_ 463 Blackwood’s Magazine_, February 1886, p. 239.

464 Aubrey, _Remains of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (Folk-lore Society,

1881), p. 35 _sq._

465 Bagford’s letter in Leland’s _Collectanea_, i. 76, quoted by Brand,

_Popular Antiquities_, ii. 246 _sq._, Bohn’s ed.

466 In the _Academy_, 13th Nov. 1875, p. 505, Mr. D. Silvan Evans stated

that he knew of no such custom anywhere in Wales; and Miss Burne

knows no example of it in Shropshire. Burne and Jackson, _Shropshire

Folk-lore_, p. 307 _sq._

467 The authority for the statement is a Mr. Moggridge, reported in

_Archaeologia Cambrensis_, second series, iii. 330. But Mr.

Moggridge did not speak from personal knowledge, and as he appears

to have taken it for granted that the practice of placing bread and

salt upon the breast of a corpse was a survival of the custom of

“sin-eating,” his evidence must be received with caution. He

repeated his statement, in somewhat vaguer terms, at a meeting of

the Anthropological Institute, 14th December 1875. See _Journ.

Anthrop. Inst_. v. 423 _sq._

468 Dubois, _Moeurs des Peuples de l’Inde_, ii. 32.

469 R. Richardson, in _Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. No. 674.

_ 470 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. No. 674; ii. No. 559. Some of these

customs have been already referred to in a different connection. See

above, vol. i. p. 232.

_ 471 Op. cit._ iii. No. 745.

472 E. Schuyler, _Turkistan_, ii. 28.

473 E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_, p. 356 _sq._

474 Paul Reina, “Ueber die Bewohner der Insel Rook,” _Zeitschrift für

allgemeine Erdkunde_, N. F. iv. 356.

475 R. Parkinson, _Im Bismarck-Archipel_, p. 142.

476 [P. N. Wilken], “De godsdienst en godsdienstplegtigheden der

Alfoeren in de Menahassa op het eiland Celebes,” _Tijdschrift voor

Nederlandsch Indië_, December 1849, pp. 392-394; id., “Bijdragen tot

de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der Alfoeren in de Minahassa,”

_Mededeelingen v. w. het Nederland. Zendelinggenootsch_. vii. (1863)

149 _sqq._; J. G. F. Riedel, “De Minahasa in 1825,” _Tijdschrift

voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xviii. (1872), 521 _sq._

Wilken’s first and fuller account is reprinted in Graafland’s _De

Minahassa_, i. 117-120.

477 Riedel, “Galela und Tobeloresen,” in _Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie_,

xvii. (1885) 82; G. A. Wilken, _Het Shamanisme bij de Volken van de

Indischen Archipel_, p. 58.

478 Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_,

p. 239.

479 Nieuwenhuisen en Rosenberg, _Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias_, p.

116 _sq._, Rosenberg, _Der Malayische Archipel_, p. 174 _sq._ Cp.

Chatelin, “Godsdienst en Bijgeloof der Niassers,” _Tijdschrift voor

Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxvi. 139. The Dyaks also

drive the devil at the point of the sword from a house where there

is sickness. See Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst,

zeden, enz. der Dajakkers” in _Tijdschrift voor Neêrland’s Indië_,

viii. (1846) dl. iii. p. 149.

480 Forbes, _British Burma_, p. 233; Shway Yoe, _The Burman_, i. 282,

ii. 105 _sqq._; Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, ii. 98.

481 Lewin, _Wild Tribes of South-Eastern India_, p. 226.

482 Hecquard, _Reise an die Küste und in das Innere von West Afrika_, p.

43.

483 Sagard, _Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, p. 279 _sqq._ (195

_sq._ of the Paris reprint). Compare _Relations des Jésuites_, 1639,

pp. 88-92 (Canadian reprint), from which it appears that each man

demanded the subject of his dream in the form of a riddle, which the

hearers tried to solve. The propounding of riddles is not uncommon

as a superstitious observance. Probably enigmas were originally a

kind of divination. Cp. Vambery, _Das Türkenvolk_, p. 232 _sq._;

Riedel, _De sluiken kroesharige rassen_, etc. p. 267 _sq._ In Bolang

Mongondo (Celebes) riddles may never be asked except when there is a

corpse in the village. N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, “Allerlei over

het land en volk van Bolaäng Mongondou,” _Mededeelingen van wege het

Nederlandsch. Zendelinggenootschap_, xi. (1867) p. 357.

484 The Rev. W. Ridley, in J. D. Lang’s _Queensland_, p. 441; cp.

Ridley, _Kamilaroi_, p. 149.

_ 485 Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow,

Alaska_ (Washington, 1885), p. 42 _sq._

486 Franz Boas, “The Eskimo,” _Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal

Society of Canada for 1887_, vol. v. (Montreal, 1888), sect. ii. 36

_sq._

487 Above, p. 162.

488 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, vi. 82 _sqq._; Timothy

Dwight, _Travels in New England and New York_, iv. 201 _sq._; L. H.

Morgan, _League of the Iroquois_, p. 207 _sqq._; Mrs. E. A. Smith,

“Myths of the Iroquois,” _Second Annual Report of the Bureau of

Ethnology_ (Washington, 1883), p. 112 _sqq._; Horatio Hale,

“Iroquois sacrifice of the White Dog,” _American Antiquarian_, vii.

7 _sqq._; W. M. Beauchamp, “Iroquois White Dog feast,” _ib._ p. 235

_sqq._

489 Squier’s notes upon Bartram’s _Creek and Cherokee Indians_, p. 78,

from the MS. of Mr. Payne. See above, p. 75 _note_.

490 Garcilasso de la Vega, _Royal Commentaries of the Yncas_, pt. i. bk.

vii. ch. 6, vol. ii. p. 228 _sqq._, Markham’s translation; Molina,

“Fables and Rites of the Yncas,” in _Rites and Laws of the Yncas_

(Hakluyt Society, 1873), p. 20 _sqq._; Acosta, _History of the

Indies_, bk. v. ch. 28, vol. ii. p. 375 _sq._ (Hakluyt Society,

1880). The accounts of Garcilasso and Molina are somewhat

discrepant, but this may be explained by the statement of the latter

that “in one year they added, and in another they reduced the number

of ceremonies, according to circumstances.” Molina places the

festival in August, Garcilasso and Acosta in September. According to

Garcilasso there were only four runners in Cuzco; according to

Molina there were four hundred. Acosta’s account is very brief. In

the description given in the text features have been borrowed from

all three accounts, where these seemed consistent with each other.

491 Bosman’s “Guinea,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, xvi. 402.

Cp. Pierre Bouche, _La Côte des Esclaves_, p. 395.

492 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor. _The Gospel on the Banks of the

Niger_, p. 320.

493 Mansfield Parkyns, _Life in Abyssinia_, p. 285 _sqq._

494 Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 196 _sq._

495 Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_, p. 103.

496 W. Macpherson, _Memorials of Service in India_, p. 357 _sq._

Possibly this case belongs more strictly to the class of mediate

expulsions, the devils being driven out upon the car. Perhaps,

however, the car with its contents is regarded rather as a bribe to

induce them to go than as a vehicle in which they are actually

carted away. Anyhow it is convenient to take this case along with

those other expulsions of demons which are the accompaniment of an

agricultural festival.

497 R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor

Nederlandsch Indië_, N. S. viii. (1879) 58-60. Van Eck’s account is

reprinted in J. Jacobs’s _Eenigen tijd onder de Baliërs_ (Batavia,

1883), p. 190 _sqq._

_ 498 U.S. Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology_, by H. Hale,

p. 67 _sq._; Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the U.S. Exploring

Expedition_, iii. 90 _sq._ According to the latter, the sea-slug was

eaten by the men alone, who lived during the four days in the

temple, while the women and boys remained shut up in their houses.

499 Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, v. 367.

_ 500 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. No. 792; D. C. J. Ibbetson,

_Outlines of Panjab Ethnography_, p. 119.

501 Baron, “Description of the Kingdom of Tonqueen,” Pinkerton’s

_Voyages and Travels_, ix. 673, 695 _sq._; cp. Richard, “History of

Tonquin,” _ib._ p. 746. The account of the ceremony by Tavernier

(whom Baron criticises very unfavourably) is somewhat different.

According to him the expulsion of wicked souls at the New Year is

combined with sacrifice to the honoured dead. See Harris, _Voyages

and Travels_, i. 823.

502 Aymonier, _Notice sur le Cambodge_, p. 62.

503 Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, iii. 237, 298, 314, 529

_sq._; Pallegoix, _Royaume Thai ou Siam_, i. 252. Bastian (p. 314),

with whom Pallegoix seems to agree, distinctly states that the

expulsion takes place on the last day of the year. Yet both state

that it occurs in the fourth month of the year. According to

Pallegoix (i. 253) the Siamese year is composed of twelve lunar

months, and the first month usually begins in December. Hence the

expulsion of devils would commonly take place in March, as in

Cambodia.

504 J. Anderson, _Mandalay to Momien_, p. 308.

505 Max Buch, _Die Wotjäken_, p. 153 _sq._

506 Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_, ii. 94.

507 J. G. von Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_, i. 160. Cp. above, vol. i.

p. 276.

508 Vincenzo Dorsa, _La tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle

credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore_, p. 42 _sq._

509 Von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_, p. 260 _sq._ A Westphalian

form of the expulsion of evil is the driving out the _Süntevögel_,

_Sunnenvögel_, or _Sommervögel_, _i.e._, the butterfly. On St.

Peter’s Day, 22d February, children go from house to house knocking

on them with hammers and singing doggerel rhymes in which they bid

the _Sommervögel_ to depart. Presents are given to them at every

house. Or the people of the house themselves go through all the

rooms, knocking on all the doors, to drive away the _Sunnenvögel_.

If this ceremony is omitted, it is thought that various misfortunes

will be the consequence. The house will swarm with rats, mice, and

other vermin, the cattle will be sick, the butterflies will multiply

at the milk-bowls, etc. Woeste, _Volksüberlieferungen in der

Grafschaft Mark_, p. 24; J. W. Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen

Mythologie, i. 87; A. Kuhn, _Westfälische Sagen, Gebräuche und

Märchen_, ii. §§ 366-374; Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste,

Volksbräuche_, etc., p. 21 _sq._; Jahn, _Die deutschen

Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht_, pp. 94-96.

510 Usener, “Italische Mythen,” in _Rheinisches Museum_, N. F. xxx. 198.

511 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_, p. 159.

512 G. Catlin, _North American Indians_, i. 166 _sqq._; _id._,

_O-kee-pa, a Religious Ceremony, and other Customs of the Mandans_.

513 Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_, i. 172. Cp. above, p. 178.

514 A. Bastian, in _Verhandl. d. Berlin. Gesellsch. f. Anthropol._ 1881,

p. 151; cp. _id._, _Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra_, p. 6 _sq._ Amongst

the Chukmas of South-east India the body of a priest is conveyed to

the place of cremation on a car; ropes are attached to the car, the

people divide themselves into two equal bodies and pull at the ropes

in opposite directions. “One side represents the good spirits; the

other, the powers of evil. The contest is so arranged that the

former are victorious. Sometimes, however, the young men

representing the demons are inclined to pull too vigorously, but a

stick generally quells this unseemly ardour in the cause of evil.”

Lewin, _Wild Tribes of South-Eastern India_, p. 185. The contest is

like that between the angels and devils depicted in the frescoes of

the Campo Santo at Pisa. In Burma a similar contest takes place at

the funeral of a holy man; but there the original meaning of the

ceremony appears to be forgotten. See Sangermano, _Description of

the Burmese Empire_ (ed. 1885), p. 98; Forbes, _British Burma_, p.

216 _sq._; Shway Yoe, _The Burman_, ii. 334 _sq._, 342. Sometimes

ceremonies of this sort are instituted for a different purpose. In

some East Indian islands when the people want a rainy wind from the

west, the population of the village, men, women, and children,

divide into two parties and pull against each other at the ends of a

long bamboo. But the party at the eastern end must pull the harder,

in order to draw the desired wind out of the west. Riedel, _De

sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, p. 282. The

Cingalese perform a ceremony like “French and English” in honour of

the goddess Patiné. Forbes, _Eleven Years in Ceylon_ (London, 1840),

i. 358.

_ 515 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. 174.

