[1] Cf. Schleiermacher's _Herakleitos der Dunkle_; art. HERACLITUS
and authorities there quoted.
[2] Cf. the Targum of Onkelos on the Pentateuch under Gen. vii. 16,
xvii. 2, xxi. 20; Exod. xix. 16, etc.; the Jerusalem Targum on Numb.
vii. 89, &c. For further information regarding the Hebrew _Logos_
see, beside Dr Kaufmann Kohler, s.v. "Memra," _Jewish Encyc._ viii.
464-465, Bousset, _Die Religion des Judenthums_ (1903), p. 341, and
Weber, _Jüdische Theologie_ (1897), pp. 180-184. The hypostatizing of
the Divine word in the doctrine of the Memra was probably later than
the time of Philo, but it was the outcome of a mode of thinking
already common in Jewish theology. The same tendency is of course
expressed in the "Logos" of the Fourth Gospel.
LOGOTHETE (Med. Lat. _logotheta_, Gr. [Greek: logothetês], from [Greek:
logos], word, account, calculation, and [Greek: tithenai], to set, i.e.
"one who accounts, calculates or ratiocinates"), originally the title of
a variety of administrative officials in the Byzantine Empire, e.g. the
[Greek: logothetês tou dromou], who was practically the equivalent of
the modern postmaster-general; and the [Greek: logothetês tou
stratiôtikou], the logothete of the military chest. Gibbon defines the
great Logothete as "the supreme guardian of the laws and revenues," who
"is compared with the chancellor of the Latin monarchies." From the
Eastern Empire the title was borrowed by the west, though it only became
firmly established in Sicily, where the _logotheta_ occupied the
position of chancellor elsewhere, his office being equal if not superior
to that of the _magnus cancellarius_. Thus the title was borne by Pietro
della Vigna, the all-powerful minister of the emperor Frederick II.,
king of Sicily.
See DU CANGE, _Glossarium_, s.v. _Logotheta_.
LOGROÑO, an inland province of northern Spain, the smallest of the eight
provinces formed in 1833 out of Old Castile; bounded N. by Burgos, Álava
and Navarre, W. by Burgos, S. by Soria and E. by Navarre and Saragossa.
Pop. (1900) 189,376; area, 1946 sq. m. Logroño belongs entirely to the
basin of the river Ebro, which forms its northern boundary except for a
short distance near San Vicente; it is drained chiefly by the rivers
Tiron, Oja, Najerilla, Iregua, Leza, Cidacos and Alhama, all flowing in
a north-easterly direction. The portion skirting the Ebro forms a
spacious and for the most part fertile undulating plain, called La
Rioja, but in the south Logroño is considerably broken up by offshoots
from the sierras which separate that river from the Douro. In the west
the Cerro de San Lorenzo, the culminating point of the Sierra de la
Demanda, rises 7562 ft., and in the south the Pico de Urbion reaches
7388 ft. The products of the province are chiefly cereals, good oil and
wine (especially in the Rioja), fruit, silk, flax and honey. Wine is the
principal export, although after 1892 this industry suffered greatly
from the protective duties imposed by France. Great efforts have been
made to keep a hold upon French and English markets with light red and
white Rioja wines. No less than 128,000 acres are covered with vines,
and 21,000 with olive groves. Iron and argentiferous lead are mined in
small quantities and other ores have been discovered. The manufacturing
industries are insignificant. A railway along the right bank of the Ebro
connects the province with Saragossa, and from Miranda there is railway
communication with Madrid, Bilbao and France; but there is no railway in
the southern districts, where trade is much retarded by the lack even of
good roads. The town of Logroño (pop. 1900, 19,237) and the city of
Calahorra (9475) are separately described. The only other towns with
upwards of 5000 inhabitants are Haro (7914), Alfaro (5938) and Cervera
del Río Alhama (5930).
LOGROÑO, the capital of the Spanish province of Logroño, on the right
bank of the river Ebro and on the Saragossa-Miranda de Ebro railway.
