graduation from the gymnasium, should enter the famous university at
Bonn. But only a year before Carl’s graduation the father met with
financial disaster which swept away the small savings of years and
left him practically penniless. Carl was seventeen years old and was
entering his last year in the gymnasium; by this disaster all his
hopes and ambitions seemed swept aside. His father, bankrupt, was in
a debtor’s prison. Hurriedly, Carl took leave of his teachers and
friends and returned home, where, by much hard effort, he succeeded
in securing his father’s release.
The question now arose whether or not he must abandon his studies and
take up a new course of life. Next to his family, his ambition for
a literary career was the greatest factor in his life. By leaving
the gymnasium his hopes seemed destroyed beyond remedy; for the
examinations for the university were very difficult and practically
required this final year of study and preparation. Fortunately, his
father in a few months became able again to provide for himself, and
Carl immediately undertook the difficult task of preparing to pass
the graduation examinations at Cologne, which must be accomplished
before he could enter the university. By hard work this was finally
accomplished, and Carl entered the university at Bonn.
German universities have always been known for their student
societies. Too many of these groups of students have had a reputation
only for drinking and senseless dueling; but there are others that
have been marked by a distinct scientific, literary, or musical
tone. Of the latter class was the Buschenschaft Franconia at Bonn;
its members were not men of wealth or noble birth, but in later years
they found high places in the world’s history. And of this society
Carl Schurz was elected a member. It was a group of young men who
were destined greatly to affect his entire life.
But of even greater importance in their effect on the life of Carl
Schurz were certain political conditions in Germany. Early in the
century, after Napoleon’s ill-fated campaign into Russia, the King of
Prussia and the Russian Tsar had called the German people to arms,
promising them a new national union, free political institutions, and
the abolition of arbitrary government. The victories of Leipzig and
Waterloo broke the power of Napoleon, but the years that followed
did not see the promises of the Prussian King fulfilled. In 1814
the Congress of Vienna created an alliance among the German States,
but the organization was composed of kings and princes; there was
no popular representation and no mention of civic rights, a popular
vote, a free press, freedom of assembly, or trial by jury—all of
which were rights desired by the people.
Then followed a bitter period of studied repression of every liberal
tendency, and the advance toward liberal institutions almost ceased.
In 1840, Frederick William IV ascended the Prussian throne. It was
at first believed that he sympathized with the liberal and patriotic
hopes of the people; but it soon became evident that the same policy
would be continued; the demands of the people were refused, and the
press censorship was increased. Discontent with general conditions,
and particularly with absolute kingly power and police despotism,
soon became general, and in 1847 the King convoked a “United Diet” in
Berlin, to consist of members of all the provincial diets. But only
in appearance was this a popular assembly, and no reforms were, or
could be, enacted by it.
Disappointment and discontent followed, and from the mass of people
revolutionary agitators arose, demanding liberation from the rule of
a domineering King. “God, Liberty, Fatherland” was the motto of the
people. Black, red, and gold were the colors of the revolutionists.
Schurz was at the beginning of his university training in the year
1848. It was a year of tremendous import. In France King Louis
Philippe had been driven out and the republic established. The day
seemed to be dawning for the establishment of “German Unity,” or,
in other words, a “constitutional form of government on a broad
democratic basis.”
The Revolution soon took actual form. In Cologne the people met in
the public squares to formulate their demands. All through South
Germany the revolutionary spirit flamed forth. And in Austria a
similar revolution demanded liberty and citizens’ rights.
Meanwhile, great activity in the university town of Bonn burst
forth, and Professor Kinkel, representing the citizens, declared
that the liberties and rights of the German people must be granted
by the princes or taken by force by the people. In Berlin, the King
wavered under the flood of petitions which poured in on him, and
actual fighting between the citizens and the troops, in March, 1849,
resulted in the temporary acquiescence of the King in the popular
demand. But the victory of the people was not followed up and proved
to be short-lived.
Soon, throughout Germany, the realization began to spread that the
revolution of March, which had seemed so glorious, would amount to
little unless action was promptly taken. Soon also it became apparent
that the King would give nothing but promises, and that the people
would be no better off than before. Accordingly, in Frankfurt,
Eisenach, Bonn, Dresden, and other cities, the revolutionists planned
to cast off the yoke of the King, and many bloody fights took place
between the people and the monarch’s Prussian bayonets.
In all this Schurz and his friend Kinkel played an active part. But
the power was on the side of the King, and one by one the small bands
of revolutionists were defeated by the trained Prussian troops.
Schurz had fought with credit in several engagements, and finally,
with many other revolutionists, had taken refuge in the fortress of
Rastatt, which for three weeks held out against the Prussian army
that besieged it. Finally the fortress was compelled to surrender,
and at great peril, Schurz and two companions escaped through a sewer
and, crossing the Rhine by night, sought refuge on French soil.