516 François Valentyn, _Oud-en nieuw Ost-Indiën_, iii. 14. Backer,

_L’Archipel Indien_, p. 377 _sq._, copies from Valentyn.

517 Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_,

p. 304 _sq._

_ 518 Ib._ p. 25 _sq._

_ 519 Ib._ p. 141.

520 Riedel, _op. cit._ p. 78.

_ 521 Ib._ p. 357.

_ 522 Ib._ pp. 266, 304 _sq._, 327, 357. For other examples of sending

away disease-laden boats in these islands, _ib._ pp. 181, 210; Van

Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch

Indië_, N.S. viii. (1879) p. 104; Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. 147;

Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst, zeden, enz. der

Dajakkers,” _Tijdschrift voor Neêrland’s Indië_, 1846, dl. iii. 150;

Campen, “De godsdienstbegrippen der Halmaherasche Alfoeren,”

_Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxvii.

(1882) p. 441; _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic

Society_, No. 12, pp. 229-231; Van Hasselt, _Volksbeschrijving van

Midden-Sumatra_, p. 98.

523 J. Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du monde et à la recherche de La

Pérouse, sur la corvette Astrolabe_, v. 311.

524 Roepstorff, “Ein Geisterboot der Nicobaresen,” _Verhandl. der

Berlin. Gesellsch. f. Anthropologie_ (1881), p. 401. For Siamese

applications of the same principle to the cure of individuals, see

Bastian, _Die Volker des östlichen Asien_, iii. 295 _sq._, 485 _sq._

_ 525 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. No. 418.

_ 526 Id._ iii. No. 373.

_ 527 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. No. 1127.

_ 528 Id._ ii. No. 1123.

529 F. Fawcett, “On the Saoras (or Savaras),” _Journ. Anthrop. Soc.

Bombay_, i. 213 _note_.

_ 530 Journ. Anthrop. Soc. Bombay_, i. 37.

531 R. Andree, _Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche_ (first

series), p. 30.

532 J. H. Gray, _China_, ii. 306.

_ 533 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. 598.

534 Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_,

p. 393.

535 Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_, ii. 93.

_ 536 Id._ ii. 91.

_ 537 Asiatic Researches_, ix. 96 _sq._

538 J. H. Gray, _China_, ii. 306 _sq._

539 T. J. Hutchinson, _Impressions of Western Africa_, p. 162.

540 Bogle and Manning, _Tibet_, edited by C. R. Markham, p. 106 _sq._

541 E. T. Atkinson, “Notes on the History of Religion in the Himalaya of

the North-West Provinces,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of

Bengal_, liii. pt. i. (1884), p. 62.

_ 542 Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, from the MSS. of

John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, edited by Alex. Allardyce (Edinburgh,

1888), ii. 439.

543 W. M. Beauchamp, “The Iroquois White Dog Feast,” _American

Antiquarian_, vii. 237.

_ 544 Ib._ p. 236; T. Dwight, _Travels in New England and New York_, iv.

202.

545 Above, p. 165 _sq._

546 Leviticus xvi. Modern Jews sacrifice a white cock on the eve of the

Festival of Expiation, nine days after the beginning of their New

Year. The father of the family knocks the cock thrice against his

own head, saying, “Let this cock be a substitute for me, let it take

my place, let death be laid upon this cock, but a happy life

bestowed on me and on all Israel.” Then he cuts its throat and

dashes the bird violently on the ground. The intestines are thrown

on the roof of the house. The flesh of the cock was formerly given

to the poor. Buxtorf, _Synagoga Judaica_, c. xxv.

547 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the

Niger_, pp. 343-345. Cp. J. F. Schon and S. Crowther, _Journals_, p.

48 _sq._ The account of the custom by J. Africanus B. Horton (_West

African Countries and Peoples_ p. 185 _sq._) is entirely from

Taylor.

548 Turpin, “History of Siam,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, ix.

579.

549 Ködding, “Die Bataksche Götter,” _Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_,

xii. (1885) pp. 476, 478.

550 The ceremony referred to is probably the one performed on the tenth

day, as described in the text.

551 “Report of a Route Survey by Pundit—from Nepal to Lhasa,” etc.,

_Journal Royal Geogr. Soc._ xxxviii. (1868) pp. 167, 170 _sq._;

“Four Years’ Journeying through Great Tibet, by one of the

Trans-Himalayan Explorers,” _Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc._ N.S. vii.

(1885) p. 67 _sq._

552 Aeneas Sylvius, _Opera_ (Bâle, 1571), p. 423 _sq._

553 Usener, “Italische Mythen,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N.F. xxx. 198.

554 J. Thomas Phillips, _Account of the Religion, Manners, and Learning

of the People of Malabar_, pp. 6, 12 _sq._

555 Herodotus, ii. 39.

556 Herodotus, ii. 38-41; Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient

Egyptians_, iii. 403 _sqq._ (ed. 1878).

557 Herodotus, _l.c._

558 See above, pp. 95 _sqq._, 137 _sq._

_ 559 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. No. 335.

560 Strabo, xi. 4, 7. For the custom of standing upon a sacrificed

victim, cp. Demosthenes, p. 642; Pausanias, iii. 20, 9.

561 In the Dassera festival, as celebrated in Nepaul, we seem to have

another instance of the annual expulsion of demons preceded by a

time of licence. The festival occurs at the beginning of October and

lasts ten days. “During its continuance there is a general holiday

among all classes of the people. The city of Kathmandu at this time

is required to be purified, but the purification is effected rather

by prayer than by water-cleansing. All the courts of law are closed,

and all prisoners in jail are removed from the precincts of the

city.... The Kalendar is cleared, or there is a jail-delivery always

at the Dassera of all prisoners.” This seems a trace of a period of

licence. At this time “it is a general custom for masters to make an

annual present, either of money, clothes, buffaloes, goats, etc., to

such servants as have given satisfaction during the past year. It is

in this respect, as well as in the feasting and drinking which goes

on, something like our ‘boxing-time’ at Christmas.” On the seventh

day at sunset there is a parade of all the troops in the capital,

including the artillery. At a given signal the regiments commence

firing, the artillery takes it up, and a general firing goes on for

about twenty minutes, when it suddenly ceases. This probably

represents the expulsion of the demons. “The grand cutting of the

rice-crops is always postponed till the Dassera is over, and

commences all over the valley the very day afterwards.” See the

description of the festival in Oldfield’s _Sketches from Nipal_, ii.

342-351. On the Dassera in India, see Dubois, _Moeurs, Institutions

et Cérémonies des Peuples de l’Inde_, ii. 329 _sqq._ Amongst the

Wasuahili of East Africa New Year’s Day was formerly a day of

general licence, “every man did as he pleased. Old quarrels were

settled, men were found dead on the following day, and no inquiry

was instituted about the matter.” Ch. New, _Life, Wanderings, and

Labours in Eastern Africa_, p. 65. In Ashantee the annual festival

of the new yams is a time of general licence. See the Note on

“Offerings of first fruits” at the end of the volume.

562 See above, vol. i. p. 275 _sq._

563 Above, pp. 186 _sq._, 192.

564 H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N. F. (1875)

xxx. 194.

565 Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iii. 29, iv. 36. Lydus places the

expulsion on the Ides of March, that is 15th March. But this seems

to be a mistake. See Usener, “Italische Mythen,” _Rheinisches

Museum_, xxx. 209 _sqq._ Again, Lydus does not expressly say that

Mamurius Veturius was driven out of the city, but he implies it by

mentioning the legend that his mythical prototype was beaten with

rods and expelled the city. Lastly, Lydus only mentions the name

Mamurius. But the full name Mamurius Veturius is preserved by Varro,

_Ling. Lat._ vi. 45; Festus, ed. Muller, p. 131; Plutarch, _Numa_,

13.

566 Usener, _op. cit._ p. 212 _sq._; Roscher, _Apollon und Mars_, p. 27;

Preller, _Römische Mythologie_,3 i. 360; Vaniček,

_Griechisch-lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch_, p. 715. The

three latter scholars take Veturius as = _annuus_, because _vetus_

is etymologically equivalent to ἔτος. But, as Usener argues, it

seems quite unallowable to take the Greek meaning of the word

instead of the Latin.

567 Cato, _De agri cult._ 141.

568 Varro, _De lingua latina_, v. 85.

569 See the song of the Arval Brothers in _Acta Fratrum Arvalium_, ed.

Henzen, p. 26 _sq._; Wordsworth, _Fragments and Specimens of Early

Latin_, p. 158.

570 Above, p. 64.

571 Cato, _De agri cult._ 83.

572 Above, vol. i. p. 70 _sqq._ p. 105 _sq._

573 Preller, _Römische Mythologie_,3 i. 360; Rosscher, _Apollon und

Mars_, p. 49; Usener, _op. cit._ The ceremony also closely resembles

the Highland New Year ceremony described above, p. 145 _sq._

574 Propertius, v. 2, 61 _sq._; Usener, _op. cit._ p. 210. One of the

functions of the Salii or dancing priests, who during March went up

and down the city dancing, singing, and clashing their swords

against their shields (Livy, i. 20; Plutarch, _Numa_, 13; Dionysius

Halicarn. _Antiq._ ii. 70) may have been to rout out the evils or

demons from all parts of the city, as a preparation for transferring

them to the scapegoat Mamurius Veturius. Similarly, as we have seen

(above, p. 194 _sq._), among the Iroquois, men in fantastic costume

went about collecting the sins of the people as a preliminary to

transferring them to the scapegoat dogs. We have had many examples

of armed men rushing about the streets and houses to drive out

demons and evils of all kinds. The blows which were showered on

Mamurius Veturius seem to have been administered by the Salii

(Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 188; Minucius Felix, 24, 3; Preller,

_Röm. Myth._3 i. 360, _note_ 1; Rosscher, _Apollon und Mars_, p.

49). The reason for beating the scapegoat will be explained

presently. As priests of Mars, the god of agriculture, the Salii

probably had also certain agricultural functions. They were named

from the remarkable _leaps_ which they made. Now dancing and leaping

high are common sympathetic charms to make the crops grow high. See

Peter, _Volksthümliches aus Oesterreichisch Schlesien_, ii. 266; E.

Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p. 499,

No. 333; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, p. 49;

O. Knoop, _Volkssagen_, etc., _aus dem östlichen Hinterpommern_, p.

176, No. 197; E. Sommer, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen

und Thüringen_, p. 148; Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus

Thüringen_, p. 190, No. 13; Woeste, _Volksüberlieferungen in der

Grafschaft Mark_, p. 56; _Bavaria_, ii. 298; _id._, iv. Abth. ii.

pp. 379, 382; Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten u. Gebräuche unter den

Sachsen Siebenbürgens_, p. 11 _sq._; Schulenberg, _Wendische

Volkssagen und Gebräuche_, p. 252; Wuttke, _Der deutsche

Volksaberglaube_,2 § 657; Jahn, _Die deutsche Opfergebräuche bei

Ackerbau und Viehzucht_, p. 194 _sq._; cp. Schott, _Walachische

Mährchen_, p. 301 _sq._; Gerard, _The Land beyond the Forest_, i.

264; Cieza de Leon, _Travels_ (Hakluyt Soc. 1864), p. 413. Was it

one of the functions of the Salii to dance and leap on the fields at

the spring or autumn sowing, or at both? The dancing processions of

the Salii took place in October as well as in March (Marquardt,

_Sacralwesen_,2 p. 436 _sq._), and the Romans sowed both in spring

and autumn (Columella, ii. 9, 6 _sq._) In their song the Salii

mentioned Saturnus or Saeturnus the god of sowing (Festus, p. 325,

ed. Müller. _Saeturnus_ is an emendation of Ritschl’s. See

Wordsworth, _Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin_, p. 405). The

weapons borne by the Salii, while effective against demons in

general, may have been especially directed against the demons who

steal the seed corn or the ripe grain. Compare the Khond and Hindoo

Koosh customs described above, p. 173. In Western Africa the field

labours of tilling and sowing are sometimes accompanied by dances of

armed men on the field. See Labat, _Voyage du Chevalier des Marchais

en Guinée, Isles voisines, et à Cayenne_, ii. p. 99 of the Paris

ed., p. 80 of the Amsterdam ed.; Olivier de Sanderval, _De

l’Atlantique au Niger par le Foulah-Djallon_ (Paris, 1883), p. 230.

