the
bishops; in due time they too gained their charters of privilege and
liberty. Left to take care of themselves, islands in a sea of
turbulence, they grew in the sense of self-reliance and independence;
they grew also to be aggressive, quarrelsome and ambitious. Thus, by the
11th century, the Lombard cities had become "communes," commonalties,
republics, managing their own affairs, and ready for attack or defence.
Milan had recovered its greatness, ecclesiastically as well as
politically; it scarcely bowed to Rome, and it aspired to the position
of a sovereign city, mistress over its neighbours. At length, in the
12th century, the inevitable conflict came between the republicanism of
the Lombard cities and the German feudalism which still claimed their
allegiance in the name of the Empire. Leagues and counter-leagues were
formed; and a confederacy of cities, with Milan at its head, challenged
the strength of Germany under one of its sternest emperors, Frederick
Barbarossa. At first Frederick was victorious; Milan, except its
churches, was utterly destroyed; everything that marked municipal
independence was abolished in the "rebel" cities; and they had to
receive an imperial magistrate instead of their own (1158-1162). But the
Lombard league was again formed. Milan was rebuilt, with the help even
of its jealous rivals, and at Legnano (1176) Frederick was utterly
defeated. The Lombard cities had regained their independence; and at the
peace of Constance (1183) Frederick found himself compelled to confirm
it.
From the peace of Constance the history of the Lombards is merely part
of the history of Italy. Their cities went through the ordinary
fortunes of most Italian cities. They quarrelled and fought with one
another. They took opposite sides in the great strife of the time
between pope and emperor, and were Guelf and Ghibelline by old
tradition, or as one or other faction prevailed in them. They swayed
backwards and forwards between the power of the people and the power
of the few; but democracy and oligarchy passed sooner or later into
the hands of a master who veiled his lordship under various titles,
and generally at last into the hands of a family. Then, in the larger
political struggles and changes of Europe, they were incorporated into
a kingdom, or principality or duchy, carved out to suit the interest
of a foreigner, or to make a heritage for the nephew of a pope. But in
two ways especially the energetic race which grew out of the fusion of
Langobards and Italians between the 9th and the 12th centuries has
left the memory of itself. In England, at least, the enterprising
traders and bankers who found their way to the West, from the 13th to
the 16th centuries, though they certainly did not all come from
Lombardy, bore the name of Lombards. In the next place, the Lombards
or the Italian builders whom they employed or followed, the "masters
of Como," of whom so much is said in the early Lombard laws,
introduced a manner of building, stately, solemn and elastic, to which
their name has been attached, and which gives a character of its own
to some of the most interesting churches in Italy. (R. W. C.)
LOMBARDY, a territorial division of Italy, bounded N. by the Alps, S. by
Emilia, E. by Venetia and W. by Piedmont. It is divided into eight
provinces, Bergamo, Brescia, Como, Cremona, Mantua, Milan, Pavia and
Sondrio, and has an area of 9386 sq. m. Milan, the chief city, is the
greatest railway centre of Italy; it is in direct communication not only
with the other principal towns of Lombardy and the rest of Italy but
also with the larger towns of France, Germany and Switzerland, being
the nearest great town to the tunnels of the St Gothard and the Simplon.