The Revolution had ended in disaster and Schurz was an exile from
his native land, to which he dared not return. He had fought for the
cause of freedom; he had lost all. But his life was saved. Kinkel
and others of the revolutionists, less fortunate than Schurz, were
condemned to life-imprisonment.
But although Schurz was free, the knowledge that Kinkel was
imprisoned inspired in him the resolve to aid his friend in escaping.
It was dangerous work, for it was necessary for Schurz to return
in disguise to Germany, where, had he been recognized, he would
immediately have suffered Kinkel’s fate. But the loyalty of Schurz to
his friend was rewarded by the final accomplishment of his plans; and
after many exciting adventures Kinkel succeeded in his escape from
prison by lowering himself at night from a window in his cell, by a
rope which Schurz had smuggled in to him. And a few days later the
two men succeeded in reaching the seacoast and took passage on a ship
to England.
For several years Kinkel and his family lived in London, where a
large number of political refugees had gathered. It was a brilliant
gathering, and in these many people of varied accomplishment Carl
Schurz found much to interest him. Here, too, it was that Schurz
found, in the daughter of another German exile, the young woman,
Margaretha Meyer, who a few months later became his wife.
The year 1852 was covered by a gloomy cloud. Throughout all Europe
the Liberal movement seemed suppressed. In France, Louis Napoleon
had made himself Emperor and was recognized by England; the French
Republic was gone. In Italy, Mazzini had fought in vain for a united
country under a free government. Kossuth had fought for the national
independence of Hungary, but had gone into exile, a defeated man.
In Germany, revolutionists had met a similar fate. To Carl Schurz
there seemed but one direction in which he might turn. Far beyond the
Atlantic the United States of America offered a republican government
where the people ruled themselves by popular laws, free to live their
lives and express their thoughts, free from the yokes of kings and
princes. In August, 1852, Schurz and his young wife sailed for New
York.
The first task which Schurz set for himself on his arrival was to
learn in the shortest possible time to speak, read, and write the
English language. Chiefly by reading the newspapers this task was
soon accomplished, and in a very few years there were not many
Americans who could claim a more exact and fluent command of their
own language than he.
Schurz had come to the United States a poor man and an exile, but
he was fortunate in possessing a number of friends who lived in the
larger Eastern cities, and through them he obtained many valuable
introductions and rapidly widened his acquaintanceship, particularly
in political and literary circles.
Since the founding of the Republic slavery had existed in the United
States. Particularly in the Southern states thousands of negro slaves
furnished practically the only labor on the vast plantations and in
the homes of the owners. Against the slowly widening influence of
slavery a small band of anti-slavery men were opposing by every means
at their command the growth of this condition so utterly opposed to
the laws of freedom and civilization. “I saw the decisive contest
rapidly approaching,” wrote Schurz, “and I felt an irresistible
impulse to prepare myself for usefulness, however modest, in the
impending crisis: and to that end I pursued with increased assiduity
my studies of the political history and the social workings of
the Republic, and of the theory and practical workings of its
institutions.”
Schurz had German friends and relatives living in Illinois,
Wisconsin, and Missouri. It seemed to him that, by visiting them, he
would be enabled to see more of the country and study at first-hand
the actual “real America,” which he must thoroughly understand if he
was to take a helpful part in the impending struggle.
During the year 1854, Schurz visited all of the large cities of the
Middle West, and particularly the states of Wisconsin and Missouri,
which were largely settled by Germans. The West attracted him, and
after carefully considering many places, he determined to settle in
the pleasant little village of Watertown, Wisconsin.
In the years of his residence in Watertown, Schurz took up the law as
his profession, and at the same time began actively to participate
in local politics. The large German population in the Western states
was a voting power that was of great importance, and Schurz’s high
standing and reputation made it only natural that he should soon be
chosen as their spokesman and leader.
These were stirring days. The great question of slavery was
uppermost. With the entrance of new territory into the Union, the
question flamed forth with greater violence: would the new states
be free states or slave states? Would the slave-holders or the
anti-slavery men rule the land? Would slavery or freedom dominate?
Schurz flung himself into politics and the anti-slavery party of the
North. With clear vision he realized that slavery must be destroyed,
but that the United States must be preserved; a separation of the
slave states from the Union could not be tolerated; all must be
united in freedom.
Rapidly the reputation of Carl Schurz as a political speaker spread
beyond Wisconsin. He was called to address meetings in neighboring
states, and finally he was summoned even to Boston, to address a
great meeting in the historic Faneuil Hall. In Illinois he met
Abraham Lincoln, soon to hold the office of President of the United
States; everywhere he encountered the leaders in the great Republic,
men of every party and every type of character; the men who were
guiding the steps of the nation.