In Calicut (Southern India) “they plough the land with oxen as we

do, and when they sow the rice in the field they have all the

instruments of the city continually sounding and making merry. They

also have ten or twelve men clothed like devils, and these unite in

making great rejoicing with the players on the instruments, in order

that the devil may make that rice very productive.” Varthema,

_Travels_ (Hakluyt Soc. 1863), p. 166 _sq._ The resemblance of the

Salii to the sword-dancers of northern Europe has been pointed out

by K. Müllenhoff, “Ueber den Schwerttanz,” in _Festgaben für Gustav

Homeyer_ (Berlin, 1871). In England the Morris Dancers who

accompanied the procession of the plough through the streets on

Plough Monday (the first Monday after Twelfth Day) sometimes wore

swords (Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 505, Bohn’s ed.), and

sometimes they “wore small bunches of corn in their hats, from which

the wheat was soon shaken out by the ungainly jumping which they

called dancing.... Bessy rattled his box and danced so high that he

showed his worsted stockings and corduroy breeches.” Chambers, _Book

of Days_, i. 94. It is to be observed that in the “Lord of Misrule,”

who reigned from Christmas till Twelfth Night (see Brand, _Popular

Antiquities_, i. 497 _sqq._), we have a clear trace of one of those

periods of general licence and suspension of ordinary government

which so commonly occur at the end of the old year or beginning of

the new one in connection with a general expulsion of evils. The

fact that this period of licence immediately preceded the procession

of the Morris Dancers on Plough Monday seems to indicate that the

functions of these dancers were like those which I have attributed

to the Salii. But the parallel cannot be drawn out here. Cp.

meantime Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, pp. 31, 39. The Salii were

said to have been founded by _Morrius_, King of Veii (Servius on

Virgil, _Aen._ viii. 285). _Morrius_ seems to be etymologically the

same with _Mamurius_ and _Mars_ (Usener, _Italische Mythen_, p.

213). Can the English _Morris_ (in _Morris_ dancers) be the same?

Analogy suggests that at Rome the Saturnalia, which fell in December

when the Roman year began in January, may have been celebrated in

February when the Roman year began in March. Thus at Rome, as in so

many places, the public expulsion of evils at the New Year would be

preceded by a period of general licence, such as the Saturnalia was.

A trace of the former celebration of the Saturnalia in February or

the beginning of March may perhaps be seen in the _Matronalia_,

celebrated on 1st March, at which mistresses feasted their slaves,

just as masters feasted theirs at the Saturnalia. Macrobius,

_Saturn._ i. 12, 7; Solinus, i. 35, p. 13, ed. Mommsen; Joannes

Lydus, _De mensibus_, iii. 15.

575 Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ vi. 8.

576 See above, pp. 176, 194.

577 Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ iii. 57, from Petronius.

578 Helladius, in Photius, _Bibliotheca_, p. 534 A, ed. Bekker; Schol.

on Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 734, and on _Knights_, 1136; Hesychius,

_s.v._ φαρμακοί; cp. Suidas, _s.vv._ κάθαρμα, φαρμακοός, and

φαρμακούς; Lysias, _Orat._ vi. 53. That they were stoned is an

inference from Harpocration. See next note.

579 Harpocration, _s.v._ φαρμακός, who says δύο ἄνδρας Ἀθήνησιν ἑξῆγον

καθάρσια ἐσομένους τῆς πόλεως ἐν τοῖς Θαργηλίοις, ἕνα μὲν ὑπερ τῶν

ἀνδρῶν, ἕνα δὲ ὑπερ τῶν γυναικῶν. He does not expressly state that

they were put to death; but as he says that the ceremony was an

imitation of the execution of a mythical Pharmacus who was stoned to

death, we may infer that the victims were killed by being stoned.

Suidas (_sv._ φάρμακος) copies Harpocration.

580 Strabo, x. 2, 9. I do not know what authority Wordsworth (_Greece,

Pictorial, Historical, and Descriptive_, p. 354) has for saying that

the priests of Apollo, whose temple stood near the edge of the

cliff, sometimes flung themselves down in this way.

581 Tzetzes, _Chiliades_, v. 726-761. Tzetzes’s authority is the

satyrical poet Hipponax.

582 This may be inferred from the verse of Hipponax, quoted by

Athenaeus, 370 B, where for φαρμάκου we should perhaps read φαρμακοῦ

with Schneidewin (_Poetae lyr. Gr._3 ed. Bergk, ii. 763).

583 See his _Mytholog. Forschungen_, p. 113 _sqq._, especially 123 _sq._

133.

584 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xx. 101; Dioscorides, _De mat. med._ ii. 202;

Lucian, _Necyom._ 7; _id._, _Alexander_, 47; Theophrastus,

_Superstitious Man_.

585 Theocritus, vii. 106 _sqq._ with the scholiast.

586 Cp. Aug. Mommsen, _Heortologie_, 414 _sqq._; W. Mannhardt, _A. W.

F._ p. 215.

587 At certain sacrifices in Yucatan blood was drawn from the genitals

of a human victim and smeared on the face of the idol. De Landa,

_Relation des choses de Yucatan_, ed. Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris,

1864) p. 167. Was the original intention of this rite to transfuse

into the god a fresh supply of reproductive energy?

588 Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ ix. 26.

589 De Santa-Anna Nery, _Folk-lore Brésilien_ (Paris, 1889) p. 253.

590 Above, pp. 148 _sq._ 187. Compare Plutarch, _Parallela_, 35, where a

woman is represented as going from house to house striking sick

people with a hammer and bidding them be whole.

591 Acosta, _History of the Indies_, ii. 375 (Hakluyt Soc.) See above,

p. 169.

592 Osculati, _Esplorazione delle regioni equatoriali lungo il Napo ed

il fiume delle Amazzoni_ (Milan, 1854), p. 118.

593 Ed. Beardmore, _Anthropological Notes collected at Mowat, Dandai,

New Guinea_ (1888) (in manuscript).

594 Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_, i. 155.

595 F. S. Krauss, _Kroatien und Slavonien_ (Vienna, 1889), p. 108.

596 W. Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 257.

597 W. Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 258-263. See his whole discussion of such

customs, pp. 251-303, and _Myth. Forsch._ pp. 113-153.

598 Acosta, _History of the Indies_, ii. 323 (Hakluyt Soc. 1880).

599 Sahagun, _Histoire des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_ (Paris, 1880),

pp. 61 _sq._, 96-99, 103; Acosta, _History of the Indies_, ii. 350

_sq._; Clavigero, _History of Mexico_, trans. by Cullen, i. 300;

Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, ii. 319 _sq._ For

other Mexican instances of persons representing deities and slain in

that character, see Sahagun, pp. 75, 116 _sq._, 123, 158 _sq._, 164

_sq._, 585 _sqq._, 589; Acosta, ii. 384 _sqq._; Clavigero, i. 312;

Bancroft, ii. 325 _sqq._, 337 _sq._

600 Sahagun, pp. 18 _sq._, 68 _sq._, 133-139; Bancroft, iii. 353-359.

601 Sahagun, p. 584 _sq._ For this festival see also _id._ pp. 37 _sq._

58 _sq._ 60, 87 _sqq._ 93; Clavigero, i. 297; Bancroft, ii. 306

_sqq._

602 Clavigero, i. 283.

603 Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, ii. 142.

_ 604 Memorials of Japan_ (Hakluyt Society, 1850), pp. 14, 141; Varenius,

_Descriptio regni Japoniae_, p. 11; Caron, “Account of Japan,” in

Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, vii. 613; Kaempfer, “History of

Japan,” in _id._, vii. 716.

605 Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, iii. 102 _sq._ ed. 1836; James

Wilson, _Missionary Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean_, p. 329.

606 Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_, iii. 81.

607 Athenaeus, 514 C.

608 Bancroft, _l.c._

609 Kaempfer, “History of Japan,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_,

vii. 717; Caron, “Account of Japan,” _id._ vii. 613; Varenius,

_Descriptio regni Japoniae_, p. 11, “_Radiis solis caput nunquam

illustrabatur: in apertum aërem non procedebat_.”

610 Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, iv. 359.

611 Alonzo de Zurita, “Rapport sur les differentes classes de chefs de

la Nouvelle-Espagne,” p. 30, in Ternaux-Compans’s _Voyages,

Relations et Mémoires originaux_ (Paris, 1840); Waitz, _l.c._;

Bastian, _Die Culturländer des alten Amerika_, ii. 204.

612 Cieza de Leon, _Second Part of the Chronicle of Peru_ (Hakluyt Soc.

1883), p. 18.

613 Pechuel-Loesche, “Indiscretes aus Loango,” _Zeitschrift für

Ethnologie_, x. (1878) 23.

614 Rev. James Macdonald (Reay Free Manse, Caithness), _Manners,

Customs, Superstitions, and Religions of South African Tribes_ (in

manuscript).

615 The Rev. G. Brown, quoted by the Rev. B. Danks, “Marriage Customs of

the New Britain Group,” _Journ. Anthrop. Institute_, xviii. 284

_sq._; cp. Rev. G. Brown, “Notes on the Duke of York Group, New

Britain, and New Ireland,” _Journ. Royal Geogr. Soc._ xlvii. (1877)

p. 142 _sq._ Powell’s description of the New Ireland custom is

similar (_Wanderings in a Wild Country_, p. 249). According to him

the girls wear wreaths of scented herbs round the waist and neck; an

old woman or a little child occupies the lower floor of the cage:

and the confinement lasts only a month. Probably the long period

mentioned by Mr. Brown is that prescribed for chiefs’ daughters.

Poor people could not afford to keep their children so long idle.

This distinction is sometimes expressly stated; for example, among

the Goajiras of Colombia rich people keep their daughters shut up in

separate huts at puberty for periods varying from one to four years,

but poor people cannot afford to do so for more than a fortnight or

a month. F. A. Simons, “An exploration of the Goajira Peninsula,”

_Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc._ N.S. vii. (1885) p. 791. In Fiji,

brides who were being tattooed were kept from the sun. Williams,

_Fiji and the Fijians_, i. 170. This was perhaps a modification of

the Melanesian custom of secluding girls at puberty. The reason

mentioned by Mr. Williams, “to improve her complexion,” can hardly

have been the original one.

616 Chalmers and Gill, _Work and Adventure in New Guinea_, p. 159.

617 Schwaner, _Borneo, Beschrijving van het stroomgebied van den

Barito_, etc. ii. 77 _sq._; Zimmerman, _Die Inseln des Indischen und

Stillen Meeres_, ii. 632 _sq._; Otto Finsch, _Neu Guinea und seine

Bewohner_, p. 116.

618 Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_,

p. 138.

619 Sproat, _Scenes and Studies of Savage Life_, p. 93 _sq._

620 Erman, “Ethnographische Wahrnehmungen u. Erfahrungen an den Küsten

des Berings-Meeres,” _Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie_, ii. 318 _sq._;

Langsdorff, _Reise um die Welt_, ii. 114 _sq._; Holmberg, “Ethnogr.

Skizzen über die Völker d. russischen Amerika,” _Acta Societatis

Scientiarum Fennicae_, iv. (1856) p. 320 _sq._; Bancroft, _Native

Races of the Pacific States_, i. 110 _sq._; Krause, _Die

Tlinkit-Indianer_, p. 217 _sq._; Rev. Sheldon Jackson, “Alaska and

its Inhabitants,” _American Antiquarian_, ii. 111 _sq._; W. M.

Grant, in _Journal of American Folk-lore_, i. 169. For caps, hoods,

and veils worn by girls at such seasons, compare G. H. Loskiel,

_History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians_,

i. 56; _Journal Anthrop. Institute_, vii. 206; G. M. Dawson, _Report

of the Queen Charlotte Islands_, 1878 (Geological Survey of Canada),

p. 130 B; Petitot, _Monographie des Dènè-Dindjié_, pp. 72, 75;

_id._, _Traditions indiennes du Canada Nord-Ouest_, p. 258.

621 Holmberg, _op. cit._ p. 401; Bancroft, i. 82; Petroff, _Report on

the Population_, etc. _of Alaska_, p. 143.

