Expeditions to the North--To Spitzbergen and the Yenissei--The Discovery
of the North-East Passage.
Nils Adolf Erik Nordenskiold was born at Helsingfors, Finland, in
November, 1832. His father was a distinguished naturalist; Erik often
accompanied him in his expeditions, and thus early acquired a taste for
natural history and research. He entered the University at Helsingfors
in 1849. The stern rule of Russia subsequently compelled young
Nordenskiold to go to Sweden. The governor of Finland, fancying he
detected treason in some after-supper speech, Nordenskiold was obliged
to depart; but this was the turning point in his career.
The illustrious Mosander received the student cordially. Nordensk'iold
studied hard, and in 1858 made his first acquaintance with Arctic seas
in Torrell's Spitzbergen expedition. In 1861 he again accompanied
Torrell to Spitzbergen. In July, 1863, he married. In 1864 he
commanded an expedition fitted out by the Academy of Stockholm, and in
1868, aided by Government and Mr Oscar Dickson, he reached the highest
latitude ever attained in the eastern hemisphere. From this expedition
he brought home a rich collection of curiosities. Again, in 1870, Mr
Dickson paid the expenses of a voyage to Greenland.
In 1872, Nordenskiold (whose name, we may mention, is pronounced
Nordensholt) undertook another Polar expedition with two vessels, the
_Polhern_ and the _Gladen_. A quantity of reindeer-moss was provided
and stowed in a third ship, the _Onkel Adam_. Nordenskiold was
accompanied by Lieutenant L. Palander, with Doctor Envall, E. Parent, an
Italian officer, and Messrs. Wijkander and Kjellman as scientists. On
the 4th of July the _Polhern_ and _Gladen_ sailed; from Gothenburg, and
when the former reached Tromsoe, the Austrian Polar vessel _Amiral
Tegethoff_ was about to sail.
On the 25th of July, South Cape, the southern extremity of Spitzbergen,
was sighted, and the vessels proceeded along the coast northward between
Prince Charles Foreland and the mainland till Fair Haven was reached.
Here they were obliged to remain because of the ice, and in August the
_Onkel Adam_ arrived with the reindeer and other necessary assistance,
and with stores. The attempt to reach the Seven Islands north of
Spitzbergen was now abandoned for that season, but some progress to the
north was effected, and Mussel Bay, to the north-north-east of
Spitzbergen, was selected as winter quarters.
Scarcely had the necessary preparations been made when a sudden and
extremely violent storm arose; by this the unexpected advent of the ice
was announced. The cold hand was quickly laid upon the waters, and the
winter campaign had to be faced. But we may imagine the surprise of the
explorers when, as they were settling down in winter quarters, six
strangers approached, who informed Nordenskiold that their six ships had
been unexpectedly frozen in, and there were fifty-eight men in danger of
ultimate starvation!
This was most unpleasant news, for the expedition had only sufficient
for its own requirements, and such an addition to the party was a very
serious drawback. Still help was absolutely necessary, and a note was
sent to the captains of the imprisoned ships, that the explorers would
do all in their power.
But a sad blow awaited them. In another severe storm all the reindeer
got away; and, of course, a valuable supply of fresh meat, besides
transport, was cut off at one fell stroke. Only one of the reins was
recaptured, and he was wounded. Fortunately some large wild reindeer
were shot, and they made a welcome addition to the larder. At the end
of October winter began to set in severely, and the reindeer-moss was
utilised by the imprisoned people as food. The winter-time was passed
as well as possible, and interesting observations were taken. Scurvy
and pleurisy, however, attacked the men; and though Christmas and New
Year were celebrated, and 1873 was saluted by a display of fireworks,
the precarious condition of the crews was by no means ameliorated.
However, lamp-light was dispensed with on the 6th of February, and on
the 13th of March the sun was seen again. In January the cold had been
"inconsiderable," and the bay had been cleared of ice, but on the 20th
of February the cold was very great. April was occupied in preparations
for Nordenski'old's expedition across North-East Land, and on the 24th
of April he and Palander started with three sleighs. After some delay,
in consequence of accident, Palander returned, and Nordenskiold
proceeded to Shoal Point, the north-west extremity of North-East Land,
where Palander again joined him on the 5th of May (1873).
The sledge party started on the 6th. It consisted of Nordenskiold,
Palander, and nine men, who intended to proceed to the Seven Islands
which will be found on the map north of Spitzbergen. Each man in turn
was cook for the party; he had to rise early and get breakfast ready.