Throughout the campaign for the election of Abraham Lincoln to the
presidency, Carl Schurz gave his entire energy as a speaker and
organizer, and as a result soon became recognized as a person of
influence in the victorious party. During these months the friendship
of Schurz and Lincoln was strengthened, and other ties with other
men were made, which were to have a strong influence, not only on
Schurz’s own life, but on the history of his adopted country.
On April 12, 1861, the storm which had so long been brewing between
the Northern and Southern states broke with the capture of Fort
Sumter, in Charleston Harbor, by the Confederate forces. For some
time the government of the so-called Confederate States had attempted
to open negotiations with the Federal authorities for a peaceful
separation. But the North had stood firm in the position that at all
costs the Union must be preserved. With the fall of Sumter came the
opening of the Civil War, which for four long years plunged the land
in blood.
Three days later President Lincoln issued a proclamation calling for
75,000 volunteers; and on June 10 the Northern troops were repulsed
at Big Bethel, and July 21, were routed at Bull Run. The long war had
begun. During these first months of the war Schurz threw himself into
the work of organizing in New York a regiment of German cavalry; but
his services were considered of even greater value in another kind
of activity, and a few weeks later he was on his way to Madrid, as
United States Minister to Spain.
There is probably no other country in the world where such a rapid
and spectacular progress would be possible. Ten years before, Carl
Schurz was an exile from his native land, a poor newcomer to a
strange country. Now, after this brief period, he was to return to
Europe, the powerful representative of a great republic.
Early in 1862 Schurz returned to the United States. During the
months which he had spent in Spain he had rendered valuable service
in keeping the Spanish government informed of the exact condition
of affairs in the United States, and impressing upon the Spanish
authorities the desirability of maintaining friendly relations with
the North, and an interest in the cause of freedom.
But Schurz was restless in a position of security, no matter how
great its importance, while others were risking their lives for their
country’s cause. “I became convinced,” he said, “that, in such times,
the true place for a young and able-bodied man was in the field,
and not in an easy-chair.” Schurz laid his case before Mr. Lincoln,
and the President agreed to accept his resignation and gave him a
commission in the army.
At the outbreak of the war the Regular Army was very small, its
officers few. Of these officers many had gone over to the army of the
Confederate States. There was great need of officers for the vast
volunteer armies which were being formed, and it became necessary to
select men from civil life, on account of their general intelligence,
and give them appointments as officers. Few of these had any
military experience or particular knowledge of military science.
Because of these conditions, and also because of his brief military
experience in the revolutionary army of 1849, Schurz was appointed a
brigadier-general for immediate service.
His experience during the Civil War included many of the famous
campaigns and battles, and in all of them he played an active and
important part. During the year 1862, Fort Henry and Fort Donelson
were captured by the Union forces, and on March 9, the Monitor,
designed by John Ericsson, defeated the Confederate ironclad
Merrimac. Early in April General Grant won the victory of Shiloh,
and on the 24th of the same month Admiral David G. Farragut ran the
forts below New Orleans with his ships, and captured the city. In the
East during this same period, the Confederate army, under General
Robert E. Lee, pressed forward toward the city of Washington, but
was finally thrown back across the Potomac River after the battle of
Antietam.
In the following year, 1863, the Confederate army under General
Lee again marched North, but was defeated, July 1-3, at the great
battle of Gettysburg. In this battle Schurz took part, and from the
crest of Cemetery Hill watched the Confederate infantry of General
Pickett make their brave charge against the Union forces. Fifteen
thousand strong, in a long close line, with bayonets gleaming in
the sunshine and flags waving in the breeze, the gray-clad soldiers
of the Confederacy appeared from the dark shadows of the woods and
came steadily across a mile of open fields. Under a tremendous fire
from the Union artillery the gray line slowly melted as it advanced,
leaving the soft green of the meadow flecked with gray-clad bodies of
dead and wounded. Closing the gaps, they came steadily on, now lost
behind a low rise of ground, now again in view, their flags still
flying above them. Then, within rifle-range, a cloud of smoke lifted
like fog from the Union guns, and as it floated off on the light
wind, the Union soldiers saw the remnant of Pickett’s brave band
slowly retreating from the field. Although more than a year of war
was to follow, the strength of the Southern offensive was shattered.
On July 4, Vicksburg surrendered to Grant, and in November came the
victories of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. In the following
year were other victories in the battles of the Wilderness and
Spottsylvania. Another drive of the Confederates against Washington
was attempted by General Early, but he was defeated by General
Sheridan in three battles and was forced to withdraw. Then came the
capture of Atlanta and General Sherman’s famous march through Georgia
to the sea. On the water were achieved the victory of the Kearsarge
over the Confederate steamer Alabama, and Admiral Farragut’s
successful passage of the forts at Mobile Bay. In April of the year
1865 came the complete surrender of the armies of the Confederacy.