Pop. (1900) 19,237. Logroño is an ancient walled town, finely situated
on a hill 1204 ft. high. Its bridge of twelve arches across the Ebro was
built in 1138, but has frequently been restored after partial
destruction by floods. The main street, arcaded on both sides, and the
crooked but highly picturesque alleys of the older quarters are in
striking contrast with the broad, tree-shaded avenues and squares laid
out in modern times. The chief buildings are a bull-ring which
accommodates 11,000 spectators, and a church, Santa Maria de Palacio,
called "the imperial," from the tradition that its founder was
Constantine the Great (274-337). As the commercial centre of the fertile
and well-cultivated plain of the Rioja, Logroño has an important trade
in wine.
The district of Logroño was in ancient times inhabited by the _Berones_
or _Verones_ of Strabo and Pliny, and their _Varia_ is to be identified
with the modern suburb of the city of Logroño now known as Varea of
Barea. Logroño was named by the Romans _Juliobriga_ and afterwards
_Lucronius_. It fell into the hands of the Moors in the 8th century, but
was speedily retaken by the Christians, and under the name of Lucronius
appears with frequency in medieval history. It was unsuccessfully
besieged by the French in 1521, and occupied by them from 1808 to 1813.
It was the birthplace of the dumb painter Juan Fernandez Navarrete
(1526-1579).
LOGROSCINO (or LO GROSCINO), NICOLA (1700?-1763?), Italian musical
composer, was born at Naples and was a pupil of Durante. In 1738 he
collaborated with Leo and others in the hasty production of _Demetrio_;
in the autumn of the same year he produced a comic opera _L'inganno per
inganno_, the first of a long series of comic operas, the success of
which won him the name of "il Dio dell' opera buffa." He went to
Palermo, probably in 1747, as a teacher of counterpoint; as an opera
composer he is last heard of in 1760, and is supposed to have died about
1763. Logroscino has been credited with the invention of the concerted
operatic finale, but as far as can be seen from the score of _Il
Governatore_ and the few remaining fragments of other operas, his
finales show no advance upon those of Leo. As a musical humorist,
however, he deserves remembrance, and may justly be classed alongside of
Rossini.
LOGWOOD (so called from the form in which it is imported), the
heart-wood of a leguminous tree, _Haematoxylon campechianum_, native of
Central America, and grown also in the West Indian Islands. The tree
attains a height not exceeding 40 ft., and is said to be ready for
felling when about ten years old. The wood, deprived of its bark and the
sap-wood, is sent into the market in the form of large blocks and
billets. It is very hard and dense, and externally has a dark
brownish-red colour; but it is less deeply coloured within. The best
qualities come from Campeachy, but it is obtained there only in small
quantity.
Logwood is used in dyeing (q.v.), in microscopy, in the preparation of
ink, and to a small extent in medicine on account of the tannic acid it
contains, though it has no special medicinal value, being much inferior
to kino and catechu. The wood was introduced into Europe as a dyeing
substance soon after the discovery of America, but from 1581 to 1662 its
use in England was prohibited by legislative enactment on account of the
inferior dyes which at first were produced by its employment.
The colouring principle of logwood exists in the timber in the form of
a glucoside, from which it is liberated as haematoxylin by
fermentation. Haematoxylin, C16H14O6, was isolated by M. E. Chevreul
in 1810. It forms a crystalline hydrate, C16H14O6 + 3H2O, which is a
colourless body very sparingly soluble in cold water, but dissolving
freely in hot water and in alcohol. By exposure to the air, especially
in alkaline solutions, haematoxylin is rapidly oxidized into
haematein, C16H12O6, with the development of a fine purple colour.
This reaction of haematoxylin is exceedingly rapid and delicate,
rendering that body a laboratory test for alkalis. By the action of
hydrogen and sulphurous acid, haematein is easily reduced to
haematoxylin. It is chemically related to brazilin, found in
brazil-wood. Haematoxylin and brazilin, and also their oxidation
products, haematin and brazilin, have been elucidated by W. H. Perkin
and his pupils (see _Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1908, 1909).