622 Lafitau, _Moeurs des Sauvages amériquains_ i. 262 _sq._

_ 623 Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, viii. 333. On the Chiriguanos see

Von Martius, _Zur Ethnographie Amerika’s zumal Brasiliens_, p. 212

_sqq._

624 Thevet, _Cosmographie Universelle_ (Paris, 1575) ii. 946 B _sq._;

Lafitau, _op. cit._ i 290 _sqq._

625 Schomburgk, _Reisen in Britisch Guiana_, ii. 315 _sq._; Martius,

_Zur Ethnographie Amerika’s_, p. 644.

626 Labat, _Voyage du Chevalier des Marchais en Guinée, Isles voisines,

et à Cayenne_, iv. p. 365 _sq._ (Paris ed.), p. 17 _sq._ (Amsterdam

ed.)

627 Above, p. 213 _sq._, vol. i. p. 153 _sq._

628 This interpretation of the custom is supported by the fact that

beating or scourging is inflicted on inanimate objects expressly for

the purpose indicated in the text. Thus the Indians of Costa Rica

hold that there are two kinds of ceremonial uncleanness, _nya_ and

_bu-ku-rú_. Anything that has been connected with a death is _nya_.

But _bu-ku-rú_ is much more virulent. It can not only make one sick

but kill. “The worst _bu-ku-rú_ of all is that of a young woman in

her first pregnancy. She infects the whole neighbourhood. Persons

going from the house where she lives carry the infection with them

to a distance, and all the deaths or other serious misfortunes in

the vicinity are laid to her charge. In the old times, when the

savage laws and customs were in full force, it was not an uncommon

thing for the husband of such a woman to pay damages for casualties

thus caused by his unfortunate wife.... _Bu-ku-rú_ emanates in a

variety of ways; arms, utensils, even houses become affected by it

after long disuse, and before they can be used again must be

purified. In the case of portable objects left undisturbed for a

long time, the custom is to beat them with a stick before touching

them. I have seen a woman take a long walking stick and beat a

basket hanging from the roof of a house by a cord. On asking what

that was for, I was told that the basket contained her treasures,

that she would probably want to take something out the next day, and

that she was driving off the _bu-ku-rú_. A house long unused must be

swept, and then the person who is purifying it must take a stick and

beat not only the movable objects, but the beds, posts, and in short

every accessible part of the interior. The next day it is fit for

occupation. A place not visited for a long time or reached for the

first time is _bu-ku-rú_. On our return from the ascent of Pico

Blanco, nearly all the party suffered from little calenturas, the

result of extraordinary exposure to wet and cold and want of food.

The Indians said that the peak was especially _bu-ku-rú_, since

nobody had ever been on it before.” One day Mr. Gabb took down some

dusty blow-guns amid cries of _bu-ku-rú_ from the Indians. Some

weeks afterwards a boy died, and the Indians firmly believed that

the _bu-ku-rú_ of the blow-guns had killed him. “From all the

foregoing, it would seem that _bu-ku-rú_ is a sort of evil spirit

that takes possession of the object, and resents being disturbed;

but I have never been able to learn from the Indians that they

consider it so. They seem to think of it as a property the objects

acquires.” W. M. Gabb, _Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica_

(read before the American Philosophical Society, 20th August 1875),

p. 504 _sq._

629 A. R. Wallace, _Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro_,

p. 496.

630 Bose, _The Hindoos as they are_, p. 86. Similarly, after a Brahman

boy has been invested with the sacred thread, he is for three days

strictly forbidden to see the sun. He may not eat salt, and he is

enjoined to sleep either on a carpet or a deer’s skin, without a

mattress or mosquito curtain. _Ib._ p. 186. In Bali, boys who have

had their teeth filed, as a preliminary to marriage, are kept shut

up in a dark room for three days. Van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland

Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië_, N. S. ix. (1880) 428

_sq._

631 Moura, _Royaume du Cambodge_, i. 377.

632 Aymonier, “Notes sur les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses des

Cambodgiens,” _Cochinchine Française, Excursions et

Reconnaissances_, No. 16 (Saigon, 1883), p. 193 _sq._ Cp. _id._

_Notice sur le Cambodge_, p. 50.

633 B. Schmidt, _Griechische Märchen, Sagen und Volkslieder_, p. 98.

634 Schneller, _Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_, No. 22.

635 J. G. von Hahn, _Griechische und albanesische Märchen_, No. 41.

636 Gonzenbach, _Sicilianische Märchen_, No. 28. The incident of the

bone occurs in other folk-tales. A prince or princess is shut up for

safety in a tower and makes his or her escape by scraping a hole in

the wall with a bone which has been accidentally conveyed into the

tower; sometimes it is expressly said that care was taken to let the

princess have no bones with her meat. Hahn, _op. cit._ No. 15;

Gonzenbach, Nos. 26, 27; _Pentamerone_, No. 23. From this we should

infer that it is a rule with savages not to let women handle the

bones of animals during their monthly seclusions. We have already

seen the great respect with which the savage treats the bones of

game (see above, p. 116 _sqq._); and women in their courses are

specially forbidden to meddle with the hunter or fisher, as their

contact or neighbourhood would spoil his sport (see below, p. 238

_sqq._) In folk-tales the hero who uses the bone is sometimes a boy;

but the incident might easily be transferred from a girl to a boy

after its real meaning had been forgotten. Amongst the Hare-skin

Indians a girl at puberty is forbidden to break the bones of hares.

Petitot, _Traditions indiennes du Canada Nordouest_, p. 258. On the

other hand, she drinks out of a tube made of a swan’s bone (Petitot,

_l.c._ and _id._, _Monographie des Dènè-Dindjié_, p. 76), and we

have seen that a Thlinkeet girl in the same circumstances used to

drink out of the wing-bone of a white-headed eagle (Langsdorff,

_Reise um die Welt_, ii. 114).

637 W. Radloff, _Proben der Volkslitteratur der türkischen Stämme

Süd-Sibiriens_, iii. 82 _sq._

638 Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, i. 416, vi. 25; Turner,

_Samoa_, p. 200; _Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. No. 797.

639 Amongst the Chaco Indians of South America a newly-married couple

sleep the first night on a skin with their heads towards the west;

“for the marriage is not considered as ratified till the rising sun

shines on their feet the succeeding morning.” T. J. Hutchinson, “The

Chaco Indians,” _Transact. Ethnolog. Soc._ iii. 327. At old Hindoo

marriages, the first ceremony was the “Impregnation-rite”

(_Garbhādhāna_). “During the previous day the young married woman

was made to look towards the sun, or in some way exposed to its

rays.” Monier Williams, _Religious Life and Thought in India_, p.

354. Amongst the Turks of Siberia it was formerly the custom on the

morning after marriage to lead the young couple out of the hut to

greet the rising sun. The same custom is said to be still practised

in Iran and Central Asia, the belief being that the beams of the

rising sun are the surest means of impregnating the new bride.

Vambery, _Das Türkenvolk_, p. 112.

640 Above, vol. i. p. 170.

_ 641 Native Tribes of South Australia_, p. 186; E. J. Eyre, _Journals_,

ii. 295, 304; W. Ridley, _Kamilaroi_, p. 157; _Journ. Anthrop.

Inst._ ii. 268, ix. 459 _sq._; Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of

Victoria_, i. 65, 236. Cp. Sir George Grey, _Journals_, ii. 344; J.

Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, ci. _sq._

642 Bleek, _Brief Account of Bushman Folk-lore_, p. 14; cp. _ib._ p. 10.

643 Gumilla, _Histoire de l’Orénoque_, i. 249.

644 James Adair, _History of the American Indians_, p. 123 _sq._

645 S. Hearne, _Journey to the Northern Ocean_, p. 314 _sq._; Alex.

Mackenzie, _Voyages through the Continent of North America_,

cxxiii.; Petitot, _Monographie des Dènè-Dindjié_, p. 75 _sq._

646 C. Leemius, _De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua vita et

religione pristina_ (Copenhagen, 1767), p. 494.

647 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ vii. § 64 _sq._, xxviii. § 77 _sqq._ Cp.

_Geoponica_, xii. c. 20, 5, and c. 25, 2; Columella, xi. 3, 50.

648 A. Schleicher, _Volkstümliches aus Sonnenberg_; p. 134; B. Souché,

_Croyances, Présages et Traditions diverses_, p. 11; V. Fossel,

_Volksmedicin und medicinischer Aberglaube in Steiermark_ (Graz,

1886), p. 124. The Greeks and Romans thought that a field was

completely protected against insects if a menstruous woman walked

round it with bare feet and streaming hair. Pliny, _Nat. Hist._

xvii. 266, xxviii. 78; Columella, x. 358 _sq._, xi. 3, 64;

Palladius, _De re rustica_, i. 35, 3; _Geoponica_, xii. 8, 5 _sq._;

Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ vi. 36. A similar remedy is employed for the

same purpose by North American Indians and European peasants.

Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, v. 70; Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und

äussern Leben der Ehsten_, p. 484. Cp. Haltrich, _Zur Volkskunde der

Siebenbürger Sachsen_, p. 280; Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und

Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens_, p. 14; Grimm, _Deutsche

Mythologie_,4 iii. 468.

649 For an example of the beneficent application of the menstrual

energy, see note on p. 241.

650 The rules just discussed do not hold exclusively of the persons

mentioned in the text, but are applicable in certain circumstances

to other tabooed persons and things. Whatever, in fact, is permeated

by the mysterious virtue of taboo may need to be isolated from earth

and heaven. Mourners are taboo all the world over; accordingly in

mourning the Ainos wear peculiar caps in order that the sun may not

shine upon their heads. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_,

v. 366. During a solemn fast of three days the Indians of Costa Rica

eat no salt, speak as little as possible, light no fires, and stay

strictly indoors, or if they go out during the day they carefully

cover themselves from the light of the sun, believing that exposure

to the sun’s rays would turn them black. W. M. Gabb, _Indian Tribes

and Languages of Costa Rica_, p. 510. On Yule night it has been

customary in parts of Sweden from time immemorial to go on

pilgrimage, whereby people learn many secret things and know what is

to happen in the coming year. As a preparation for this pilgrimage,

“some secrete themselves for three days previously in a dark cellar,

so as to be shut out altogether from the light of heaven. Others

retire at an early hour of the preceding morning to some out-of-the

way place, such as a hayloft, where they bury themselves in the hay,

that they may neither hear nor see any living creature; and here

they remain, in silence and fasting, until after sundown; whilst

there are those who think it sufficient if they rigidly abstain from

food on the day before commencing their wanderings. During this

period of probation a man ought not to see fire.” L. Lloyd, _Peasant

Life in Sweden_, p. 194. During the sixteen days that a Pima Indian

is undergoing purification for killing an Apache he may not see a

blazing fire. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, i.

553. Again warriors on the war-path are strictly taboo; hence

Indians may not sit on the bare ground the whole time they are out

on a warlike expedition. J. Adair, _History of the American

Indians_, p. 382; _Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John

Tanner_, p. 123. The holy ark of the North American Indians is

deemed “so sacred and dangerous to be touched” that no one, except

the war chief and his attendant, will touch it “under the penalty of

incurring great evil. Nor would the most inveterate enemy touch it

in the woods for the very same reason.” In carrying it against the

enemy they never place it on the ground, but rest it on stones or

logs. Adair, _History of the American Indians_, p. 162 _sq._ The

sacred clam shell of the Elk clan among the Omahas is kept in a

sacred bag, which is never allowed to touch the ground. E. James,

_Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains_, ii. 47; J. Owen

Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_

(Washington, 1884), p. 226. Newly born infants are strongly taboo;

accordingly in Loango they are not allowed to touch the earth.

Pechuel-Loesche, “Indiscretes aus Loango,” _Zeitschrift für

Ethnologie_, x. (1878) p. 29 _sq._ In Laos the hunting of elephants

gives rise to many taboos; one of them is that the chief hunter may

not touch the earth with his foot. Accordingly when he alights from

his elephant, the others spread a carpet of leaves for him to step

upon. E. Aymonier, _Notes sur le Laos_, p. 26. In some parts of

Aberdeenshire, the last bit of standing corn (which, as we have

seen, is very sacred) is not allowed to touch the ground; but as it

is cut, it is placed on the lap of the “gueedman.” W. Gregor,

“Quelques coutumes du Nord-Est du Comté d’Aberdeen,” _Revue des

Traditions populaires_, iii. (1888) 485 B. Sacred food may not, in

certain circumstances, touch the ground. F. Grabowsky, “Der Distrikt

Dusson Timor in Südost-Borneo und seine Bewohner,” _Ausland_ (1884),

No. 24, p. 474; Ch. F. Hall, _Narrative of the Second Arctic

Expedition_, edited by Prof. J. E. Nourse (Washington, 1879), p.