The march was then proceeded with, resting occasionally at certain
intervals during the ten hours allotted to the daily journey. Sailing
over the ice and snow on the sledges, good progress was made, and on the
12th Costien's Island was reached.
Early on the 16th, Parry Island was gained, and a small depot was made
there. Some of the men then were sent back. The leaders of the party
here made a survey from an elevated standpoint, and this view showed
them that there was no possibility of going north of the Seven Islands,
as the ice was in such an uneven condition. The journey in the
anticipated direction was therefore abandoned as hopeless.
But Nordenskiold would not return by the same way he had come. He
determined to go back by way of North-East Land, a course which occupied
the party forty days, but they gained considerable information, and the
scientific results, as well as the difficulties, were greater than had
been expected. The expedition returned safely to Mussel Bay on the 29th
of June. The members who had been left behind had passed a most
uncomfortable time. The cold was great, provisions scarce. Scurvy set
in, which, added to home-sickness and anxiety on account of the absent
ones, made matters worse. Food became scarcer, but providentially Mr
Leigh Smith, in the _Diana_, arrived, and he satisfied the immediate
requirements of the unfortunate Swedes. The historian of the expedition
warmly acknowledges the assistance so opportunely rendered.
Spring was at hand. Palander came in, and then Nordenskiold. All
anxiety was then over. The same day, the 29th of June, the vessels
passed through the channel which had been cut in the ice, and then they
anchored in open water. No time was lost. The _Onkel Adam_ sailed
homeward almost immediately: the _Gladen_ followed. The _Polhern_,
however, remained in the icy latitudes for some time longer dredging.
On the 6th of August, after with difficulty escaping the ice,
Nordenskiold arrived at Tromsoe, and on the 29th at Gothenberg, where
the expedition dispersed.
In 1875 and 1876 the professor made two voyages to the Yenissei River
and up it. By this course he opened up Siberia to trade, and received
the thanks of the Russian Government for inaugurating a sea route to
Siberia. But these voyages, in a sense tentative, were completely
eclipsed by the expedition undertaken in the _Vega_, in which
Nordenskiold accomplished the long-desired North-East Passage from the
North Atlantic to the North Pacific Ocean eastwards. The ease with
which he had accomplished the two voyages already mentioned (to the
Yenissei River) urged him to proceed with the expedition which he had
been studying for years, the discovery of the North-East Passage.
Sebastian Cabot was the first adventurer in the work destined to be
accomplished by the Swedish explorer. More than three hundred years ago
Cabot equipped three ships for the "Merchant Adventurers," and put them
under the command of Sir H. Willoughby and Chancelor in 1553. This
ended in disaster. In 1580 the "Muscovy Company," as the "Adventurers"
called themselves, sent out Arthur Pitt, who could not open the "pack"
ice. Barentz, who tried three times, in 1593, 1595, and 1596, was
closed up in the ice of Novaya Zemlya, and perished. Henry Hudson tried
in 1607-8. The Danes made the attempt in 1653. Captain J. Wood also
sailed to the unhospitable shores of Novaya Zemlya, and so terrified
people by his descriptions that they gave up the attempt in despair.
Thus the North-East Passage became a dreaded and a sealed course to the
mariners of all nations. It was deemed impossible to break through the
icy barrier; and the Russians made the attempt only to prove the
assertion by failure. But when Nordensk'iold had reached the Kara Sea,
and the Yenissei River, he began to think he could also solve the
long-tried problem of the North-East Passage eastwards to the Pacific.
Assisted by his liberal friend, Mr Oscar Dickson, and supported by King
Oscar the Second of Sweden, and M. Sibiriakoff, a Siberian landholder,
Nordenskiold purchased the steam-whaler _Vega_--a name now celebrated
throughout the civilised world. She was equipped and manned under
Government auspices, and provisioned for two years. She sailed from
Gothenburg on the 21st of July, accompanied by the steamer _Lena_,
commanded by Johannesen from Tromsoe. There were also supply vessels in
company, but our narrative (which is compiled from "Nordenskiold's
Voyages," and other sources) will deal with the _Vega_, and incidentally
with the _Lena_, till she parted company at the mouth of the river whose
name she bears. In the expedition were included many scientific
gentlemen, and the crews were composed of picked men.