The other railway centres of the territory are Mortara, Pavia and
Mantua, while every considerable town is situated on or within easy
reach of the railway, this being rendered comparatively easy owing to
the relative flatness of the greater part of the country. The line from
Milan to Porto Ceresio is worked in the main by electric motor driven
trains, while on that from Lecco to Colico and Chiavenna over-head wires
are adopted. The more remote districts and the immediate environs of the
larger town are served by steam tramways and electric railways. The most
important rivers are the Po, which follows, for the most part, the
southern boundary of Lombardy, and the Ticino, one of the largest
tributaries of the Po, which forms for a considerable distance the
western boundary. The majority of the Italian lakes, those of Garda,
Idro, Iseo, Como, Lugano, Varese and Maggiore, lie wholly or in part
within it. The climate of Lombardy is thoroughly continental; in summer
the heat is greater than in the south of Italy, while the winter is very
cold, and bitter winds, snow and mist are frequent. In the summer rain
is rare beyond the lower Alps, but a system of irrigation, unsurpassed
in Europe, and dating from the middle ages, prevails, so that a failure
of the crops is hardly possible. There are three zones of cultivation:
in the mountains, pasturage; the lower slopes are devoted to the culture
of the vine, fruit-trees (including chestnuts) and the silkworm; while
in the regions of the plain, large crops of maize, rice, wheat, flax,
hemp and wine are produced, and thousands of mulberry-trees are grown
for the benefit of the silkworms, the culture of which in the province
of Milan has entirely superseded the sheep-breeding for which it was
famous during the middle ages. Milan is indeed the principal silk market
in the world. In 1905 there were 490 mills reeling silk in Lombardy,
with 35,407 workers, and 276 throwing-mills with 586,000 spindles. The
chief centre of silk weaving is Como, but the silk is commercially dealt
with at Milan, and there is much exportation. A considerable amount of
cotton is manufactured, but most of the raw cotton (600,000 bales) is
imported, the cultivation being insignificant in Italy. There are 400
mills in Lombardy, 277 of which are in the province of Milan. The
largest linen and woollen mills in Italy are situated at Fara d'Adda.
Milan also manufactures motor-cars, though Turin is the principal centre
in Italy for this industry. There are copper, zinc and iron mines, and
numerous quarries of marble, alabaster and granite. In addition to the
above industries the chief manufactures are hats, rope and paper-making,
iron-casting, gun-making, printing and lithography. Lombardy is indeed
the most industrial district of Italy. In parts the peasants suffer much
from _pellagra_.
The most important towns with their communal population in the
respective provinces, according to the census of 1901, are Bergamo
(46,861), Treviglio (14,897), total of province 467,549, number of
communes 306; Brescia (69,210), Chiari (10,749), total of province
541,765, number of communes 280; Como (38,174), Varese (17,666), Cantù
(10,725), Lecco (10,352), total of province 594,304, number of communes
510; Cremona (36,848), Casalmaggiore (16,407), Soresina (10,358), total
of province 329,471, number of communes 133; Mantua (30,127), Viadana
(16,082), Quistello (11,228), Suzzara (11,502), St Benedetto Po
(10,908), total of province 315,448, number of communes 68; Milan
(490,084), Monza (42,124), Lodi (26,827), Busto Arsizio (20,005),
Legnano (18,285), Seregno (12,050), Gallarate (11,952), Codogno
(11,925), total of province 1,450,214, number of communes 297; Pavia
(33,922), Vigevano (23,560), Voghera (20,442), total of province
504,382, number of communes 221; Sondrio (7077), total of province
130,966, number of communes 78. The total population of Lombardy was
4,334,099. In most of the provinces of Lombardy there are far more
villages than in other parts of Italy except Piedmont; this is
attributable partly to their mountainous character, partly perhaps to
security from attack by sea (contrast the state of things in Apulia).
Previous to the fall of the Roman republic Lombardy formed a part of
Gallia Transpadana, and it was Lombardy, Venetia and Piedmont, the
portion of the Italian peninsula N. of the Po, that did not receive
citizenship in 89 B.C. but only Latin rights. The gift of full
citizenship in 49 B.C. made it a part of Italy proper, and Lombardy and
Piedmont formed the 11th region of Augustus (Transpadana) while Venetia
and Istria formed the 10th. It was the second of the regions of Italy in
size, but the last in number of towns; it appears, however, to have been
prosperous and peaceful, and cultivation flourished in its fertile
portions. By the end of the 4th century A.D. the name Liguria had been
extended over it, and Milan was regarded as the capital of both.
Stranger still, in the 6th century the old Liguria was separated from
it, and under the name of _Alpes Cottiae_ formed the 5th Lombard
province of Italy.