110; Gerard, _The Land beyond the Forest_, ii. 7. In Scotland, when

water was carried from sacred wells to sick people, the water-vessel

might not touch the ground. C. F. Gordon Cumming, _In the Hebrides_,

p. 211. On the relation of spirits to the ground, compare Denzil

Ibbetson in _Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. No. 5.

_ 651 Die Edda_, übersetzt von K. Simrock,8 pp. 286-288, cp. pp. 8, 34,

264. In English the Balder story is told at length by Prof. Rhys,

_Celtic Heathendom_, p. 529 _sqq._

652 It is strange to find so learned and judicious a student of custom

and myth as H. Usener exactly inverting their true relation to each

other. After showing that the essential features of the myth of the

marriage of Mars and Nerio have their counterpart in the marriage

customs of peasants at the present day, he proceeds to infer that

these customs are the reflection of the myth. “Italische Mythen,”

_Rheinisches Museum_, N. F. xxx. 228 _sq._ Surely the myth is the

reflection of the custom. Men not only fashion gods in their own

likeness (as Xenophanes long ago remarked) but make them think and

act like themselves. Heaven is a copy of earth, not earth of heaven.

653 See Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 502, 510, 516.

654 Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 518 _sq._

655 In the following survey of these fire-customs I follow chiefly W.

Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, kap. vi. p. 497 _sqq._ Compare also Grimm,

_Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 500 _sqq._

656 Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen_ etc. _des Eifler Volkes_, i. pp. 21-25;

_B. K._ p. 501.

_ 657 B. K._ p. 501.

658 Vonbun, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, p. 20; _B. K._ p. 501.

659 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p.

380 _sqq_.; Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, ii. 59 _sq._

, 66 _sq._; _Bavaria_, ii. 2, p. 838 _sq._; Panzer, _Beitrag zur

deutschen Mythologie_, i. p. 211, No. 232, _B. K._ p. 501 _sq._

_ 660 Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_, p. 189;

Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 207; _B. K._ p. 500

_sq._

661 Th. Vernalcken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich_, p.

293 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 498. See above, vol. i. p. 267.

_ 662 Schmitz, Sitten, u. Sagen des Eifler Volkes_, i. p. 20; _B. K._ p.

499.

663 Strackerjan, _Aberglaube u. Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_, ii.

39, No. 306; _B. K._ p. 499.

_ 664 B. K._ p. 499.

_ 665 B. K._ p. 498 _sq._

_ 666 B. K._ p. 499.

667 Schneller, _Märchen u. Sagen aus Wälschtirol_, p. 234 _sq._; _B. K._

p. 499 _sq._

_ 668 B. K._ pp. 502-505; Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_,2 § 81;

Zingerle, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_,2 p.

149, §§ 1286-1289; _Bavaria_, i. 1, p. 371.

669 Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. p. 212 _sq._, ii. p.

78 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 505.

670 Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_,

ii. p. 43 _sq._, No. 313; _B. K._ p. 505 _sq._

671 Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. 75 _sq._; _B. K._ p.

506.

672 Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 512; _B. K._ p. 506 _sq._

673 H. Pröhle, _Harzbilder_, p. 63; Kuhn und Schwartz, _Norddeutsche

Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_, p. 373; _B. K._ p. 507.

674 Kuhn, _Markische Sagen und Märchen_, p. 312 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 507.

675 Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. p. 211 _sq._; _B. K._

p. 507 _sq._

676 Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, ii. p. 82, No. 106; _B.

K._ p. 508.

_ 677 B. K._ p. 508; cp. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutsch. Myth._ i. 74;

Grimm, _Deutsche Myth._4 i. 512. The two latter writers only state

that before the fires were kindled it was customary to hunt

squirrels in the woods.

678 Kuhn, _l.c._; _B. K._ p. 508.

679 Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 224 _sq._, Bohn’s ed., quoting

Sinclair’s _Statistical Account of Scotland_, 1794, xi. 620;

_Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, from the MSS. of

John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, edited by Alex. Allardyce, ii. 439-445;

_B. K._ p. 508.

680 Pennant, “Tour in Scotland,” Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, iii.

49; Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 226.

681 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, p. 233 _sq._

_ 682 B. K._ p. 509; Brand, _Pop. Antiq._ i. 298 _sq._; Grimm, _D. M._4

i. 516.

683 Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, ii. p. 96 _sqq._ No. 128,

p. 103 _sq._ No. 129; E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und

Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p. 423 _sqq._; _B. K._ p. 510.

684 Leoprechting, _Aus dem Lechrain_, p. 182 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 510. Cp.

Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. 210; _Bavaria_, iii.

956.

685 Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. 549.

686 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, pp. 306-311; _B.

K._ p. 510. For the custom of burning a tree in the midsummer

bonfires, see vol. i. p. 79.

687 Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_, ii. 144 _sqq._

688 Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 515 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 510 _sq._

689 Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 393; Grimm, _D. M._4

i. 517; _B. K._ p. 511.

690 Sébillot, Coutumes populaires de la Haute Bretagne, p. 193 _sq._

Wolf, _op. cit._ ii. 392 _sq._

691 Zingerle, _Sitten, etc. des Tiroler Volkes_,2 p. 159, No. 1354;

Panzer, _Beitrag_, i. 210; _B. K._ p. 511.

692 Kuhn u. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_, p.

390; _B. K._ 511.

693 Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 300 _sq._, 318, cp. pp. 305, 306,

308 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 512.

694 Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_, p. 96, cp. _id._ p.

26.

695 Brand, _op. cit._ i. 311.

_ 696 Id._ i. 303, 318, 319; Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, p. 315.

697 Brand, _op. cit._ i. 318.

698 J. Train, _Account of the Isle of Man_, ii. 120.

699 Brand, i. 303, quoting Sir Henry Piers’s _Description of Westmeath_.

700 Brand, _l.c._, quoting the author of the _Survey of the South of

Ireland_.

701 Brand, i. 305, quoting the author of the _Comical Pilgrim’s

Pilgrimage into Ireland_.

702 Brand, i. 304, quoting _The Gentleman’s Magazine_, February 1795, p.

124.

703 Quoted by Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, p. 321 _sq._

704 Brand, i. 311, quoting _Statistical Account of Scotland_, xxi. 145.

_ 705 B. K._ p. 512.

706 Brand, i. 337.

707 J. Ramsay and A. Allardyce, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth

Century_, ii. 436.

708 Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 240; Grimm, _D. M._4 i.

519.

709 Ralston. _l.c._

710 Tettau und Temme, _Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und

Westpreussens_, p. 277; Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 519.

711 Töppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_,2 p. 71.

712 Grimm, _l.c._; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, p.

307 _note_.

713 Grimm, _l.c._

714 Grimm, _l.c._

715 Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 518.

716 Above, vol. i. p. 291.

717 Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_, i. 185.

718 Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 317; Grimm, _l.c._

719 G. Ferraro, _Superstizioni, usi e proverbi Monferrini_, p. 34 _sq._,

referring to Alvise da Cadamosto, _Relazion dei viaggi d’Africa_, in

Ramusio.

720 Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, ii. 100 _sq._; _B. K._ p.

513 _sq._

721 Zingerle, _Sitten_, etc., _des Tiroler Volkes_,2 p. 159, No. 1353,

cp. No. 1355; _B. K._ p. 513.

722 Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 392; _B. K._ p. 513.

_ 723 B. K._ p. 513.

724 Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 240.

725 Above, vol. i. p. 272 _sq._

726 Above, vol. i. p. 22 _sqq._

727 Above, p. 262.

728 Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, ii. 57, 97; _B. K._ p.

510; cp. Panzer, _Beitrag_, ii. 240.

729 Cp. Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 521; Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen

Mythologie_, ii. 389; Ad. Kuhn, _Herabkunft des Feuers_,2 pp. 41

_sq._, 47; W. Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 521.

730 See above, pp. 254, 255, 260, 265.

731 On the need-fires, see Grimm, _D. M._ i. 501 _sqq._; Wolf, _op.

cit._ i. 116 _sq._, ii. 378 _sqq._; Kuhn, _op. cit._ p. 41 _sqq._;

_B. K._ p. 518 _sqq._; Elton, _Origins of English History_, p. 293

_sq._; Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und

Viehzucht_, p. 26 _sqq._

732 This is the view of Grimm, Wolf, Kuhn, and Mannhardt.

_ 733 Herabkunft des Feuers_,2 p. 47.

734 Panzer, _Beitrag_, ii. 240.

735 Ch. E. Gover, “The Pongol festival in Southern India,” _Journ. Royal

Asiatic Society_, N.S. v. (1870) p. 96 _sq._

736 Diego de Landa, _Relation des choses de Yucatan_ (Paris, 1864), p.

233.

737 Kolben, _Present State of the Cape of Good Hope_, i. 129 _sqq._

738 P. 253. The torches of Demeter, which figure so largely in her myth

and on the monuments, are perhaps to be explained by this custom. To

regard, with Mannhardt (_B. K._ p. 536), the torches in the modern

European customs as imitations of lightning seems unnecessary.

739 Above, vol. i. p. 70 _sqq._

740 Pp. 250, 267.

741 Pp. 247, 248, 253, 259, 266.

742 P. 250 _sq._

743 Pp. 247, 248.

744 Vol. i. p. 272.

_ 745 B. K._ p. 524.

_ 746 Bavaria_, iii. 956; _B. K._ p. 524.

747 Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, ii. 121 _sq._, No. 146;

_B. K._ p. 524 _sq._

748 Caesar, _Bell. Gall._ vi. 15; Strabo, iv. 4, 5, p. 198; Casaubon;

Diodorus, v. 32. See Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 525 _sqq._

749 Strabo, iv. 4, 4, p. 197, τὰς δὲ φονικὰς δίκας μάλιστα τούτοις [i.e.

the Druids] ἐπετέτραπτο δικάζειν, ὅταν τε φορὰ τούτων ἧ, φορὰν καὶ

τῆς χώρας νομίζουσιν ὐπάρχειν. On this passage see Mannhardt, _B.

K._ p. 529 _sqq._

750 See vol. i. p. 88 _sqq._

_ 751 B. K._ p. 523, _note_.

_ 752 B. K._ p. 523, _note_; John Milner, _The History, Civil and

Ecclesiastical, and Survey of the Antiquities of Winchester_, i. 8

_sq._; Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 325 _sq._; James Logan, _The

Scottish Gael_, ii. 358 (new ed.); Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,

_Calendrier Belge_, p. 123 _sqq._

753 Puttenham, _Arte of English Poesie_, 1589, p. 128, quoted by Brand,

_Popular Antiquities_, i. 323.

754 King’s _Vale Royal of England_, p. 208, quoted by Brand, _l.c._

755 Liebrecht, _Gervasius von Tilbury_, p. 212 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 514.

_ 756 B. K._ pp. 514, 523.

_ 757 Athenaeum_, 24th July 1869, p. 115; _B. K._ p. 515 _sq._

758 Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 388; _B. K._ p. 515.

_ 759 B. K._ p. 515.

760 Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 519; _B. K._ p. 515.

_ 761 B. K._ p. 515.

_ 762 Ib._

763 Above, vol. i. p. 408, vol. ii. p. 1 _sqq._

764 Some of the serpents worshipped by the old Prussians lived in hollow

oaks, and as oaks were sacred among the Prussians, the serpents may

have been regarded as genii of the trees. Simon Grunau, _Preussische

Chronik_, ed. Perlbach, i. p. 89; Hartknoch, _Altund Neues

Preussen_, pp. 143, 163. Serpents, again, played an important part

in the worship of Demeter, as we have seen. But that they were

regarded as embodiments of her can hardly be assumed. In Siam the

spirit of the _takhien_ tree is believed to appear, sometimes in the

form of a woman, sometimes in the form of a serpent. Bastian, _Die

Volker des östlichen Asien_, iii. 251.

765 Pliny derives the name Druid the Greek _drūs_, “oak.” He did not

know that the Celtic word for oak was the same (_daur_), and that

therefore Druid, in the sense of priest of the oak, was genuine

Celtic, not borrowed from the Greek. See Curtius, _Griech.