The Union was preserved; slavery was destroyed.
With the ending of the war, Schurz began again to take an active
part in the political life of the nation, and for a time devoted
himself to a study of the perplexing difficulties which surrounded
the reconstruction of the South, impoverished by years of war and
economically ruined by the emancipation of the slaves.
In the autumn of 1867 he again visited Germany. The high position
which he now held in the great Republic assured him of a welcome, but
the attentions which were heaped upon him were a particular tribute
to the man who had once fled by night. Bismarck, “The Minister” of
Germany, honored him by inviting him to long conferences, in which
he eagerly questioned Schurz concerning the great war in which he had
taken part, and asked many questions about the political and social
conditions of the Republic of which Schurz had become a citizen.
On his return to the United States, Schurz was elected to the United
States Senate, representing the great state of Missouri, where he had
now taken up his residence. “I remember vividly the feelings which
almost oppressed me when I first sat down in my chair in the Senate
Chamber. Now I had actually reached a most exalted public position,
to which my boldest dreams of ambition had hardly dared to aspire.
I was still a young man, just forty. Little more than sixteen years
had elapsed since I had landed on these shores a homeless waif, saved
from the wreck of a revolutionary movement in Europe. Then I was
enfolded in the generous hospitality of the American people, opening
to me, as freely as to its own children, the great opportunities of
the new world. And here I was now, a member of the highest law-making
body of the greatest of republics.”
But a still greater honor was to come. With the election of President
Hayes in 1877, Schurz became the Secretary of the Interior of the
United States. In this high position his ability found ample room for
exercise, and the reforms which he in large measure effected, both in
the civil-service system of appointment—by which men were placed in
government positions as a result of examination on their merits, as
opposed to their appointment regardless of merit but as a political
reward—and in the Bureau of Indian Affairs, were of unusual value to
the nation.
On leaving the Department of the Interior at the close of President
Hayes’s administration, Schurz was confronted by an almost
embarrassing number of positions for his future occupation. For a
time he occupied an editorial position on the New York _Evening
Post_; but he still continued to take an active and important part in
the politics of the day. For some years after his retirement from the
_Post_ he devoted himself to literature, and produced, among other
books, a life of Henry Clay which won high commendation.
After a brief business episode, he again returned to the field
of journalism, and for six years contributed weekly the leading
editorial to _Harper’s Weekly_. Once again he visited Europe; but
old age was growing heavy on his shoulders, and on his return to the
United States he retired each year a little more from the active
fields of politics and journalism which had so long held him, and to
which he had so gladly contributed.
On May 14, 1906, surrounded by his children, the end came. “Es ist
so einfach zu sterben” (it is so simple to die), was his farewell to
those about him. As he lived, so did he die, simply and unafraid.
V
THEODORE THOMAS
_Born in Essen, Germany, 1835_
_Died in Chicago, 1905_
Civilization is a condition of organization; in a nation it is a name
for progress and enlightenment. Literature, art, music, and science
are measures of civilization; so also are agricultural, industrial,
and social progress. All men contributing to the advancement of
civilization are benefactors of mankind. The inventor, the artist,
the physician, the scientist, the manufacturer, the writer, the
explorer, and the musician, all contribute to human happiness and
advancement.
No man who lives for himself alone can add to the progress of the
world. Only they who unselfishly have lived for others deserve the
gratitude of their fellow men. And it is encouraging that, in almost
every case, those men who have accomplished most have sooner or later
received their high rewards.
Probably no nation in all the world has given so much in so short a
time to civilization as the United States. The reason is not far to
seek, for in no other country have such opportunities to accomplish
their fine desires ever been offered to men of ambition and ability;
never has there been so fair a field in which each man might rise as
high as his own strength would carry him.
[Illustration:
_Courtesy of A. C. McClurg & Co._
Theodore Thomas (signature)]
Since the world began, music has been a part of the very life of
every nation. As labor in the shop and field and mine have produced
the material things so necessary for the health and comfort of the
body, so, for the development of the mind and for the happiness of
all people, have painters, sculptors, and musicians contributed their
fairest conceptions, that life might be more beautiful and the world
a better place to live in for all mankind.
In the older European countries music has been handed down for
centuries from father to son. In conditions where music has so
completely become a part of life, great musicians from time to
time have lived and left their lasting contributions. In the older
civilizations there was a fertile field long cultivated for the
ever-increasing growth of music.
In the United States, however, another condition existed. Here was a
new civilization, transplanted by early settlers from beyond the sea.
Here there was no existing civilization developed through centuries.
It was a land to which had come men and women from every nation in
the world, seeking freedom from the rule of kings and a place where
they might live in peace and equality, regardless of their birth.
Each brought with him the civilization of his native land. But much
was lost in the migration; there was no place, at first, for many
elements of European civilization in the busy life of the new world.