LOHARU, a native state of India, in the south-east corner of the Punjab,
between Hissar district and Rajputana. Area, 222 sq. m.; pop. (1901)
15,229; estimated gross revenue, £4800. The chief, whose title is nawab,
is a Mahommedan, of Afghan descent. The nawab Sir Amir-ud-din-Ahmad
Khan, K.C.I.E., who is a member of the viceroy's legislative council,
was until 1905 administrator and adviser of the state of Maler Kotla.
The town of Loharu had a population in 1901 of 2175.
LÖHE, JOHANN KONRAD WILHELM ( 1808-1872), German divine and
philanthropist, was born on the 21st of February 1808 in Fürth near
Nuremberg, and was educated at the universities of Erlangen and Berlin.
In 1831 he was appointed vicar at Kirchenlamitz, where his fervent
evangelical preaching attracted large congregations and puzzled the
ecclesiastical authorities. A similar experience ensued at Nuremberg,
where he was assistant pastor of St Egidia. In 1837 he became pastor in
Neuendettelsau, a small and unattractive place, where his life's work
was done, and which he transformed into a busy and influential
community. He was interested in the spiritual condition of Germans who
had emigrated to the United States, and built two training homes for
missionaries to them. In 1849 he founded the Lutheran Society of Home
Missions and in 1853 an institution of deaconesses. Other institutions
were added to these, including a lunatic asylum, a Magdalen refuge, and
hospitals for men and women. In theology Löhe was a strict Lutheran, but
his piety was of a most attractive kind. Originality of conception,
vividness of presentation, fertility of imagination, wide knowledge of
Scripture and a happy faculty of applying it, intense spiritual fervour,
a striking physique and a powerful voice made him a great pulpit force.
He wrote a good deal, amongst his books being _Drei Bücher von der
Kirche_ (1845), _Samenkörner des Gebetes_ (over 30 editions) and several
volumes of sermons. He died on the 2nd of January 1872.
See his _Life_, by J. Deinzer (3 vols., Gütersloh, 1873, 3rd ed.,
1901).
LOHENGRIN, the hero of the German version of the legend of the knight of
the swan. The story of Lohengrin as we know it is based on two principal
motives common enough in folklore: the metamorphosis of human beings
into swans, and the curious wife whose question brings disaster.
Lohengrin's guide (the swan) was originally the little brother who, in
one version of "the Seven Swans," was compelled through the destruction
of his golden chain to remain in swan form and attached himself to the
fortunes of one of his brothers. The swan played a part in classical
mythology as the bird of Apollo, and in Scandinavian lore the swan
maidens, who have the gift of prophecy and are sometimes confused with
the Valkyries, reappear again and again. The wife's desire to know her
husband's origin is a parallel of the myth of Cupid and Psyche, and bore
in medieval times a similar mystical interpretation. The Lohengrin
legend is localized on the Lower Rhine, and its incidents take place at
Antwerp, Nijmwegen, Cologne and Mainz. In its application it falls into
sharp division in the hands of German and French poets. By the Germans
it was turned to mystical use by being attached loosely to the Grail
legend (see GRAIL and PERCEVAL); in France it was adapted to glorify the
family of Godfrey de Bouillon.