Etymologie_,5 p. 238 _sq._; Vaniček, _Griechisch-lateinisches

etymolog. Wörterbuch_, p. 368 _sqq._; Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_, p.

221 _sqq._ In the Highlands of Scotland the word is found in

place-names like Bendarroch (the mountain of the oak),

Craigandarroch, etc.

766 It is still a folk-lore rule not to cut the mistletoe with iron;

some say it should be cut with gold. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_4

ii. 1001. On the objection to the use of iron in such cases, see

Liebrecht, _Gervasius von Tilbury_, p. 103; and above, vol. i. p.

177 _sqq._

767 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. § 249 _sqq._ On the Celtic worship of the

oak, see also Maximus Tyrius, _Dissert._ viii. 8, Κελτοὶ σέβουσι μὲν

Δία ἄγαλμα δὲ Διὸς Κελτικὸν ὐψηλὴ δρῦς. With this mode of gathering

the mistletoe compare the following. In Cambodia when a man

perceives a certain parasitic plant growing on a tamarind-tree, he

dresses in white and taking a new earthen pot climbs the tree at

mid-day. He puts the plant in the pot and lets the whole fall to the

ground. Then in the pot he makes a decoction which renders

invulnerable. Aymonier, “Notes sur les coutumes et croyances

superstitieuses des Cambodgiens,” in _Cochinchine Française,

Excursions et Reconnaissances_, No. 16, p. 136.

768 Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_,2 § 123; Grohmann,

_Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_, §§ 673-677;

Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_, ii. 144 _sqq._; Friend,

_Flowers and Flower Lore_, p. 362; Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i.

314 _sqq._; Vonbun, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, p. 133

_sqq._; Burne and Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_, p. 242. Cp.

_Archaeological Review_, i. 164 _sqq._

769 Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 307, 312; Dyer, _Folk-lore of

Plants_, pp. 62, 286; Friend, _Flowers and Flower Lore_, pp. 147,

149, 150, 540; Wuttke, § 134.

770 Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 514 _sq._, ii. 1013 _sq._, iii. 356; Grohmann,

_op. cit._ § 635-637; Friend, _op. cit._ p. 75; Gubernatis, _Myth.

des Plantes_, i. 189 _sq._, ii. 16 _sqq._

771 Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_, p. 25 _sq._; Brand,

_Pop. Ant._ i. 329 _sqq._; Friend, p. 136.

772 Brand, i. 333.

773 Grohmann, § 1426.

774 Grohmann, § 648.

775 Grohmann, § 681; Wuttke, § 134; Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und

Brauch_, i. 9; Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_, i. 190.

776 Grimm, _D. M._4 iii. 78, 353.

777 Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_, ii. 73.

778 Friend, _Flowers and Flower Lore_, p. 378. Hunters believe that the

mistletoe heals all wounds and brings luck in hunting. Kuhn,

_Herabkunjt des Feuers_,2 p. 206.

779 Grimm, _D. M._4 ii. 1009.

780 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, p. 269.

781 Lloyd, _op. cit._ p. 259; Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 517 _sq._

782 Lloyd, _l.c._

783 Grimm, _D. M._4 iii. 78, who adds, “_Mahnen die Johannisfeuer an

Baldrs Leichenbrand?_” This pregnant hint, which contains in germ

the solution of the whole myth, has been quite lost on the

mythologists who since Grimm’s day have enveloped the subject in a

cloud of learned dust.

784 Above, p. 285, and vol. i. pp. 58, 64.

785 Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 55 _sq._, 58 _sq._, ii. 542, iii. 187 _sq._

786 Preller, _Röm. Mythol._3 i. 108.

787 Livy, i. 10. Cp. C. Bötticher, _Der Baumkultus der Hellenen_, p. 133

_sq._

788 Bötticher, _op. cit._ p. 111 _sqq._; Preller, _Griech. Mythol._4 ed.

C. Robert, i. 122 _sqq._

789 Without hazarding an opinion on the vexed question of the primitive

home of the Aryans, I may observe that in various parts of Europe

the oak seems to have been formerly more common than it is now. In

Denmark the present beech woods were preceded by oak woods and these

by the Scotch fir. Lyell, _Antiquity of Man_, p. 9; J. Geikie,

_Prehistoric Europe_, p. 486 _sq._ In parts of North Germany it

appears from the evidence of archives that the fir has ousted the

oak. O. Schrader, _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_,2 (Jena,

1890), p. 394. In prehistoric times the oak appears to have been the

chief tree in the forests which clothed the valley of the Po; the

piles on which the pile villages rested were of oak. W. Helbig, _Die

Italiker in der Poebene_, p. 25 _sq._ The classical tradition that

in the olden time men subsisted largely on acorns is borne out by

the evidence of the pile villages in Northern Italy, in which great

quantities of acorns have been discovered. See Helbig, _op. cit._

pp. 16 _sq._, 26, 72 _sq._

790 Above, p. 265 _sq._

791 Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_, p. 19 _sq._ Mr. Ralston states (on

what authority I do not know) that if the fire maintained in honour

of the Lithuanian god Perkunas went out, it was rekindled by sparks

struck from a stone which the image of the god held in his hand.

_Songs of the Russian People_, p. 88.

792 Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 502, 503; Kuhn, _Herabkunft des Feuers_,2 p. 43;

Pröhle, _Harzbilder_, p. 75; Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche

aus Mecklenburg_, ii. 150; Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_,

ii. 148. The writer who styles himself Montanus says (_Die deutschen

Volksfeste_, etc., p. 127) that the need-fire was made by the

friction of oak and fir. Sometimes it is said that the need-fire

should be made with nine different kinds of wood (Grimm, _D. M._4 i.

503, 505; Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 380; Jahn,

_Die deutschen Opfergebräuche_, p. 27); but the kinds of wood are

not specified.

793 John Ramsay, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, ii.

442; Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 506. See above, p. 255.

794 Above, vol. i. p. 58.

795 Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste_, etc., p. 127.

796 Above, vol. i. p. 100.

797 Mary Frere, _Old Deccan Days_, p. 12 _sqq._

798 Maive Stokes, _Indian Fairy Tales_, p. 58 _sqq._ For similar

stories, see _id_. p. 187 _sq._; Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of

Bengal_, p. 121 _sq._; F. A. Steel and R. C. Temple, _Wide-awake

Stories_, p. 58 _sqq._

_ 799 Old Deccan Days_, p. 239 _sqq._

800 Lal Behari Day, _op. cit._ p. 1 _sqq._ For similar stories of

necklaces, see _Old Deccan Days_, p. 233 _sq._; _Wide-awake

Stories_, p. 83 _sqq._

801 J. H. Knowles, _Folk-tales of Kashmir_ (London, 1888), p. 49 _sq._

802 J. H. Knowles, _Folk-tales of Kashmir_ (London, 1888), p. 134.

_ 803 Id._ p. 382 _sqq._

804 Lal Behari Day, _op. cit._ p. 85 _sq._, cp. _id._ p. 253 _sqq._;

_Indian Antiquary_, i. (1872) 117. For an Indian story in which a

giant’s life is in five black bees, see Clouston, _Popular Tales and

Fictions_, i. 350.

_ 805 Indian Antiquary_, i. 171.

806 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, iv. 340 _sq._

807 Lal Behari Day, _op. cit._ p. 189.

_ 808 Wide-awake Stories_, pp. 52, 64.

809 G. W. Leitner, _The Languages and Races of Dardistan_, p. 9.

810 Apollodorus, i. 8; Diodorus, iv. 34; Pausanias, x. 31, 4; Aeschylus,

_Choeph._ 604 _sqq._

811 Apollodorus, iii. 15, 8; Aeschylus, _Choeph._ 612 _sqq._; Pausanias,

i. 19, 4. According to Tzetzes (_Schol. on Lycophron_, 650) not the

life but the strength of Nisus was in his golden hair; when it was

pulled out, he became weak and was slain by Minos. According to

Hyginus (_Fab._ 198) Nisus was destined to reign only so long as he

kept the purple lock on his head.

812 Apollodorus, ii. 4, §§ 5, 7.

813 Hahn, _Griechische und Albanesische Märchen_, i. p. 217; a similar

story, _id._ ii. p. 282.

814 Hahn, _op. cit._ ii. p. 215 _sq._

_ 815 Id._ ii. p. 275 _sq._ Similar stories, _id._ ii. pp. 204, 294 _sq._

In an Albanian story a monster’s strength is in three pigeons, which

are in a hare, which is in the silver tusk of a wild boar. When the

boar is killed, the monster feels ill; when the hare is cut open, he

can hardly stand on his feet; when the three pigeons are killed, he

expires. Dozon, _Contes albanais_, p. 132 _sq._

816 Hahn, _op. cit._ ii. p. 260 _sqq._

_ 817 Id._ i. p. 187.

_ 818 Id._ ii. p. 23 _sq._

819 Legrand, _Contes populaires grecs_, p. 191 _sqq._

820 Plutarch, _Parallela_, 26. In both the Greek and Italian stories the

subject of quarrel between nephew and uncles is the skin of a boar,

which the nephew presented to his lady-love and which his uncles

took from her.

821 Basile, _Pentamerone_, ii. p. 60 _sq._ (Liebrecht’s German trans.)

822 R. H. Busk, _Folk-lore of Rome_, p. 164 _sqq._

823 Ralston, _Russian Folk-tales_, p. 103 _sq._; so Dietrich, _Russian

Popular Tales_, p. 23 _sq._

824 Ralston, _op. cit._ p. 109.

_ 825 Ib._

826 Ralston, _Russian Folk-tales_, p. 113 _sq._

_ 827 Id._, p. 114.

_ 828 Id._, p. 110.

829 Mijatovics, _Serbian Folk-lore_, edited by the Rev. W. Denton, p.

172; F. S. Krauss, _Sagen und Märchen der Südslaven_, i. (No. 34) p.

168 _sq._

830 A. H. Wraitslaw, _Sixty Folk-Tales from exclusively Slavonic

sources_ (London, 1889), p. 225.

831 Haltrich, _Deutsche Volksmärchen aus dem Sachsenlande in

Siebenbürgen_,4 No. 34 (No. 33 of the first ed.), p. 149 _sq._

832 J. W. Wolf, _Deutsche Marchen und Sagen_, No. 20, p. 87 _sqq._

833 Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_,

ii. p. 306 _sq._

834 K. Müllenhoff, _Sagen, Märchen und Lieder der Herzogthümer

Schleswig-Holstein und Lauenburg_, p. 404 _sqq._

835 Asbjörnsen og Moe, _Norske Folke-Eventyr_, No. 36; Dasent, _Popular

Tales from the Norse_, p. 55 _sqq._

836 Asbjörnsen og Moe, _Norske Folke-Eventyr_, Ny Samling, No. 70;

Dasent, _Tales from the Fjeld_, p. 229 (“Boots and the Beasts.”)

837 Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_, p. 592; Jamieson, _Dictionary of

the Scottish Language_, _s.v._ “Yule.”

838 J. F. Campbell, _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_, i. p. 10

_sq._

839 J. F. Campbell, _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_, i. p. 80

_sqq._

840 Sébillot, _Contes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1885), p.

63 _sqq._

841 F. M. Luzel, _Contes populaires de Basse-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1887), i.

445-449.

842 Maspero, _Contes populaires de l’Égypte ancienne_ (Paris, 1882), p.

5 _sqq._

843 Lane’s _Arabian Nights_, iii. 316 _sq._

844 G. Spitta-Bey, _Contes arabes modernes_ (Leyden and Paris, 1883),

No. 2, p. 12 _sqq._ The story in its main outlines is identical with

the Cashmeer story of “The Ogress Queen” (J. H. Knowles, _Folk-tales

of Kashmir_, p. 42 _sqq._) and the Bengalee story of “The Boy whom

Seven Mothers Suckled” (Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of Bengal_, p.

117 _sqq._; _Indian Antiquary_, i. 170 _sqq._) In another Arabian

story the life of a witch is bound up with a phial: when it is

broken, she dies. W. A. Clouston, _A Group of Eastern Romances and

Stories_, p. 30. A similar incident occurs in a Cashmeer story.