For details of subsequent history see LOMBARDS and ITALY; and for
architecture see ARCHITECTURE. G. T. Rivoira in _Origini dell'
Architettura_ Lombarda (2 vols. Rome, 1901-1907), successfully
demonstrates the classical origin of much that had hitherto been
treated by some authorities as "Byzantine." In the development of
Renaissance architecture and art Lombardy played a great part,
inasmuch as both Bramante and Leonardo da Vinci resided in Milan at
the end of the 15th century.
LOMBOK (called by the natives _Sasak_), one of the Lesser Sunda Islands,
in the Dutch East Indies, E. of Java, between 8° 12´ and 9° 1´ S. and
115° 46´ and 116° 40´ E., with an area of 3136 sq. m. It is separated
from Bali by the Strait of Lombok and from Sumbawa by the Strait of
Alas. Rising out of the sea with bold and often precipitous coasts,
Lombok is traversed by two mountain chains. The northern chain is of
volcanic formation, and contains the peak of Lombok (11,810 ft.), one of
the highest volcanoes in the Malay Archipelago. It is surrounded by a
plateau (with lower summits, and a magnificent lake, Segara Anak) 8200
ft. high. The southern chain rises a little over 3000 ft. Between the
two chains is a broad valley or terrace with a range of low volcanic
hills. Forest-clad mountains and stretches of thorny jungle alternating
with rich alluvial plains, cultivated like gardens under an ancient and
elaborate system of irrigation, make the scenery of Lombok exceedingly
attractive. The small rivers serve only for irrigation and the growing
of rice, which is of superior quality. In the plains are also grown
coffee, indigo, maize and sugar, katyang (native beans), cotton and
tobacco. All these products are exported. To the naturalist Lombok is of
particular interest as the frontier island of the Australian region,
with its cockatoos and megapods or mound-builders, its peculiar
bee-eaters and ground thrushes. The Sasaks must be considered the
aborigines, as no trace of an earlier race is found. They are
Mahommedans and distinct in many other respects from the Hindu Balinese,
who vanquished but could not convert them. The island was formerly
divided into the four states of Karang-Asam Lombok on the W. side,
Mataram in the N.W., Pagarawan in the S.W. and Pagutan in the E.
Balinese supremacy dated from the conquest by Agong Dahuran in the
beginning of the 19th century; the union under a single raja tributary
to Bali dated from 1839. In July 1894 a Dutch expedition landed at
Ampanam, and advanced towards Mataram, the capital of the Balinese
sultan, who had defied Dutch authority and refused to send the usual
delegation to Batavia. The objects of that expedition were to punish
Mataram and to redress the grievances of the Sasaks whom the Balinese
held in cruel subjection. The first Dutch expedition met with reverses,
and ultimately the invaders were forced back upon Ampanam. The Dutch at
once despatched a much stronger expedition, which landed at Ampanam in
September. Mataram was bombarded by the fleet, and the troops stormed
the sultan's stronghold, and Tjakra Negara, another chieftain's citadel,
both after a desperate resistance. The old sultan of Mataram was
captured, and he and other Balinese chiefs were exiled to different
parts of the Malay Archipelago, whilst the sultan's heir fell at the
hands of his warriors. Thus ended the Balinese domination of Lombok, and
the island was placed under direct Dutch-Indian control, an assistant
resident being appointed at Ampanam. Lombok is now administered from
Bali by the Dutch resident on that island. The people, however, are in
undisturbed exercise of their own laws, religions, customs and
institutions. Disturbances between the Sasaks and the Lombok Balinese
frequently occur. Lombok has been divided since 1898 into the West,
Middle and East Lombok. Its chief towns are Mataram, Praya and Sisi. On
the west coast the harbour of Ampanam is the most frequented, though, on
account of heavy breakers, it is often difficult of approach. The Sasaks
are estimated at 320,000, the Balinese at 50,000, Europeans number about
40, Chinese 300, and Arabs 170.