The vessels rounded the North Cape, and on the 29th of July sighted
Novaya Zemlya. Then they passed the Yergar Strait and entered the Kara
Sea, the immense gulf lying between Novaya Zemlya and the north point of
the Asiatic continent, Cape Chalyaskin. On the 31st of July the little
fleet was united at Chabarook (Charbarova). The vessels which had
accompanied the _Lena_ and _Vega_ went up the Yenissei River with
cargoes, and returned safely to Norway. The _Vega_ and _Lena_
proceeded, and after some delays the North-East Cape (Cape Chalyaskin)
was reached for the first time. Flags were hoisted and salutes fired to
emphasise the fact, and they were acknowledged by an immense bear that
came out upon the ice to welcome the ships. Hence fogs and occasional
ice-floes hindered the navigation. Many very interesting scientific
searches were made, and after the 23rd of August the sea was smooth and
free from ice up to the delta of the Lena River. Here the vessels
parted company on the 27th-28th of August, the _Lena_ to go up the
river, while the _Vega_ proceeded alone to the Siberian Islands.
Many interesting remains of the mammoth animals were discovered in these
islands, and the supply of ivory must be very valuable to the seekers.
The ice was too rotten to permit of landing, and the boats could not
pass in, so Nordenskiold reluctantly relinquished his intention to
explore those almost unknown islands, and the animal remains which
abound there.
The _Vega_ continued her uninterrupted course eastward till the ist of
September. Then snow fell, and the Bear Islands were covered with the
white garment. The navigation became difficult; the coast was
cautiously skirted till, as September wore on, the nights became too
dark for sailing, and the _Vega_ was obliged to come to an anchor every
evening.
On these occasions the natives came and made friends with the voyagers,
and subsequently these Tchuktches welcomed the foreigners. The
description given of the natives and their dwellings is curious. They
live in large tents, which enclose sleeping-places or a kind of inner
chambers, heated and lighted by an oil lamp. In these inner rooms the
native women sit, with very little clothing on. In summer a fire is
kept burning in the centre of the hut, and the smoke goes up through a
hole in the roof. In winter there is no fire, and presumably the hut is
closed against the outer air. The Greenlanders and Tchuktches use
similar household articles: they trade for needles, knives and tools,
linen shirts, etcetera, and especially brandy. Everyone smokes tobacco
when he or she can obtain it. When it cannot be had, some herbs are
chewed and smoked, after being dried behind the ears. Men and women
seldom wear head coverings; they have tunics and trousers of reindeer
skin, mocassins or shoes of bear-skin or walrus hide; the women plait
their hair, and wear it long. The men cut theirs except the outer
margin, which is combed down in a "fringe." The faces are painted or
"tattooed" by both sexes.
The _Vega_ continued her eastward course, meeting with little incident,
but continually adding to the information already acquired. So on till
the 27th of September, when, in the strait that separates Asia from
America--near the entrance of Behring's Strait, the vessel got
imprisoned in the early forming ice. The rising north wind rapidly
piled up the hummocks, and in a short time all hope of quitting the
place until the summer had to be abandoned, but very reluctantly, by
Nordenskiold. "One single hour's steaming would have probably been
sufficient to traverse the distance" between their position and the open
strait, and one day earlier no difficulty would have presented itself!
This was extremely disappointing, and Nordenskiold writes pathetically
about been frozen in so near the goal he had been so long aiming at. It
was "the one mishap" which had attended his Arctic exploration. In this
condition the vessel remained for two hundred and sixty-four days, the
time passed nearly in darkness, but not unpleasantly, for the scientist
has resources which set time at defiance. Good health and spirits were
present, and the natives were friendly. At length deliverance came. On
the 18th of July the _Vega_ was released, and on the 20th she passed
Behring's Straits. The North-East Passage was an accomplished fact!
After a stormy cruise, in the course of which the ship was struck by
lightning, and a voyage of marine discovery welcome to the civilised
world accomplished, the _Vega_ reached Yokohama, whence the electric
current carried the news of Nordenskiold's success from sea to sea. The
homeward journey was made by the Suez Canal to Europe, where the welcome
accorded to the brave explorer was a veritable triumph. Nor must those
who assisted him be forgotten. To Mr Oscar Dickson the honour belongs
of holding out the full hand to Nordenskiold, without which his first
voyages would never have been accomplished, and the North-East Passage
might be still a mystery.