Knowles, _op. cit._ p. 73. In the Arabian story mentioned in the

text, the hero, by a genuine touch of local colour, is made to drink

the milk of an ogress’s breasts and hence is regarded by her as her

son. Cp. W. Robertson Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_,

p. 149; and for the same mode of creating kinship among other races,

see D’Abbadie, _Douze ans dans la Haute Ethiopie_, p. 272 _sq._;

Tausch, “Notices of the Circassians,” _Journ. Royal Asiatic Soc._ i.

(1834) p. 104; Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_, pp. 77, 83

(cp. Leitner, _Languages and Races of Dardistan_, p. 34); Denzil

Ibbetson, _Settlement Report of the Panipat, Tahsil, and Karnal

Parganah of the Karnal District_, p. 101; Moura, _Royaume du

Cambodge_, i. 427; F. S. Krauss, _Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven_,

p. 14.

845 Rivière, _Contes populaires de la Kabylie du Djurdjura_, p. 191.

846 W. H. Jones and L. L. Kropf, _The Folk-tales of the Magyar_ (London,

1889), p. 205 _sq._

847 R. H. Busk, _The Folk-lore of Rome_, p. 168.

848 Castren, _Ethnologische Vorlesungen über die Altaischen Völker_, p.

173 _sqq._

849 Schiefner, _Heldensagen der Minussinschen Tataren_, pp. 172-176.

850 Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 108-112.

851 Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 360-364; Castren, _Vorlesungen über die

finnische Mythologie_, p. 186 _sq._

852 Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 189-193. In another Tartar poem

(Schiefner, _op. cit._ p. 390 _sq._) a boy’s soul is shut up by his

enemies in a box. While the soul is in the box, the boy is dead;

when it is taken out, he is restored to life. In the same poem (p.

384) the soul of a horse is kept shut up in a box, because it is

feared the owner of the horse will become the greatest hero on

earth. But these cases are, to some extent, the converse of those in

the text.

853 Schott, “Ueber die Sage von Geser Chan,” _Abhandlungen d. Königl.

Akad. d. Wissensch. zu Berlin_, 1851, p. 269.

854 W. Radloff, _Proben der Volkslitteratur der türkischen Stämme

Süd-Siberiens_, ii. 237 _sq._

855 W. Radloff, _op. cit._ ii. 531 _sqq._

_ 856 Id._, iv. 88 _sq._

857 W. Radloff, _op. cit._ i. 345 _sq._

858 G. A. Wilken, “De Simsonsage,” _De Gids_, 1888, No. 5, p. 6 _sqq._

(of the separate reprint). Cp. Backer, _L’Archipel Indien_, pp.

144-149.

859 Nieuwenhuisen en Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias,”

_Verhandel. van het Batav. Genootsch. v. Kunsten en Wetenschappen_,

xxx. p. 111; Sundermann, “Die Insel Nias,” _Allgemeine

Missions-Zeitschrift_, xi. (1884) p. 453.

860 Above, vol. i. p. 134.

861 B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_, p.

54.

862 F. Valentyn, _Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indiën_, ii. 143 _sq._; G. A.

Wilken, _De Simsonsage_, p. 15 _sq._

863 Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_,

p. 137.

864 B. Schmidt, _Das Volksleben der Neugriechen_, p. 206.

865 Above, pp. 305, 307, 309, 311.

_ 866 Revue d’Ethnographie_, ii. 223.

867 Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_, i. 165.

868 Bastian, _Ein Besuch in San Salvador_, p. 103 _sq._; _id._, _Der

Mensch in der Geschichte_, iii. 193.

869 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui; or, New Zealand and its Inhabitants_,2 p.

184; Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du monde et à la recherche de

La Pérouse sur la corvette Astrolabe_, ii. 444.

870 Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_, p. 59.

871 Van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor

Nederlandsch Indië_, N. S. ix. (1880) p. 417 _sq._

872 G. A. Wilken, _De Simsonsage_, p. 26.

873 Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_, i. xxviii. _sq._

874 W. Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 50; Ploss, _Das Kind_,2 i. 79.

875 K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_, ii. 43,

No. 63.

_ 876 Gentleman’s Magazine_, October 1804, p. 909, quoted by Brand,

_Popular Antiquities_, iii. 289; W. G. Black, _Folk-medicine_, pp.

31 _sq._, 67.

877 Moore’s _Life of Lord Byron_, i. 101.

878 Cedrenus, _Compend. Histor._ p. 625 B, vol. ii. p. 308, ed. Bekker.

879 F. Mason, “Physical Character of the Karens,” _Journal of the

Asiatic Society of Bengal_, 1866, pt. ii. p. 9.

880 Matthes, _Makassarsch-Hollandsch Woordenboek_, _s.v._ _soemâñgá_, p.

569; G. A. Wilken, “Het animísme bij de volken van den Indischen

Archipel,” _De Indische Gids_, June 1884, p. 933.

881 R. H. Codrington, “Notes on the Customs of Mota, Banks Islands”

(communicated by the Rev. Lorimer Fison), _Transactions of the Royal

Society of Victoria_, xvi. 136.

882 F. Speckmann, _Die Hermannsburger Mission in Afrika_ (Hermannsburg,

1876), p. 167.

883 Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific Coast_, i. 661. The words

quoted by Bancroft (p. 662, _note_) “_Consérvase entre ellos la

creencia de que su vida está unida à la de un animal, y que es

forzoso que mueran ellos cuando éste muere_,” are not quite

accurately represented by the statement of Bancroft in the text.

884 Otto Stoll, _Die Ethnologie der Indianerstämme von Guatemala_

(Leyden, 1889), p. 57 _sq._; Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific

States_, i. 740 _sq._; Bastian, _Die Culturländer des alten

Amerika_, ii. 282.

885 A. W. Howitt, “Further Notes on the Australian Class Systems,”

_Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xviii. 58.

886 Gerard Krefft, “Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the Lower

Murray and Darling,” _Transact. Philos. Soc. New South Wales_,

1862-65, p. 359 _sq._

887 A. W. Howitt, _l.c._

888 Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 52.

_ 889 Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xiv. 350, xv. 416, xviii. 57 (the “nightjar”

is apparently an owl).

890 Fison and Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, pp. 194, 201 _sq._, 215;

_Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xv. 416, xviii. 56 _sq._

891 The chief facts of totemism have been collected by the present

writer in a little work, _Totemism_ (Edinburgh, A. and C. Black,

1887).

892 (Sir) George Grey, _Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in

North-West and Western Australia_, ii. 228 _sq._

893 Fison and Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, p. 169.

894 De la Borde, “Relation de l’Origine, etc. des Caraibes,” p. 15, in

_Recueil de divers Voyages faits en Afrique et en l’Amérique_

(Paris, 1684).

895 Washington Matthews, _The Hidatsa Indians_, p. 50.

896 Bastian, _Die Volker des ostlichen Asien_, iii. 248.

897 I. B. Neumann, “Het Pane-en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland

Sumatra,” _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijks, Genootsch._,

Tweede Serie, dl. iii. Afdeeling: meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2,

p. 311 _sq._; _id._, dl. iv. No. 1, p. 8 sq.; Van Hoëvell, “Iets

over ’t oorlogvoeren der Batta’s,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch

Indie_, N. S. vii. (1878) p. 434; G. A. Wilken, _Over de

verwantschap en het huwelijks-en erfrecht bij de volken van het

maleische ras_, pp. 20 _sq._, 36; _id._, _Iets over de Papoewas van

de Geelvunksbaai_, p. 27 _sq._ (reprint from _Bijdragen tot de Taal-

Land- en Volkenkunde van Ned.-Indië_, 5e Volgreeks ii.); _Journal

Anthrop. Inst._ ix. 295; Backer, _L’Archipel Indien_, p. 470.

898 B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” _Tijdschrift

voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_ xxviii. 514. J. B. Neumann

(_op. cit._ dl. iii. No. 2, p. 299) is the authority for the seven

souls.

899 Th. Benfey, _Pantschatantra_, i. 128 _sq._

900 A. L. P. Cameron, “Notes on some Tribes of New South Wales,” _Journ.

Anthrop. Instit._ xiv. 358.

901 A. W. Howitt, “On Australian Medicine Men,” _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._

xvi. 47 _sq._ On the Bullroarer (a piece of wood fastened to a cord

or thong and swung round so as to produce a booming sound), see A.

Lang, _Custom and Myth_, p. 29 _sqq._ The religious use of the

Bullroarer is best known in Australia, but in the essay just

referred to Mr. Andrew Lang has shown that the instrument has been

similarly employed not only in South Africa and by the Zunis of New

Mexico, but also by the ancient Greeks in their religious mysteries.

As a sacred instrument it also occurs in Western Africa (R. F.

Burton, _Abeokuta and the Cameroons Mountains_, i. 197 _sq._;

Bouche, _La Côte des Esclaves_, p. 124), and in New Guinea (J.

Chalmers, _Pioneering in New Guinea_, p. 85).

902 A. W. Howitt, “On some Australian ceremonies of initiation,” _Journ.

Anthrop. Inst._ xiii. 453 _sq._ The “class-name” is the name of the

totemic division to which the man belongs.

903 L. Fison, “The Nanga, or sacred stone enclosure of Wainimala, Fiji,”

_Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xiv. 22.

904 W. H. Bentley, _Life on the Congo_ (London, 1887), p. 78 _sq._

905 A. Bastian, _Ein Besuch in San Salvador_, pp. 82 _sq._ 86.

906 Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_, ii. 183; cp.

_id._, pp. 15-18, 30 _sq._ On these initiatory rites in the Congo

region see also H. H. Johnston in _Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc._ N. S.

v. (1883) p. 572 _sq._, and in _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xiii. 472; E.

Delmar Morgan, in _Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc._ N. S. vi. 193.

907 Dapper, _Description de l’Afrique_, p. 268 _sq._ Dapper’s account

has been abbreviated in the text.

908 (Beverley’s) _History of Virginia_ (London, 1722), p. 177 _sq._

909 J. Carver, _Travels through the Interior Parts of North America_,

pp. 271-275.

910 Carver, _op. cit._ p. 277 sq.; Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, iii.

287, v. 430 sqq.; Kohl, _Kitschi-Gami_, i. 64-70.

_ 911 Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt_

(Middletown, 1820), p. 119.

_ 912 Id._, p. 44. For the age of the prince, see _id._, p. 35.

913 Holmberg, “Ueber die Völker des russischen Amerika,” _Acta Soc.

Scient. Fennicae_, iv. (Helsingfors, 1856) pp. 292 _sqq._, 328;

Petroff, _Report on the Population, etc. of Alaska_, p. 165 _sq._;

A. Krause, Die _Tlinkit-Indianer_, p. 112; R. C. Mayne, _Four years

in British Columbia and Vancouver Island_, p. 257 _sq._, 268.

914 Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, v. 683. In a letter dated 16th Dec.

1887, Mr. A. S. Gatschet, of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington,

writes to me: “Among the Toukawe whom in 1884 I found at Fort

Griffin [?], Texas, I noticed that they never kill the big or gray

wolf, _hatchukunän_, which has a mythological signification,

‘holding the earth’ (_hatch_). He forms one of their totem clans,

and they have had a dance in his honor, danced by the males only,

who carried sticks.”

915 Reina, “Ueber die Bewohner der Insel Rook,” _Zeitschrift für

allgemeine Erdkunde_, N. F. iv. (1858) p. 356 _sq._

916 R. Parkinson, _Im Bismarck Archipel_, pp. 129-134; Rev. G. Brown,

“Notes on the Duke of York Group, New Britain, and New Ireland,”

_Journ. Royal Geogr. Soc._ xlvii. (1878) p. 148 _sq._; H. H.

Romilly, “The Islands of the New Britain Group,” _Proceed. Royal

Geogr. Soc._ N. S. ix. (1887) p. 11 _sq._; Rev. G. Brown, _ib._ p.

17; W. Powell, _Wanderings in a Wild Country_, pp. 60-66; C. Hager,

_Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land und der Bismarck Archipel_, pp. 115-128. The

inhabitants of these islands are divided into two exogamous classes,

which in the Duke of York Island have two insects for their totems.