See A. R. Wallace, _Malay Archipelago_ (London, 1869, and later
editions). The famous "Wallace's Line" runs immediately west of
Lombok, which therefore has an important part in the work. Captain W.
Cool, _With the Dutch in the East_ (Amsterdam and London, 1897), in
Dutch and English, is a narrative of the events sketched above, and
contains many particulars about the folklore and dual religions of
Lombok, which, with Bali, forms the last stronghold of Hinduism east
of Java.
LOMBROSO, CESARE (1836-1909), Italian criminologist, was born on the
18th of November 1836 at Verona, of a Jewish family. He studied at
Padua, Vienna and Paris, and was in 1862 appointed professor of
psychiatry at Pavia, then director of the lunatic asylum at Pesaro, and
later professor of forensic medicine and of psychiatry at Turin, where
he eventually filled the chair of criminal anthropology. His works,
several of which have been translated into English, include _L'Uomo
delinquente_ (1889); _L'Uomo di genio_ (1888); _Genio e follia_ (1877)
and _La Donna delinquente_ (1893). In 1872 he had made the notable
discovery that the disorder known as _pellagra_ was due (but see
PELLAGRA) to a poison contained in diseased maize, eaten by the
peasants, and he returned to this subject in _La Pellagra in Italia_
(1885) and other works. Lombroso, like Giovanni Bovio (b. 1841), Enrico
Ferri (b. 1856) and Colajanni, well-known Italian criminologists, and
his sons-in-law G. Ferrero and Carrara, was strongly influenced by
Auguste Comte, and owed to him an exaggerated tendency to refer all
mental facts to biological causes. In spite of this, however, and a
serious want of accuracy and discrimination in handling evidence, his
work made an epoch in criminology; for he surpassed all his predecessors
by the wide scope and systematic character of his researches, and by the
practical conclusions he drew from them. Their net theoretical results
is that the criminal population exhibits a higher percentage of
physical, nervous and mental anomalies than non-criminals; and that
these anomalies are due partly to degeneration, partly to atavism. The
criminal is a special type of the human race, standing midway between
the lunatic and the savage. This doctrine of a "criminal type" has been
gravely criticized, but is admitted by all to contain a substratum of
truth. The practical reform to which it points is a classification of
offenders, so that the born criminal may receive a different kind of
punishment from the offender who is tempted into crime by circumstances
(see also CRIMINOLOGY). Lombroso's biological principles are much less
successful in his work on Genius, which he explains as a morbid,
degenerative condition, presenting analogies to insanity, and not
altogether alien to crime. In 1899 he published in French a book which
gives a résumé of much of his earlier work, entitled _Le Crime, causes
et remèdes_. Later works are: _Delitti vecchi e delitti nuovi_ (Turin,
1902); _Nuovi studi sul genio_ (2 vols., Palermo, 1902); and in 1908 a
work on spiritualism (Eng. trans., _After Death--What?_ 1909), to which
subject he had turned his attention during the later years of his life.
He died suddenly from a heart complaint at Turin on the 19th of October
1909.
See Kurella, _Cesare Lombroso und die Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers_
(Hamburg, 1892); and a biography, with an analysis of his works, and a
short account of their general conclusions by his daughters, Paola
Carrara and Gina Ferrero, written in 1906 on the occasion of the sixth
congress of criminal anthropology at Turin.