The German story makes its appearance in the last stanzas of Wolfram von
Eschenbach's _Parzival_, where it is related how Parzival's son,
Loherangrîn,[1] was sent from the castle of the Grail to the help of the
young duchess of Brabant. Guided by the swan he reached Antwerp, and
married the lady on condition that she should not ask his origin. On the
breach of this condition years afterwards Loherangrîn departed, leaving
sword, horn and ring behind him. Between 1283 and 1290, a Bavarian
disciple of Wolfram's[2] adopted the story and developed it into an epic
poem of nearly 8000 lines, incorporating episodes of Lohengrin's prowess
in tournament, his wars with Henry I. against the heathen Hungarians and
the Saracens,[3] and incidentally providing a detailed picture of the
everyday life of people of high condition. The epic of Lohengrin is put
by the anonymous writer into the mouth of Wolfram, who is made to relate
it during the Contest of the Singers at the Wartburg in proof of his
superiority in knowledge of sacred things over Klingsor the magician,
and the poem is thus linked on to German tradition. Its connexion with
Parzival implies a mystic application. The consecrated wafer shared by
Lohengrin and the swan on their voyage is one of the more obvious means
taken by the poet to give the tale the character of an allegory of the
relations between Christ, the Church and the human soul. The story was
followed closely in its main outlines by Richard Wagner in his opera
_Lohengrin_.
The French legend of the knight of the swan is attached to the house of
Bouillon, and although William of Tyre refers to it about 1170 as fable,
it was incorporated without question by later annalists. It forms part
of the cycle of the _chansons de geste_ dealing with the Crusade, and
relates how Helyas, knight of the swan, is guided by the swan to the
help of the duchess of Bouillon and marries her daughter Ida or Beatrix
in circumstances exactly parallel to the adventures of Lohengrin and
Elsa of Brabant, and with the like result. Their daughter marries
Eustache, count of Boulogne, and had three sons, the eldest of whom,
Godefroid (Godfrey), is the future king of Jerusalem. But in French
story Helyas is not the son of Parzival, but of the king and queen of
Lillefort, and the story of his birth, of himself, his five brothers and
one sister is, with variations, that of "the seven swans" persecuted by
the wicked grandmother, which figures in the pages of Grimm and Hans
Andersen. The house of Bouillon was not alone in claiming the knight of
the swan as an ancestor, and the tradition probably originally belonged
to the house of Cleves.
_German Versions._--See _Lohengrin_, ed. Rückert (Quedlinburg and
Leipzig, 1858); another version of the tale, _Lorengel_, is edited in
the _Zeitschr. für deutsches Altertum_ (vol. 15); modern German
translation of _Lohengrin_, by H. A. Junghaus (Leipzig, 1878); Conrad
von Würzburg's fragmentary _Schwanritter_, ed. F. Roth (Frankfurt,
1861). Cf. Elster, _Beiträge zur Kritik des Lohengrin_ (Halle, 1884),
and R. Heinrichs, _Die Lohengrindichtung und ihre Deutung_ (Hamm i.
West., 1905).
_French Versions._--Baron de Reiffenberg, _Le Chevalier au cygne et
Godfrey de Bouillon_ (Brussels, 2 vols., 1846-1848), in _Mon. pour
servir à l'hist. de la province de Namur_; C. Hippeau, _La Chanson du
chevalier au cygne_ (1874); H. A. Todd, _La Naissance du chevalier au
cygne, an inedited French poem of the 12th cent._ (Mod. Lang. Assoc.,
Baltimore, 1889); cf. the Latin tale by Jean de Haute Seille (Johannes
de Alta Silva) in his _Dolopathos_ (ed. Oesterley, Strassburg, 1873).
_English Versions._--In England the story first appears in a short
poem preserved among the Cotton MSS. of the British Museum and
entitled _Chevelere assigne_. This was edited by G. E. V. Utterson in
1820 for the Roxburghe Club, and again by H. H. Gibbs in 1868 for the
Early English Text Society. The E.E.T.S. edition is accompanied by a
set of photographs of a 14th-century ivory casket, on which the story
is depicted in 36 compartments. An English prose romance, _Helyas
Knight of the Swan_, translated by Robert Copland, and printed by W.
Copland about 1550, is founded on a French romance _La Génealogie ...
de Godeffroy de Boulin_ (printed 1504) and is reprinted by W. J. Thoms
in _Early Prose Romances_, vol. iii. It was also printed by Wynkyn de
Worde in 1512. A modern edition was issued in 1901 from the Grolier
Club, New York.