One of the insects is the _mantis religiosus_; the other is an

insect that mimicks the leaf of the horse-chestnut tree very

closely. Rev. B. Danks, “Marriage customs of the New Britain Group,”

_Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xviii. 281 _sq._

917 J. G. F. Riedel, “Galela und Tobeloresen,” _Zeitschrift f.

Ethnologie_, xvii. (1885) p. 81 _sq._

918 The Kakian association and its initiatory ceremonies have often been

described. See Valentyn, _Oud en nieuw Oost-Indiën_, iii. 3 _sq._;

Von Schmid, “Het Kakihansch Verbond op het eiland Ceram,”

_Tijdschrift v. Neêrlands Indië_, v. dl. ii. (1843) 25-38; Van

Ekris, “HetCeramsche Kakianverbond,” _Mededeelingen van wege het

Nederland. Zendelinggenootschap_, (1865) ix. 205-226 (repeated with

slight changes in _Tijdschrift v. Indische Taal- Land- en

Volkenkunde_, xvi. 1866, pp. 290-315); F. Fournier, “De Zuidkust van

Ceram,” _Tijdschrift v. Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xvi.

154 _sqq._; Van Rees, _Die Pionniers der Beschaving in Neêrlands

Indië_, pp. 92-106; Van Hoëvell, _Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de

Oeliasers_, p. 153 _sqq._; Schulze, “Ueber Ceram und seine

Bewohner,” _Verhandl. d. Berliner Gesell. f. Anthropologie_, etc.

(1877) p. 117; W. Joest, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Eingebornen der

Insel Formosa und Ceram,” _id._ (1882), p. 64; Rosenberg, _Der

Malayische Archipel_, p. 318; Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. 145-148;

Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_,

pp. 107-111. The best accounts are those of Valentyn, Von Schmid,

Van Ekris, Van Rees, and Riedel, which are accordingly followed in

the text.

_ 919 Laws of Manu_, ii. 169, trans. by Bühler; Dubois, _Moeurs,

Institutions et Cérémonies des Peuples de l’Inde_, i. 125; Monier

Williams, _Religious Life and Thought in India_, pp. 360 _sq._ 366

_sq._

920 Lampridius, _Commodus_, 9; C. W. King, _The Gnostics and their

Remains_,2 pp. 127, 129.

921 Above, p. 309.

922 Above, p. 312 _sq._

923 Above, p. 308 _sq._

924 Above, p. 324 _sq._ In the myth the throwing of the weapons and of

the mistletoe at Balder and the blindness of Hödur who slew him

remind us of the custom of the Irish reapers who kill the

corn-spirit in the last sheaf by throwing their sickles blindfold at

it. (See above, vol. i. p. 339). In Mecklenburg a cock is sometimes

buried in the ground and a man who is blindfolded strikes at it with

a flail. If he misses it, another tries, and so on till the cock is

killed. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_, ii.

280. In England on Shrove Tuesday a hen used to be tied upon a man’s

back, and other men blindfolded struck at it with branches till they

killed it. Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, p. 68. Mannhardt (_Die

Korndämonen_, p. 16 _sq._) has made it probable that such sports are

directly derived from the custom of killing a cock upon the

harvest-field as a representative of the corn-spirit (see above, p.

9). These customs, therefore, combined with the blindness of Hödur

in the myth suggest that the man who killed the human representative

of the oak-spirit was blindfolded, and threw his weapon or the

mistletoe from a little distance. After the Lapps had killed a

bear—which was the occasion of many superstitious ceremonies—the

bear’s skin was hung on a post, and the women, blindfolded, shot

arrows at it. Scheffer, _Lapponia_, p. 240.

925 Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 1001, 1010.

_ 926 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. 61.

927 Col. E. T. Dalton, “The Kols of Chota-Nagpore,” _Trans. Ethnol.

Soc._ vi. 36.

928 Jens Kamp, _Danske Folkeminder_ (Odense, 1877), pp. 172, 65 _sq._

referred to in Feilberg’s _Bidrag til en Ordbog over Jyske

Almuesmål_, Fjerde hefte (Copenhagen, 1888), p. 320. For a sight of

Feilberg’s work I am indebted to the kindness of the Rev. Walter

Gregor, M.A., Pitsligo, who pointed out the passage to me.

929 E. T. Kristensen, _Iydske Folkeminder_, vi. 380, referred to by

Feilberg, _l.c._

930 Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_,2 § 128; L. Lloyd, _Peasant

Life in Sweden_, p. 269.

931 Extract from a newspaper, copied and sent to me by the Rev. Walter

Gregor, M.A., Pitsligo. Mr. Gregor does not mention the name of the

newspaper.

932 Martin, “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in

Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, iii. 661

933 Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_, i. 9.

934 Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 203 _sqq._, cp. 136 _sqq._ On the mistletoe

(_viscum_) see Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 245 _sqq._

935 Virgil (Aen. vi. 201 _sqq._) places the Golden Bough in the

neighbourhood of Lake Avernus. But this was probably a poetical

liberty, adopted for the convenience of Aeneas’s descent to the

infernal world. Italian tradition, as we learn from Servius, placed

the Golden Bough in the grove at Nemi.

936 See above, vol. i. p. 4 _sq._

937 A custom of annually burning a human representative of the

corn-spirit has been noted among the Egyptians, Pawnees, and Khonds.

See above, vol. i. pp. 382, 387, 401 _sq._ In Semitic lands there

are traces of a practice of annually burning a human god. For the

image of Hercules (that is, of Baal) which was periodically burned

on a pyre at Tarsus, must have been a substitute for a human

representative of the god. See Dio Chrysostom, _Orat._ 33, vol. ii.

p. 16, ed. Dindorf; W. R. Smith, _The Religion of the Semites_, i.

353 _sq._ The Druids seem to have eaten portions of the human

victim. Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxx. § 13. Perhaps portions of the flesh

of the King of the Wood were eaten by his worshippers as a

sacrament. We have seen traces of the use of sacramental bread at

Nemi. See above, p. 82 _sq._

938 Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, ii. 1009, _pren puraur_.

939 Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 137 _sq._

940 Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_, § 673.

941 Grohmann, _op. cit._ § 676; Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_,

§ 123.

_ 942 Zingerle, Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_,2 §

882.

943 Zingerle, _op. cit._ § 1573.

944 Grohmann, _op. cit._ § 675; Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_,

p. 98.

945 L. Bechstein, _Deutsches Sagenbuch_ No. 500; _id._, _Thüringer

Sagenbuch_ (Leipzig, 1885), ii. No. 161.

946 For gathering it at midsummer, see above, p. 289. The custom of

gathering it at Christmas still survives among ourselves. At York

“on the eve of Christmas Day they carry mistletoe to the high altar

of the cathedral, and proclaim a public and universal liberty,

pardon, and freedom to all sorts of inferior and even wicked people

at the gates of the city, towards the four quarters of heaven.”

Stukeley, _Medallic History of Carausius_, quoted by Brand, _Popular

Antiquities_, i. 525. This last custom is of course now obsolete.

947 Afzelius, _Volkssagen und Volkslieder aus Schwedens älterer und

neuerer Zeit_, i. 41 _sq._; Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 289;

L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, p. 266 _sq._

948 Above, p. 293.

949 Fern-seed is supposed to bloom at Easter as well as at midsummer and

Christmas (Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 98 _sq._); and

Easter, as we have seen, is one of the times when sun-fires are

kindled.

950 Burne and Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_, p. 242.

951 P. 288.

952 The reason why Virgil represents Aeneas as taking the mistletoe with

him to Hades is perhaps that the mistletoe was supposed to repel

evil spirits (see above, p. 362). Hence when Charon is disposed to

bluster at Aeneas, the sight of the Golden Bough quiets him (_Aen._

vi. 406 _sq._) Perhaps also the power ascribed to the mistletoe of

laying bare the secrets of the earth may have suggested its use as a

kind of “open Sesame” to the lower world. Compare _Aen._ vi. 140

_sq._—

“_Sed non ante datur telluris operta subire,_

_ Auricomos quam qui decerpserit arbore fetus._”

_ 953 Die Edda_, übersetzt von K. Simrock,8 p. 264.

954 On the derivation of the names Zeus and Jove from a root meaning

“shining,” “bright,” see Curtius, _Griech. Etymologie_,5 p. 236;

Vanič, _Griech.-Latein. Etymolog. Wörterbuch_, p. 353 _sqq._ On the

relation of Jove to the oak, compare Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xii. § 3,

_arborum genera numinibus suis dicata perpetuo servantur, ut Jovi

aesculus_; Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ iii. 332, _omnis quercus Jovi

est consecrata_. Zeus and Jupiter have commonly been regarded as sky

gods, because their names are etymologically connected with the

Sanscrit word for sky. The reason seems insufficient.

955 Casalis, _The Basutos_, p. 251 _sq._

_ 956 Ib._ p. 252.

957 Casalis, _The Basutos_, p. 252 _sq._

958 A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_, p. 229

_sq._; T. E. Bowdich, _Mission to Ashantee_, p. 226 _sq._ (ed.

1873.)

959 J. Cameron, “On the Early Inhabitants of Madagascar,” _Antananarivo

Annual and Madagascar Magazine_, iii. 263.

960 Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, ii. 105.

961 Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 91.

962 Dalton, _op. cit._ p. 198.

963 Thomas Shaw, “The Inhabitants of the Hills near Rajamahall,”

_Asiatic Researches_, iv. 56 _sq._

_ 964 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. No. 502.

965 This is curiously unlike the custom of ancient Italy, in most parts

of which women were forbidden by law to walk on the highroads

twirling a spindle, because this was supposed to injure the crops.

Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. § 28.

966 D. C. J. Ibbetson, _Outlines of Panjab Ethnography_ (Calcutta,

1883), p. 119.

967 Fr. Junghuhn, _Die Battaländer auf Sumatra_, ii. 312.

968 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_, i. 191. On

taboos observed at agricultural operations, see _id._ i. 185; R. G.

Woodthorpe, “Wild Tribes Inhabiting the so-called Naga Hills,”

_Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xi. 71; _Old New Zealand_, by a Pakeha Maori

(London, 1884), p. 103 _sq._; R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui; or, New

Zealand and its Inhabitants_,2 p. 165 _sq._; E. Tregear, “The Maoris

of New Zealand,” _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xix. 110.

969 B. F. Matthes, _Beknopt Verslag mijner reizen in de Binnenlanden van

Celebes, in de jaren 1857 en 1861_, p. 5.

970 N. Graafland, _De Minahassa_, i. 165.

971 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en

Papua_, p. 107.

972 Riedel, _op. cit._ pp. 281, 296 _sq._

973 Fr. Valentyn, _Oud en nieuw Oost-Indiën_, iii. 10.

974 C. Semper, _Die Philippinen und ihre Bewohner_, p. 56.

975 Rev. Lorimer Fison, “The Nanga, or sacred stone enclosure, of

Wainimala, Fiji,” _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xiv. 27.

976 J. E. Erskine, _Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of the Western

Pacific_, p. 252.

977 Turner, _Samoa_, p. 318 _sq._

978 Horatio Hale, _United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnology and

Philology_, p. 97.

979 The _malái_ is “a piece of ground, generally before a large house,

or chief’s grave, where public ceremonies are principally held.”

Mariner, _Tonga Islands, Vocabulary_.

980 The _mataboole_ is “a rank next below chiefs or nobles.” _Ib._

981 W. Mariner, _Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands_ (London,

1818), ii. 196-203.

982 Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_,

ii. 133.

983 Turner, _Samoa_, p. 70 _sq._

984 Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, i. 350.

985 Tyerman and Bennet, _Journal of Voyages and Travels_, i. 284.

986 Geiseler, _Die Oester-Insel_ (Berlin, 1883), p. 31.

987 E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._

xix. 110.

988 Hartknoch, _Alt und neues Preussen_, p. 161; _id._, _Dissertationes

historicae de variis rebus Prussicis_, p. 163 (appended to his

edition of Dusburg’s _Chronicon Prussiae_). Cp. W. Mannhardt, _Die

Korndämonen_, p. 27.

989 Festus, _s.v._ _sacrima_, p. 319, ed. Müller; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._

xviii. § 8.

990 Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 130-136 (Michel Lévy,

Paris, 1870). Chateaubriand’s description is probably based on

earlier accounts, which I have been unable to trace. Compare,

however, Le Petit, “Relation des Natchez,” in _Recueil de voiages au

Nord_, ix. 13 _sq._ (Amsterdam edition); De Tonti, “Relation de la

Louisiane et du Mississippi,” _ib._ v. 122; Charlevoix, _Histoire de

la Nouvelle France_, vi. 183; _Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_,

vii. 18 _sq._