LOMÉNIE DE BRIENNE, ÉTIENNE CHARLES DE (1727-1794), French politician
and ecclesiastic, was born at Paris on the 9th of October 1727. He
belonged to a Limousin family, dating from the 15th century, and after a
brilliant career as a student entered the Church, as being the best way
to attain to a distinguished position. In 1751 he became a doctor of
theology, though there were doubts as to the orthodoxy of his thesis. In
1752 he was appointed grand vicar to the archbishop of Rouen. After
visiting Rome, he was made bishop of Condom (1760), and in 1763 was
translated to the archbishopric of Toulouse. He had many famous friends,
among them A. R. J. Turgot, the Abbé A. Morellet and Voltaire, and in
1770 became an academician. He was on three occasions the head of the
_bureau de jurisdiction_ at the general assembly of the clergy; he also
took an interest in political and social questions of the day, and
addressed to Turgot a number of _mémoires_ on these subjects, one of
them, treating of pauperism, being especially remarkable. In 1787 he was
nominated as president of the Assembly of Notables, in which capacity he
attacked the fiscal policy of Calonne, whom he succeeded as head of the
_conseil des finances_ on the 1st of May 1787. Once in power, he
succeeded in making the parlement register edicts dealing with internal
free trade, the establishment of provincial assemblies and the
redemption of the _corvée_; on their refusal to register edicts on the
stamp duty and the proposed new general land-tax, he persuaded the king
to hold a _lit de justice_, to enforce their registration. To crush the
opposition to these measures, he persuaded the king to exile the
parlement to Troyes (August 15th, 1787). On the agreement of the
parlement to sanction a prolongation for two years to the tax of the two
_vingtièmes_ (a direct tax on all kinds of income), in lieu of the above
two taxes, he recalled the councillors to Paris. But a further attempt
to force the parlement to register an edict for raising a loan of 120
million _livres_ met with determined opposition. The struggle of the
parlement against the incapacity of Brienne ended on the 8th of May in
its consenting to an edict for its own abolition; but with the proviso
that the states-general should be summoned to remedy the disorders of
the state. Brienne, who had in the meantime been made archbishop of
Sens, now found himself face to face with almost universal opposition;
he was forced to suspend the _Cour plénière_ which had been set up to
take the place of the parlement, and himself to promise that the
states-general should be summoned. But even these concessions were not
able to keep him in power, and on the 29th of August he had to retire,
leaving the treasury empty. On the 15th of December following, he was
made a cardinal, and went to Italy, where he spent two years. After the
outbreak of the Revolution he returned to France, and took the oath of
the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790 (see FRENCH REVOLUTION). He
was repudiated by the pope, and in 1791 had to give up the biretta at
the command of Pius VI. Both his past and present conduct made him an
object of suspicion to the revolutionaries; he was arrested at Sens on
the 9th of November 1793, and died in prison, either of an apoplectic
stroke or by poison, on the 16th of February 1794.
The chief works published by Brienne are: _Oraison funèbre du Dauphin_
(Paris, 1766); _Compte-rendu au roi_ (Paris, 1788); _Le Conciliateur_,
in collaboration with Turgot (Rome, Paris, 1754). See also J. Perrin,
_Le Cardinal Loménie de Brienne ... épisodes de la Révolution_ (Sens,
1896).
LOMOND, LOCH, the largest and most beautiful of Scottish lakes, situated
in the counties of Stirling and Dumbarton. It is about 23 m. long; its
width varies from 5 m. towards the south end to {1/3} m. at the narrows
to the north of the Isle of the Vow; its area is 27 sq. m., and the
greatest depth 630 ft. It is only 23 ft. above the sea, of which
doubtless it was at one time an arm. It contains 30 islands, the largest
of which is Inchmurrin, a deer park belonging to the duke of Montrose.
Among other islands are Inch Cailliach (the "Island of Women," from the
fact that a nunnery once stood there), Inchfad ("Long Island"),
Inchcruin ("Round Island"), Inchtavannach ("Monks' Isle"), Inchconnachan
("Colquhoun's Isle"), Inchlonaig ("Isle of the Yews," where Robert Bruce
caused yews to be planted to provide arms for his bowmen), Creinch,
Torrinch and Clairinch (which gave the Buchanans their war-cry). From
the west the loch receives the Inveruglas, the Douglas, the Luss, the
Finlas and the Fruin. From Balloch in the south it sends off the Leven
to the Clyde; from the east it receives the Endrick, the Blair, the
Cashell and the Arklet; and from the north the Falloch. Ben Lomond (3192
ft.), the ascent of which is made with comparative ease from
Rowardennan, dominates the landscape; but there are other majestic
hills, particularly on the west and north-west banks. The fish are
sea-trout, lake-trout, pike and perch. Part of the shore is skirted by
the West Highland railway, opened in 1894, which has stations on the
loch at Tarbet and Ardlui, and Balloch is the terminus of the lines from
Dumbarton and from Stirling via Buchlyvie. Steamers make the tour of the
loch, starting from Balloch and calling at Balmaha, Luss, Rowardennan,
Tarbet, Inversnaid and Ardlui. LUSS has a considerable population, and
there is some stone quarried near it. INVERSNAID is the point of arrival
and departure for the Trossachs coaches, and here, too, there is a
graceful waterfall, fed by the Arklet from the loch of that name, 2½ m.
to the east, commemorated in Wordsworth's poem of the "Highland Girl."
Inversnaid was in the heart of the Macgregor country, and the name of
Rob Roy is still given to his cave on the loch side a mile to the north
and to his prison 3 m. to the south. Inversnaid was the site of a fort
built in 1713 to reduce the clan to subjection. Craig Royston, a tract
lying between Inversnaid and Ben Lomond, was also associated with Rob
Roy.
LOMONÓSOV, MIKHAIL VASILIEVICH (1711-1765), Russian poet and man of
science, was born in the year 1711, in the village of Denisovka (the
name of which was afterwards changed in honour of the poet), situated on
an island not far from Kholmogorî, in the government of Archangel. His
father, a fisherman, took the boy when he was ten years of age to assist
him in his calling; but the lad's eagerness for knowledge was unbounded.
The few books accessible to him he almost learned by heart; and, seeing
that there was no chance of increasing his stock of knowledge in his
native place, he resolved to betake himself to Moscow. An opportunity
occurred when he was seventeen, and by the intervention of friends he
obtained admission into the Zaikonospasski school. There his progress
was very rapid, especially in Latin, and in 1734 he was sent from Moscow
to St Petersburg. There again his proficiency, especially in physical
science, was marked, and he was one of the young Russians chosen to
complete their education in foreign countries. He accordingly commenced
the study of metallurgy at Marburg; he also began to write poetry,
imitating German authors, among whom he is said to have especially
admired Günther. His _Ode on the Taking of Khotin from the Turks_ was
composed in 1739, and attracted a great deal of attention at St
Petersburg. During his residence in Germany Lomonósov married a native
of the country, and found it difficult to maintain his increasing family
on the scanty allowance granted to him by the St Petersburg Academy,
which, moreover, was irregularly sent. His circumstances became
embarrassed, and he resolved to leave the country secretly and to return
home. On his arrival in Russia he rapidly rose to distinction, and was
made professor of chemistry in the university of St Petersburg; he
ultimately became rector, and in 1764 secretary of state. He died in
1765.
The most valuable of the works of Lomonósov are those relating to
physical science, and he wrote upon many branches of it. He everywhere
shows himself a man of the most varied learning. He compiled a Russian
grammar, which long enjoyed popularity, and did much to improve the
rhythm of Russian verse.
LOMZA, or LOMZHA, a government of Russian Poland, bounded N. by Prussia
and the Polish government of Suwalki, E. by the Russian government of
Grodno, S. by the Polish governments of Siedlce and Warsaw and W. by
that of Plock. It covers 4666 sq. m. It is mostly flat or undulating,
with a few tracts in the north and south-west where the deeply cut
valleys give a hilly aspect to the country. Extensive marshes overspread
it, especially on the banks of the Narev, which flows from east to
south-west, joining the Bug in the south-western corner of the
government. The Bug flows along the southern border, joining the Vistula
20 m. below its confluence with the Narev. There are forests in the east
of the government. The inhabitants numbered 501,385 in 1872 and 585,033
in 1897, of whom 279,279 were women, and 69,834 lived in towns. The
estimated population in 1906 was 653,100. By religion 77½% are Roman
Catholics, 15½% Jews and 5½% members of the Orthodox Church. Agriculture
is the predominant industry, the chief crops being rye, oats, wheat,
barley, buckwheat, peas, potatoes, flax and hemp. Bees are extensively
kept, and large numbers of poultry, especially geese, are reared. Stock
raising is carried on to some extent. The wood trade is important; other
industries are the production of pottery, beer, flour, leather, bricks,
wooden wares, spirits, tobacco and sugar. There is only one railway
(between Grodno and Warsaw); the Bug is navigable, but wood only is
floated down the Narev. The government is divided into seven districts,
of which the chief towns, with their populations in 1897, are Lomza
(q.v.), Ostrolenka (8679), Mazowiec (3900), Ostrów (11,264), Maków
(7232), Kolno (4941) and Szczuczyn (5725).
LOMZA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on
the Narew, 103 m. by rail N.E. from Warsaw. Pop. (1872), 13,860, (1900)
22,428. Lomza is an old town, one of its churches having been erected
before 1000. In the 16th century it carried on a brisk trade with
Lithuania and Prussia. It was well fortified and had two citadels, but
nevertheless often suffered from the invasions of the Germans and
Tatars, and in the 17th century it was twice plundered by the Cossacks
of the Ukraine. In 1795 it fell under the dominion of Prussia, and after
the peace of Tilsit (1807) it came under Russian rule.
LONAULI, a town of India, in the Poona district of Bombay, at the top of
the Bhor Ghat pass in the Western Ghats, by which the Great Indian
Peninsula railway climbs from Bombay to Poona. Pop. (1901), 6686. It
contains the locomotive works of the railway. Lonauli is a place of
resort from Bombay during the hot season.
LONDON, a city and port of entry of Middlesex county, Ontario, Canada,
situated 121 m. N.W. of Toronto, on the river Thames and the Grand
Trunk, Canadian Pacific and Michigan Central railways. Pop. (1901),
37,981; but several suburbs, not included in these figures, are in
reality part of the city. The local nomenclature is largely a
reproduction of that of the great city whose name it has borrowed.
Situated in a fertile agricultural district, it is a large distributing
centre. Among the industries are breweries, petroleum refineries, and
factories for the manufacture of agricultural implements and of railway
carriages. The educational institutions include the Hellmuth Ladies'
College and the Western University (founded in 1878 under the patronage
of the Church of England). London was founded in 1825-1826.
LONDON, the capital of England and of the British Empire, and the
greatest city in the world, lying on each side of the river Thames 50 m.
above its mouth.[1] The "City," so called both formally and popularly,
is a small area (673 acres) on the north bank of the river, forming the
heart of the metropolis, and constituting within its boundaries one
only, and one of the smallest, of twenty-nine municipal divisions which
make up the administrative County of London. The twenty-eight remaining
divisions are the Metropolitan Boroughs. The county thus defined has an
extreme length (E. to W.) of 16 m., an extreme breadth (N. to S.) of 11½
m., and an area of 74,839 acres or about 117 sq. m. The boroughs are as
follows:--
1. _North of the Thames._--Touching the northern boundary of the county,
from W. to E.--Hammersmith, Kensington, Paddington, Hampstead, St
Pancras, Islington, Stoke Newington, Poplar.
Bounded by the Thames--Fulham, Chelsea, the City of Westminster (here
the City of London intervenes), Stepney, Poplar.
Between Westminster, the City and Stepney, and the northern boroughs--St
Marylebone (commonly Marylebone), Holborn, Finsbury, Shoreditch, Bethnal
Green.
2. _South of the Thames._--Wandsworth, Battersea, Lambeth, Southwark,
Camberwell, Bermondsey, Deptford, Lewisham, Greenwich, Woolwich (with a
small part of the north bank).
These names are all in common use, though their formal application is in
some cases extended over several districts of which the ancient names
remain familiar. Each borough is noticed in a separate article.